Mathematics In the Modern World

CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
 Graph with Multiple Edges
CHAPTER 5: THE MATHEMATICS OF  Complete Graph
GRAPH
SIMPLE GRAPH
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO GRAPH THEORY
− is a graph that does not
LEONHARD EULER have more than one edge
− A Swiss mathematician. between any two vertices
− He proved in 1736 that it is IMPOSSIBLE to and no edge starts and
take a stroll that would lead them across each ends at the same vertex.
bridge and return to the starting point without − In other words, a simple graph is a graph
traversing the same bridge twice without loops and multiple edges.

GRAPH THEORY NULL OR DISCONNECTED GRAPH

− Is a collection of
points called vertices − Refers to any empty graph or
or nodes and line alternatively, to any edgeless
segments or curves graph.
called edges that
connect the vertices.
− Graphs can be used to illustrate huge LOOP GRAPH
connections such as social networks in
Facebook, flight destinations of airlines, the − Sometimes called self-loops,
simple community garbage collection route, or a loop in a graph is an edge
even the computer system connectivity in a that connects a vertex to
school. itself.
− The loop connects vertex A to itself. The
DEFINITION OF TERMS degree of a loop is 2.

LOOP – Is an edge connecting a vertex to itself. GRAPH WITH MULTIPLE EDGES

MULTIPLE EDGES – If two vertices are
connected by more than one edge. − Multiple edges (also called parallel edges or a
PATH – Is an alternating sequence of vertices multi-edge) two or more edges that are
and edges. A trip from one vertex to another incident to the same two vertices.
using the edges of the graph.
CLOSED PATH – Also called as circuit or cycle, - If a graph
this is when if a path begins and ends with the has multiple
same vertex. edges but
no loops
REMEMBER: then it is
called a multigraph.
− A graph is connected if there is a path
connecting all the vertices. − If it has loops (and possible also multiple
− Two vertices are adjacent if there is an edge edges) then it is called a pseudograph.
joining them.
− If every pair of vertices of a graph are COMPLETE GRAPH
adjacent, the graph is complete. A complete
graph with n vertices is denoted by Kn. − A complete graph is a
− The degree of a vertex is the number of graph in which each pair
edges attached to it. of graph vertices is
connected by an edge. It
TYPES OF GRAPHS should not contain
multiple edges.
 Simple Graph
 Null or Disconnected Graph − The complete graph with e graph vertices is
 Loop Graph denoted:
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
1 least one Euler path. Every Euler path has
e n= n(n−1)
2
5.2 EULER PATHS AND CIRCUITS
EULER CIRCUITS
− A Euler circuit is a circuit that
uses every edge in a graph
with no repeats. Being a
circuit, it must start and end
at the same vertex.
EULERIAN GRAPH THEOREM
− A connected graph is Eulerian if and only if
every vertex of the graph is of even degree.
Note that the Eulerian Graph Theorem only
guarantees that if the degrees of all the
vertices in a graph are even, a Euler circuit
exists, but it does not tell us how to find one.
EULER PATH
− A Euler path is a path that uses
every edge in the graph exactly
once but it does not start and
end at the same vertex.
EULER PATH THEOREM
− A connected graph contains a Euler path if
and only if the graph has two vertices of odd
degrees with all other vertices of even
degrees. Furthermore, every Euler path must
start at one of the vertices of odd degrees and
end at the other.
SUMMARY:
Euler’s Circuit Theorem
a) If a graph has any vertices of odd degree,
then it cannot have a Euler circuit.
b) If a graph is connected and every vertex
has even degree, then it has at least one
Euler circuit. The Euler circuits can start at
any vertex.
Euler’s Path Theorem
a) If a graph has other than two vertices of
odd degree, then it cannot have an Euler
path.
b) If a graph is connected and has exactly
two vertices of odd degree, then it has at
to start at one of the vertices of odd
degree and end at the other.
EULER’S SUM OF DEGREES THEOREM
a. The sum of the degrees of all the vertices of a
graph equals twice the number of edges (and
therefore must be an even number).
b. The number of vertices of odd degree must be
even.
FLEURY’S ALGORITHM
− is used to display the Euler path or Euler
circuit from a given graph.
STEPS:
1. First make sure the graph is connected, and
the number of vertices of odd degree is either
two or zero.
2. If none of the vertices have odd degree, start
at any vertex. If two of the vertices have odd
degree, start at one of these two.
3. Whenever you come to a vertex, choose any
edge at that vertex that hasn’t been used yet
to travel along next, except: do not travel
through a bridge for the untraveled part,
unless you have no alternative.
4. Label the edges in the order in which you
travel them.
5. When you can’t travel any more, stop. (You
are done!)
5.3 HAMILTONIAN PATHS AND CIRCUITS
HAMILTONIAN – by Sir William Rowan Hamilton
HAMILTONIAN CIRCUIT
− is a path that uses each vertex of a graph
exactly once and returns to the starting vertex.
− A graph that contains a Hamiltonian circuit is
called Hamiltonian.
HAMILTONIAN PATH
− is a path that visits each vertex of the graph
exactly once.
DIRAC'S THEOREM
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
− Consider a connected graph with at least
three vertices and no multiple edges. Let n be
the number of vertices in the graph. If every
vertex has degree that is ≥ n/2, then the graph
must be Hamiltonian.
WEIGHTED GRAPH
− is a graph in which each
edge is associated with a
value, called weight. A
weighted graph is
therefore a special type of
labelled graph in which
the labels are numbers (which are usually
taken to be positive).
THE GREEDY ALGORITHM
1. Choose a vertex to start at, and then travel
along the connected edge that has the
smallest weight. (If two or more edges have
the same weight, pick any one.)
2. After arriving at the next vertex, travel along
an edge of the smallest weight that connects
to a vertex not yet visited. Continue this
process until you have visited all vertices.
3. Return to the starting vertex.
TAKE NOTE: The Greedy Algorithm attempts to
give a circuit of minimal total weight, although it
does not always Succeed.
THE EDGE-PICKING ALGORITHM
1. Mark the edge of the smallest weight in the
graph. (If two or more edges have the same
weight, pick any one.)
2. Mark the edge of the next smallest weight in
the graph, as long as it does not complete a
circuit and does not add a third marked edge
to a single vertex.
3. Continue this process until you can no longer
mark any edges. Then mark the final edge
that completes the Hamiltonian circuit.
SUMMARY:
Greedy Algorithm
a) A greedy algorithm is a simple, intuitive
algorithm that is used in optimization
problems.
b) The algorithm makes the optimal choice at
each step as it attempts to find the overall
optimal way to solve the entire problem
Edge-Picking Algorithm
a) The edge-picking algorithm states to mark
the edge that has the smallest weight in
the complete graph. Then, the edge with
the next smallest weight is marked as long
as it does not complete a circuit and does
not add a third marked edge to a single
vertex.
This process continues till no longer an edge can
be marked.
5.4 GRAPH COLORING
PLANER GRAPH
− A graph will be known as a planner graph if it
is drawn in a plane. The edges of the planer
graph must not cross each other.
CHROMATIC NUMBER:
− In a planner graph, the
chromatic number must be
less than or equal to 4.
THE CHROMATIC NUMBER OF A GRAPH
− The minimum number of colors needed to
color a graph so that no edge connects
vertices of the same color.
− The minimum number of colors required for
vertex coloring of graph ‘G’ is called as the
chromatic number of G, denoted by X(G).
− χ(G) = 1 if and only if 'G' is a null graph. If 'G'
is not a null graph, then χ(G) ≥ 2.
TYPES OF CHROMATIC NUMBER OF
GRAPHS
 CYCLE GRAPH
 PLANNER GRAPH
 COMPLETE GRAPH
 BIPARTITE GRAPH
 TREE
CYCLE GRAPH
− A graph will be known as a cycle graph if it
contains 'n' edges and 'n' vertices (n >= 3),
which form a cycle of length 'n'. There can be
only 2 or 3 number of degrees of all the
vertices in the cycle graph.
CHROMATIC NUMBER:
− The chromatic number in a cycle graph will be
2 if the number of vertices in that graph is
even.
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
− The chromatic number in a cycle graph will be FOUR-COLOR THEOREM
3 if the number of vertices in that graph is
odd. −
The four-color
theorem states
COMPLETE GRAPH that any map in a
plane can be
− A graph will be known as a complete graph if colored using
only one edge is used to join every two four-colors in such
distinct vertices. Every vertex in a complete a way that regions sharing a common
boundary (other than a single point) do not
share the same color.
graph is connected with every other vertex. In
this graph, every vertex will be colored with a
different color. That means in the complete − In its simplest form, states that no more than
graph, two vertices do not contain the same four colors are required to color the regions of
color. any map so that no two adjacent regions have
CHROMATIC NUMBER: the same color.
− In a complete graph, the chromatic number
will be equal to the number of vertices in that 5.5 TREES
graph.
− A tree is a
BIPARTITE GRAPH mathematical
structure which is a
− A graph will be known as a bipartite graph if it type of graph which
contains two sets of vertices, A and B. The has the following
vertex of A can only join with the vertices of B. properties:
That means the edges cannot join the vertices 1) undirected (edges are bidirectional);
with a set. 2) connected (each of the vertices is
CHROMATIC NUMBER: connected or linked to at least one other
− In any bipartite graph, the chromatic number vertex); and
is always equal to 2. 3) acyclic (there is only one route from any
vertex to any other vertex or has no cycle).
TREE

− A connected graph will be known as a tree if

there are no circuits in that graph. In a tree,
the chromatic number will equal to 2 no matter
how many vertices are in the tree. Every
bipartite graph is also a tree.
CHROMATIC NUMBER:
− In any tree, the chromatic number is equal to − An example of a tree is the Philippine
2. Judiciary Organization Chart as shown in the
figure below.
2-COLORABLE GRAPH THEOREM

− A graph is 2-colorable if and

only if it has no circuits that
consist of an odd number of
vertices.
− A graph is 2-colorable if we
can color each of its
vertices with one of two colors, say red and
blue, in such a way that no two red vertices
are connected by an edge, and no two blue
vertices are connected by an edge.
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
 HUNGTINTON-HILL APPORTIONMENT
PRINCIPLE

HAMILTON PLAN

− Compute the divisor d = (total

− A full m-ary tree is a tree in which all external
vertices are at the same depth or has exactly
m children.
− Tree T, in the following figure has exactly two
children per vertex and hence is called a full
binary tree. Tree T, is a full ternary tree
because each vertex has three child vertices.
− The height h of a
rooted tree is the
number of edges
along the longest
population)/(number of seats)
− Find and round down state quotas {(state
population)/d}. The leftover fractional parts
add up to a whole number of seats.
− Distribute the surplus seats, one per state,
starting with the largest leftover fractional part,
the proceeding to the next largest, and so on,
until all the surplus seats have been dealt
with.
total population
Standard Divisor (SD)¿
number of allocation
Standard Quota (SQ) ¿ group¿ ¿ SD¿
DEFINITION:
Standard Quota – is the whole number part of
the quotient of a population divided by the
standard divisor.

path from the root vertex to the farthest child Lower Quota (L) – is the standard quota rounded
vertex. Given a full m-ary tree T of height h, T to a whole number.
has: Upper Quota (U) – is the standard quota rounded
− The most common application of the tree is up to the next whole number.
determining the number of matches that must
be played to determine the champion in a − If the sum of the standard quota is less than
single elimination tournament. the desired number of allocations. The
Hamiltonian Plan remediates by assigning
CHAPTER 6: APPORTIONMENT AND one representative to the state with the largest
VOTING decimal remainder. This is repeated until the
required number of representatives is
6.1 APPORTIONMENT attained.

− A method of dividing a whole into various JEFFERSON PLAN

parts.
− This mathematical analysis has its roots in the − Under the Jefferson Plan, the standard quota
us constitution specifically in 1790 when the is computed in the same way as the Hamilton
house of representatives attempted to Plan. But if the total of the standard sub-
apportion themselves. quotas does not yield the correct number of
− The first method adopted in 1790 was the representatives, a modified standard divisor is
Jefferson plan suggested by Thomas chosen by trial and error.
Jefferson. − Modified Standard Divisor (MSD) – must be
less than the standard divisor. This is in order
METHODS OF APPORTIONMENT to get a larger quotient and eventually get a
larger sum for the standard sub-quotas.
 HAMILTON PLAN
 JEFFERSON PLAN ADAM'S METHOD
 ADAM'S METHOD
 WEBSTER'S METHOD
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
− proposed by former U.S. President John
Quincy Adams.
− To determine the number of representatives
of each state under the Adam's method, the
same formula is used to compute for the
standard quota of each state but this time the
upper quota is applied instead. This means
that each standard quota is rounded up to the
next whole number. For example, 7.4 and 7.6
should be rounded of to 8.
− Modified Standard Divisor (MSD) – must be
greater than the standard divisor.
WEBSTER'S METHOD
− Under the Webster method, the rules for
rounding off numbers apply to the quotients.
For example, the rounded value of 2.49 is 2,
while the rounded values of 2.5 and 2.6 are
both equal to 3. If the total of the rounded sub-
quotas is not equal to the required number of
representatives, a modified standard divisor is
employed by trial and error.
− The modified standard divisor must be less
than the standard divisor when the total of the
rounded sub-quotas is less than the required
number of representatives. On the other hand,
if the sum of the rounded sub-quotas is
greater than the required number of
representatives, the modified standard divisor
must be greater than the standard divisor.
− Modified Standard Divisor (MSD) – may be
less than, equal to, or greater than the
standard divisor.
HUNTINGTON-HILL METHOD
− Calculate the standard quota, lower quota,
and upper quota.
− To simplify the procedure using the
Huntington-Hill apportionment method,
consider the following steps:
Step 1: Calculate the standard quota, lower
quotas, and upper quotas of each of the
subgroups.
Step 2: Determine the geometric mean (rounded
to two decimals) of each sub-group's lower quota
and upper quota.
Geometric mean (GM)¿ √(L Q)(U Q)
LQ – lower quota
UQ – upper quota
 If the standard quota is less than the
geometric mean, round the quota down.
 If the standard quota is larger than or
equal to the geometric mean, round the
quota up.
Step 3: If the sum of the rounded standard
quotas equals, the number of representatives,
you are done. Otherwise, choose a modified
standard divisor, and calculate the modified
quotas and rounded modified quotas. Repeat this
process until the required number is achieved.
6.2 VOTING
− Voting is a sacred right and power that
citizens in a democratic country exercise to
select their leaders. But it is sometimes hard
to understand why the best candidates do not
always win in elections. In 1992, former
president Fidel Ramos won the presidential
election not because he was popular but
because he gained the greatest number of
votes in an election based on plurality. In
plurality voting, it is possible to elect someone
who has less than the majority support.
A. THE PLURALITY METHOD OF VOTING
− Each voter votes for one candidate and the
candidate with the most votes wins.
− The winning candidate does not need to have
a majority of the votes. Majority vote means
over 50% of the people voting must vote for
their candidate.
− In case of a tie, a special runoff election may
be held. If votes are ranked, the candidate
with the greatest number of first-place votes is
declared the winner.
− Alternative choices are not considered in this
method; hence its extent is somewhat limited.
B.1 PLURALITY WITH ELIMINATION
METHOD (WITHOUT RANK)
− Each person votes for a candidate.
− If a candidate receives majority of votes, that
candidate is declared winner.
− If no candidate receives a majority of votes,
then the candidate with the fewest votes is
eliminated and a new election is held.
− This process continues until a candidate
receives a majority of votes.
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
− Limitation: holding several elections is Rank 4 = 3 points
expensive and time consuming. Rank 5 = 2 points
Rank 6 = 1 point
B.2 PLURALITY WITH ELIMINATION
METHOD (WITH RANK OR INSTANT D. PAIRWISE COMPARISON VOTING
RUNOFF METHOD) METHOD

− First, eliminate the candidate with the fewest
number of first-place votes.
− If two or more of these alternatives have the
same number of first-place votes, all are
eliminated unless that would eliminate all
alternatives. In that case, a different method
of voting must be used.
− Adjust the voters' rankings of the remaining
candidates.
− Repeat the same process of elimination and
adjustment until two candidates are left.
− The candidate with the majority of votes wins
the election.
Simply, If the total number of voters on a
candidate did not satisfy the majority, then
eliminate the candidate with the least number of
votes, which will change the remaining
candidate’s rank.
− Each candidate is compared one-on-one with
each of the other candidates (head-to-head
method)
− A candidate receives 1 point for a win, 0.5
points for a tie, and 0 points for a loss.
− The candidate with the greatest number of
points wins the election.
CHAPTER 7: THE MATHEMATICS OF
PATTERNS AND SYMMETRIES
7.1 TRANSFORMATION AND ISOMETRIES
WHAT IS TRANSFORMATION?
− A transformation is a general term for four
specific ways to manipulate the shape and/or
position of a point, a line, or geometric figure.
− The original shape of the object is called the
Pre-Image and the final shape and position of
the object is the Image under the
transformation.

Total number of Voters

Majority¿ FOUR TYPES OF TRANSFORMATION
2

C. BORDA COUNT METHOD OF VOTING  ROTATION

 TRANSLATION
− If there are n candidates or issues in an  REFLECTION
election, each voter ranks the candidates or  DILATION
issues by giving;
o N points to the voter's first choice. ROTATION
o N-1 points to the voter's second choice,
− is a type of transformation that takes each
and so on, with the voter's least choice
point in a figure and rotates it a certain
receiving 1 point.
number of degrees around a given point.
− The candidate or issue that receives the
greatest total points is the winner.
TRANSLATION
Simply, this method requires the voters to rank
− is a transformation that moves every point in a
each candidate from most favorable to least
figure the same distance in the same
favorable.
direction.
Point System: (If 6 candidates); number of points
REFLECTION
is dependent to the number of candidates.

Rank 1 = 6 points − is a transformation that acts like a mirror: It

Rank 2 = 5 points swaps all pairs of points that are on exactly
Rank 3 = 4 points opposite sides of the line of reflection.
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
a more precise definition, and is usually used
DILATION to refer to an object that is invariant under
some transformations; including translation,
− is a transformation, which is used to resize the reflection, rotation or scaling.
object. Dilation is used to make the objects
larger or smaller. This transformation
produces an image that is the same as the
original shape. But there is a difference in the
size of the shape.

EXAMPLES:

Recall the concept of composition of

functions in Algebra:
− The composition of a function f and a function
g is denoted (f º g)(x) = f(g(x)). Here, the
variable x is first applied to the function g and
then resulting g(x) is applied to the function f.
o This notion of composition in algebra
is closely related to the transformation
of the figure due to a glide reflection.
o First, the figure was translated, and
then reflected.

WHAT ARE ISOMETRIES?

Note:
− The characteristic of an isometry is that the
− This composition of isometries in the plane is
original figure and the resulting figure after the
called a symmetry.
transformation is congruent.
− Mathematically, it simply means mapping the
− Isometric is also formed from transformations
pattern in the plane back into itself.
consisting of any combinations of the three
operations.
3 BROAD TYPES OF SYMMETRIES
There are four transformations but only three of
ROSETTE PATTERN
them are isometries:
These isometric transformations are:
- It has only reflections and rotations, and has
o Reflection
no translations or glide reflections.
o Translation
o Rotation Consider the figure 1.
One can perform seven
7.2 SYMMETRY rotations about its center
point. Each of these
WHAT IS SYMMETRY? symmetric
− The quality of being made up of exactly transformations
similar parts facing each other or around an generates a new figure
axis. that overlaps with the original figure.
− Symmetry in everyday language refers to a It takes ~51.43 to get the figure back to its
sense of harmonious and beautiful proportion original position. For the reflections, imagine a
and balance. In mathematics, "symmetry" has line between each pair of adjacent figures.
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
These are seven lines for this figure which − The second frieze pattern is a combination of
determine the seven reflections. This group of translation and reflection shown by the
seven rotations and seven reflections is called following figure. Conway also called it glide
the symmetric group D7. In general, any reflection symmetry.
symmetric group involving reflections and
rotations are called dihedral group.

Consider another
symmetry group
consisting of 12
rotations. Examine the
figure 2. Its center point
is located on the center SIDLE
circle. Unlike the case in
figure 1, any reflection cannot be done on this − The third consist of translation and vertical
object because it will not generate a figure reflection symmetries.
that overlaps with the original figure. Hence,
the figure below has a symmetry of 12
rotations and which is called R12. In general,
any symmetric group that has no reflectional
symmetry is cyclic.
SPINNING HOP
FRIEZE PATTERN
− The fourth contains translation and rotation
− It has reflections and rotations. It also (by a half-turn or rotation at 180° angle)
contains translations and glide reflections but symmetries.
only along one line.

− The figure above has a motif consisting of four

pairs of rectangles, each pair of the same
size. This motif completes the figure by
moving it to the right or left at a fixed distance.

This translation symmetry belongs to the

frieze group of symmetries and is called a SPINNING SIDLE
frieze pattern.
− The distance of translation is minimum. With − The fifth contains translation, glide reflection
this restriction there are only seven frieze and rotation (by a half-turn or rotation at 180°
groups. angle) symmetries.
− The other frieze groups have a combination of
translation with rotation and translation with
reflection (Eck, n.d.).

CONWAY'S 7 FRIEZE GROUP PATTERNS:

HOP JUMP

− This pattern only involves translation. − The sixth contains translation and horizontal
reflection symmetries

STEP
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
SPINNING JUMP
− Finally, the seventh frieze pattern contains all
symmetries (translation, horizontal and
vertical reflection, and rotation).
WALLPAPER PATTERN/GROUPS
− If translation symmetry is added in a second,
independent direction, one gets wallpaper
groups. It turns out that there are only 17
different wallpapers (again, considering only
discrete groups).
− Below are some examples:
− If a wallpaper group has any rotational
symmetry, then the smallest rotational
symmetry must be one of 180, 120, 90, or 60
angle. A wallpaper group can also have
reflection symmetries and glide reflection
symmetries. An "m" in the group name
indicates a reflection symmetry, while "g"
indicates glide reflection symmetry.
7.3 TESSELLATIONS
What are Tessellations?
− a pattern covering a plane by fitting together
replicas of the same basic shape.
− comes from Latin word tessera, which means
a square tablet or a die used in gambling.
− a special type of tiling that repeats forever in
all directions.
− a pattern of geometric shapes that fill a two-
dimensional space with no gaps and no
overlaps.
− can be composed of one or more shapes as
long as the pattern radiates in all directions
with no gaps or overlaps.
Tessellations have been created
by nature and either by accident
or by design. Examples range
from simple hexagonal pattern of
the bee’s honeycomb, snake skin,
or a tiled floor to intricate
decorations used by the Moors in
the thirteenth century Spain or elaborate
mathematical, but artistic, mosaics created by
Maurits Cornelis Escher in the 20th century.
− Escher came to be known as “The Father of
Tessellations”. Some of his famous
tessellations are Horsemen, Lizard and
Snakes.
TESSELLATIONS
− In geometrical terminology, tessellation is a
pattern resulting from the arrangement of
regular polygons to cover a plane without any
gap or overlap. The patterns are continuously
repeated (Scott, 2008).
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
− A regular tessellation is a tessellation made
up of congruent regular polygons. It has the
following properties:
 The tessellation must tile floor (that
goes on forever) with no overlaps or
gaps.
 The tiles must be the same regular
polygons.
 All vertices must look the same.
How to name a Tessellation?
Step 1: Find the regular polygon with the least
number of sides.
Step 2: Find the longest consecutive run of this
polygon, that is, two or more repetitions of this
polygon around the vertex.
Step 3: Indicate the number of sides of this
regular polygon.
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
Step 4: Proceeding in a clockwise or
counterclockwise order, indicate the number of
sides of each polygon as you see them in the
arrangement.
7.4 FRACTALS
What is Fractals?
− Fractals are mathematical constructs
characterized by self-similarity. This means
that as one examines finer and finer details of
the object, the magnified area is seen to be
similar to the original but is not identical to it.
Two objects are self-similar if they can be
turned into the same shape by either
stretching or shrinking (and sometimes
rotating.
− They are capable of describing many
irregularly shaped objects or spatially
nonuniform phenomena in nature such as
coastlines and mountain ranges. The term
fractal, derived from the Latin word fractus
(“fragmented,” or “broken”), was coined by the
Polish-born mathematician Benoit B.
Mandelbrot.

Examples:
The family of ducks below is similar but not self-
SEMI-REGULAR TESSELLATIONS similar because the ducklings only look the same
without regard to measurement.
− Semi-regular
tessellations (or
Archimedian
tessellation) are
regular
tessellations of
two or more
different
polygons On the other hand, the school of fish below is
around a vertex self-similar because a uniform stretching or
and each vertex shrinking made them all the same. Here, the
has the same uniform stretching and shrinking is done by a
arrangement of polygons. scaling factor. Self-similar objects do not have
beginning or sequence. ending, and they form an
endless

DEMI-REGULAR TESSELLATIONS ITERATION

− Iteration means repeating a process over and

− is an edge-to over. In mathematics, iteration means
edge tessellation, repeating a function over and over. The
but the order or Iterative Function System (IFS) is a method
arrangement of for generating fractals involving a large
polygons at each number of calculations of a simple formula.
vertex is not the Recursion is a special kind of iteration. With
same. recursion there is given starting information
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER
and a rule for how to use it to get new − The Sierpinski triangle is a self-similar fractal.
information. Then the rule is repeated using It consists of an equilateral triangle, with
the new information as though it were the smaller equilateral triangles recursively
starting information. What comes out of the removed from its remaining area. , which is
rule goes back into the rule for the next named after the Polish mathematician
iteration. A classic example of a recursion is Wacław Sierpiński. Wacław Franciszek
the Fibonacci Sequence. Sierpiński (1882 – 1969) was a Polish
− The scaling mathematician.
factor is a
fraction, with a The Sierpinski triangle can be constructed as
value of less follows:
than 1.0, used Step 1: Begin with an equilateral triangle
to specify the (although the actual shape does not really matter)
distance from Step 2: Find the midpoint of each side.
one plotted Step 3: Connect the midpoints by a straight-line
point to the next plotted point relative to the Step 4: Observe that you created three more
distance from the original plotted point to one triangles one on top and two at the bottom. The
of the fixed points. The scaling factor middle triangle is hollow.
ultimately governs how diffused or focused Step 5: Repeat the process with all three
the resulting fractal pattern will be. The fractal triangles
picture below illustrates the notion of iterating
a geometric construction.

THE CANTOR SET

− is a fractal that can be formed using IFS. The

Cantor set is formed by the following
algorithm.
Step 1: Begin with the set [0, 1]
Step 2: Divide the existing segments into thirds.
Step 3: Remove the middle third.
Step 4: Go to step 2.

Observe the two triangles above. The first is the

original equilateral triangle with sides measuring
one unit each. The recursive procedure is to
replace the triangle with three smaller congruent
equilateral triangles such that each smaller
DIMENSIONS triangle shares a vertex with the large triangle.
Repeat the procedure.
− For fractal objects such as, the Cantor set, the Take the result and repeat (Iterate)
Sierpinski triangle, among others, the
dimension cannot be determined by simply
counting the number of distance
measurements. The dimension d is not
necessarily a whole integer but can take on
any value between the integers.

The formula for the dimension of a fractal is: D =

log(N)/log(r) r = ratio of the length of the new
object to the length of the original object n = the
number of the new objects.

SIERPINSKI TRIANGLE OR SIERPINSKI

GASKET
Mathematics In the Modern World
CHAPTER 5 – 7
FINALS REVIEWER