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On Control Schemes for Grid-Forming Inverters

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 On Control Schemes for Grid-Forming Inverters
Fahmid Sadeque, Student Member, IEEE, and Fariba Fateh, Senior Member, IEEE
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA
fahmidsadeque@ksu.edu; fateh@ksu.edu
Abstract — Grid-forming inverters can collaboratively
regulate the voltage and frequency of a microgrid. These inverters
2022 IEEE Kansas Power and Energy Conference (KPEC) | 978-1-6654-6591-5/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/KPEC54747.2022.9814774
are expected to be seen more in the future microgrid, undertaking
the roles of the conventional power generators. Like conventional
power generators, they must balance supply and demand,
contribute to power-sharing between inverters and other power
generators, and restore the voltage and frequency after any power
changes. These technical challenges are typically achieved through
different primary and secondary controllers. This article reviews
some state-of-the-art primary and secondary control schemes for
the emerging technology of grid-forming inverters. First, the
typical control schemes for grid-following inverters are briefly
presented for the continuity of the discussion on the roles of the
grid-forming inverters in future power-grid, followed by two basic
control schemes for the grid-forming inverters. Then, two
decentralized power-sharing techniques, i.e., droop, and virtual
inertia, are analyzed. The technical challenges for inverter
synchronization and some control methods are discussed
afterward. Finally, several secondary control methods for the
voltage and frequency restoration in grid-forming inverters are
reviewed.
Keywords—Grid-forming inverters, seamless reconnection,
power-sharing, frequency, and voltage control.
I. INTRODUCTION
Grid-forming inverters will be widely used in future power
grids [1]-[7]. Unlike grid-following inverters, which rely on the
grid voltage and frequency references, the grid-forming
inverters can independently generate their voltage and frequency
references [8]. This independent characteristic is helpful for
microgrids operating in islanded mode [9], [10] i.e., when the
microgrid is disconnected from the main grid due to any
anomaly, as the microgrid can reinstate its operation using the
black-start capability of the grid-forming inverter [11], [12]. A
cluster of microgrids, reinstated by groups of inverters, can
collaborate to restore the utility grid after a black-out [13]. In a
microgrid, not all the inverters must operate in grid-forming
mode. Instead, a group of inverters can take the role of grid-
forming while the others can operate in grid-following mode
[14]-[17]. Typically, the inverters equipped with battery energy
storage units, where the power source is not intermittent, are
more suitable to operate as grid-forming units. Also, the capacity
of the grid-forming inverters must be large enough to support
the microgrid, especially immediately after a black-start.
Nevertheless, the grid-forming inverters can be the microgrid’s
primary power sources [17]. In such conditions, the inverters
must mitigate the total active and reactive power demands [18].
Power-sharing between the inverters in proportion to the
inverters' capacity is needed to avoid overloading any inverter
This material is based upon work supported by the Department of Energy,
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Solar Energy
Technologies Office, under Award Number DE-EE0008767.
978-1-6654-6591-5/22/$31.00 ©2022 IEEE
Authorized licensed use limited to: Kansas State University. Downloaded on July 07,2022 at 05:35:24 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
[19]. Furthermore, the inverters must be able to regulate the
microgrid’s voltage and frequency at any loading condition [13].
This article reviews some state-of-the-art primary and
secondary grid-forming inverter control techniques for the
islanded microgrid. The review focuses on basic inverter
controls, control methods for decentralized power-sharing
between multiple inverters, inverter synchronization methods,
control techniques, and frequency and voltage restorations. The
rest of the article is organized as follows. Section II reviews the
typical grid-following control schemes for the continuity of the
discussion on the future roles of the grid-forming inverters.
Section III briefly presents two primarily used grid-forming
inverter control methods. Decentralized power-sharing methods
based on droop, and virtual inertia are reviewed in Section IV.
Section V analyzes the synchronization methods for the
inverters. Control techniques for voltage and frequency
restoration are discussed in Section VI. Finally, section VII
summarizes the findings.
II. CONTROL METHODS FOR THE GRID-FOLLOWING INVERTERS
This section reviews some common control methods for
different grid-following inverters' roles in a grid standard.
Currently, most inverters operate in grid-following mode, where
the inverter's voltage is synchronized with the grid's voltage at
the point of common coupling (PCC) while injecting active and
reactive power into the grid. The synchronization process is
established by using a phase-angle estimation technique, e.g., a
phase-locked loop (PLL) or a phase-angle detector [20], [21]. In
a typical grid-following controller, a current control loop is
cascaded with the voltage control loop to control the active and
reactive power injections. The controller can be configured to
provide different ancillary services [22]-[24]. The inverter can
curtail its active power injection and provide reactive power
support to mitigate symmetrical and asymmetrical voltage sags
[25], [26]. Negative-sequence compensation methods have been
developed to offer ancillary services during asymmetrical
anomalies in the grid [27], [28]. In [29], an atypical PWM
control has been included in the controller so that the inverter
can compensate for the dc-bus fluctuation. In [30] and [31], the
controller can mitigate the voltage and frequency fluctuation by
introducing adaptive piecewise droop in the controller. The
controllers in [32] and [33] included virtual inductance to
enhance the stability of the inverter in weak grids.
Future grid-forming inverters undertake the role of
providing some ancillary services. This is possible in large grid-
forming plants, i.e., a large photovoltaic plant with MW range
of generation, with sufficient battery energy storage, where
some grid-forming inverters can be operated for ancillary
services.
 and $ and + Meas., and $ and + Meas.,
Calculation & Conversion Filter Calculation & Conversion Filter

Inverter
Inverter
+
+ ∆ −
∗
1
∆ − ∗ 1 ) Σ
) Σ &
&
∗
PWM ∆
)* Σ Σ PIVq PWM
$ ∆ ∗
−
Generator
+ Generator
)* Σ Σ PIV + −
− +
+ −
0∗ Σ PIVd
+
−
(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Two most common grid-forming inverter controllers with droop. (a) direct voltage control. (b) voltage control with -components

III. THE BASIC GRID-FORMING INVERTER CONTROL METHODS
The two most common grid-forming inverter control
methods in this section, as shown in Fig. 1, have been reviewed.
In grid-forming mode, the inverter can be viewed as a voltage
source, controlling the voltage amplitude and frequency.
Therefore, the primary controller only needs the voltage control
loop. Notice that the primary controller also does not require any
PLL to estimate the phase-angle of the voltage at the PCC.
As shown in Fig. 1, a nominal frequency, , is provided,
and the PWM reference phase-angle, , is obtained from
integrating the reference frequency, ∗ = − ∆ . Here, ∆
can be calculated from the droop, see Fig. 1, or any other
decentralized power-sharing topologies, e.g., virtual inertia. The
PWM voltage reference, can be obtained in two methods. Fig.
1(a) shows one topology, where the amplitude of the inverter
output voltage, , is controlled by minimizing the error between
the desired voltage, ∗ = − ∆ , and the amplitude of the
measured voltage at the PCC, . Here, is the nominal
voltage amplitude reference, and ∆ is the amplitude
adjustment calculated from droop relationships, as shown in Fig.
1, or by any other decentralized power-sharing method. The
proportional-integral block performs the voltage control.
Fig. 1(b) shows another topology, where the -axis component
of the voltage reference, , is obtained by regulating the -
axis component of the PCC voltage, , to the desired voltage
reference, ∗ = − ∆ , and the axis component of the
voltage reference, , is obtained by regulating the -axis
component of the PCC voltage, , to 0. Two proportional-
integral controllers, and , separately control the two
PWM references. The component parameters are then converted
from 0 to frame of reference to generate the PWM
signals [34], [35].
While the former method is simpler, the latter method
provides decoupled control of the -axis component values of
the inverter output voltage. Both methods provide the same
voltage amplitude and phase-angle reference. Figs. 2(a) and 2(b)
demonstrate the PCC voltage of the grid-forming inverter for the
controllers shown in Figs. 1(a) and 1(b), respectively. For both
cases, an inverter is operated in grid-forming mode with an
initial load of 2 and addition of 2 load after 0.7
seconds. Fig. 2 shows that the amplitudes of the PCC voltages
are regulated to 294.16 V for the two scenarios before and after
the load change. However, in Fig. 2(a), for the controller in Fig.
1(a), the -axis voltage is not regulated to any value, whereas,
in Fig. 2(b), for the controller in Fig. 1(b), both - and -axis
voltages are regulated. It can be inferred from this test that,
although the voltage amplitude and the phase-angle of the
presented two inverter controllers are equal, controller must be
selected based on the application requirement.
IV. DECENTRALIZED POWER-SHARING
Inverters in a microgrid must share the total power
generation in proportion to their capacities. A supervisory
control can be utilized for power-sharing, where the control
commands are sent to the inverters from a central server through
communication channels [36]. However, the supervisory control
can be affected by cyberattacks and commination delays that
make this type of power-sharing method less reliable [37].
Decentralized power-sharing, on the other hand, does not
require any communication channel, and therefore the risk of
cyberattack and delay can be eliminated. In this section, some
well-known decentralized methods, i.e., droop, and virtual
inertia, are reviewed [38], [39].
A. Droop Control for Power-Sharing
Droop control is one of the most used decentralized power-
sharing techniques [40]-[44]. In the droop control method, an
inverter uses voltage and frequency measurements to identify
the power-sharing requirement of a microgrid. Particularly, the
frequency can be used as a global parameter for a whole system.
In conventional droop control methods, the frequency and the
active-power injection by the inverter are linearly related, named
frequency-active power droop ( − "). Similarly, the inverter
output voltage and the reactive power injection of the inverter
are linearly related, named voltage-reactive power ($ − )
droop. The two controllers in Fig. 1 have the conventional droop
controls for power-sharing. The inverter measures the active and
the reactive power injection, and $, and linearly changes the

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 droop, ( − ), is proposed for active power-sharing between
the inverters, where the active-power injection is linearly
300 300 dependent on the phase-angle. The angle reference, needed by

Voltage (V)
Voltage (V)

294.0 293.7
150 150
9. 65 16. 97
0 0
0 0.7 1.4
Time (s)
(a)
Fig. 2. The -axis components of the PCC voltage for (a) controller in
Fig. 1(a), and (b) controller in Fig. 1(b) at 2 and 4 injection.
frequency and the voltage references,
the following equations.
= −) ∗
, -1.
= − )* $ ∗ methods have been developed to mimic the inherent inertia of
Here, ) and )* are the ( − ") and the ($ − ) droop
coefficients. The droop coefficients determine the power-
sharing ratios between the inverters in a microgrid. In a
microgrid consists of / number of inverters, where is the
maximum active power injection capacity and ) is the droop
coefficient of the + -th inverter, whereas + = 1,2,3, … , / , the
following relationship between the droop coefficients and the
capacity of the inverters can be developed from (1) as follows–
) 3 3 =) 4 4 =⋯=)
Similarly, if $ be the maximum reactive power injection
capacity and )* be droop coefficient, the relationship between
the droop coefficients and the reactive power injection capacity
of the inverter can be expressed as–
)*3 $3 = )*4 $4 = ⋯ = )* $
It is better to mention that the ( − ") and ($ − ) droops
are the most effective in an inductive network, where the 6/8
ratio is comparatively low. If the 6/8 ratio is relatively high,
i.e., the network is resistive, voltage-active power ( − ) and
frequency-reactive power ($ − ") droops are more beneficial
[43], [44]. The authors in [45] and [46] developed a method to
solve the power-sharing problem at a high 6/8 ratio with the
( − ") and ($ − ) droops by virtually increasing the
effective inductance of the system. In [47], an angle-based
294.16 294.16 the inverter, is provided by signals from the global positioning
system in this method.
0 0
B. Virtual Inertia for Power-Sharing
0 0.7 1.4
Time (s) The droop-based control methods for the inverters are
(b) adopted from the droop characteristics of the synchronous
generators. However, the inverters, unlike the synchronous
generators, are not equipped with inertia and cannot fully utilize
the droop characteristics of a system with inertia. This may
∗ ∗ cause dynamic instability in a microgrid of many grid-forming
and , according to
inverters with droop, in which the under-frequency and the over-
frequency relays can be triggered under rapid load changes and
disturbances. Therefore, the virtual inertia-based power-sharing
the synchronous machine in the grid-forming inverters [39],
[48].
Fig. 3 shows a grid-forming inverter controller with virtual
inertia. Similar to the swing equation of a synchronous
generator, the swing equation of an inverter with virtual inertia
can be expressed as follows:
9 9 −
9 − =: 9 +<= >? @ (4)
;
(2)
where, :, <, and >? denote the virtual inertia, damping factor,
and the power rating of the inverter, respectively. The virtual
shaft power, 9 , can be obtained from the droop equation, 9 =
(1/) )( 9 − ) , where, 9 and are the virtual rotor
angular frequency and the nominal angular frequency. The
angular frequency of the voltages at the PCC, , is a measured
(3) parameter that is not always equal to 9 . The authors in [49]
has derived that the droop and the virtual inertia are
mathematically similar. In [50], a comprehensive analysis of the
dynamic characteristics of the droop control and the virtual
synchronous generator is presented, where the grid-forming
inverters with the two different types of controllers are modeled
for small-signal and electromagnetic transient analysis. The
study shows that the rate of change of frequency is higher in the
droop control method when a step response is provided.
Advanced rule-based adaptive methods have been presented in

and $ and + Meas.,

Calculation & Conversion Filter

+
Inverter

− 9
1/) Σ

<>? / Σ
−
+ 1
9
1/: 1
Σ Σ 9
+ − & 9 &
−
PWM
∆ ∗ Generator
$ )* Σ Σ PIV
− +
+ −

Fig. 3. A grid-forming inverter controller utilizing virtual inertia for power-sharing.

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 Unsynchronized
J?,3 Connection
J?,4
360 2
Active Power (kW)
1.5
VLL (V)
0 1 0.48
0.5
0 +
-360
Time (s)
(a)
Fig. 4. Condition of (a) line-line voltage, and (b) active power injection by
a grid-forming inverter after unsynchronized connection with a second grid-
forming inverter.
[51] and [52], where the coefficients are selected based on the
preset rules. The virtual inertia-based control can be made
adaptive to enhance the stability of the system after a fault by
including the inertia constant controllers [53]. In [54], a self-
tuning method is presented where both the damping coefficient
and the inertia constant are adaptively tuned. The self-tuning
method is further improved in [55] by an online optimization
method where the frequency deviation is also minimized. Notice
that in order to provide the virtual inertia by the grid-forming
inverters that properly mimic the rotational kinetic energy
reservoir of an electric machine, a well-managed energy storage
system is required [56], [57].
V. SYNCHRONIZATION FOR GRID-FORMING INVERTERS
Synchronization is necessary when multiple inverters are
operating together in a microgrid. Synchronization for the
inverters is conventionally performed by the PLLs, where the
inverters are in grid-following mode, and the grid is
comparatively stiff [18]. Synchronization between multiple
grid-forming inverters is challenging, as the inverters
independently controls the voltage and the frequency. Fig. 4
shows a scenario when two grid-forming inverters were
connected with improper synchronization. As seen in Fig. 4, the
line-line voltage and the active power of the connecting inverter
becomes completely unstable, causing the inverters to trip.
Very few works are available on communication-less
synchronization for grid-forming inverters. This is because, the
microgrid voltage, frequency, and phase angle at PCC are
unknown to the synchronizing inverter, while the voltage,
frequency, and phase angle vary to accommodate droop-based
power-sharing between multiple inverters. Most state-of-the-art
synchronization methods allow the inverter to be connected with
the grid and operate in grid-following mode [58]. The authors in
[59] presented a low bandwidth ethernet communication-based
synchronization method where phase-angle and the voltage
information are relayed through a separate module known as the
synchronization data sender/controller. An FM modulated
signal-based synchronization method has been presented in [60].
The synchronization method presented in [61] used
synchronverters to synchronize without the dedicated
synchronizing unit, where the inverter adjusts with the phase-
angle of the grid prior to the synchronization and then gradually
synchronizes the frequency like a synchronous machine. In [1],
the authors have presented a synchronization method, known as
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Unsynchronized
Connection and $ and + Meas.,
Calculation & Conversion Filter
Inverter
+
− 1 FG H
Σ E
F &
− 1
) Σ
Time (s) ∆ ∗
&
PWM
(b)
Generator
∗
−
$ )* Σ Σ PIV
∆ + +
−
Fig. 5. A grid-forming inverter with droop and secondary control
for frequency restoration.
the controller-sync method, where two control paths are run in
parallel while only one is engaged at a time. The method
automatically synchronizes the controller output without using
two separate sets of sensors across the circuit breaker connecting
the inverters and the grid.
VI. DECENTRALIZED VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY RESTORATION
Decentralized power-sharing control of grid-forming
inverters inherently causes the bus voltages and the system
frequency to deviate from their nominal values for any load
change [62]. The frequency and the voltage amplitude at the
PCC of the inverter may exceed the permissible operating limit
of the distributed energy resources [63] and trip the inverter.
Therefore, advanced frequency and voltage restoration methods
are needed [64]-[68]. Fig. 5 shows a frequency restoration
controller where frequency is restored by the secondary
feedback path after any load change or plug-in events.
Notice that keeping the restoration path active all the time
does not allow other incoming inverters to share power. Low-
bandwidth communication-based control is suggested in [65],
where the restoration signal is transmitted through a one-way
transmitter from centralized control. The drawback is that any
communication delay and distortions, e.g., transmission noise or
cyberattack, may disrupt the operation. In [66] and [67], some
state-estimation techniques have been introduced to establish a
supervisory control on the voltage and frequency restoration.
However, the reduction of measurement points and
communication networks is traded off with additional
computational burdens. There are some timer/counter-based
methods where the grid-forming inverters activate secondary
feedback/forward paths for the voltage and frequency
restoration for a certain period and then deactivate again [68]. In
[63], the authors showed that timer-based restoration might
cause an error in the restoration if the timer is not properly set or
the load is rapidly changed. A threshold-based restoration
control method has been presented in [69], where measurement
parameters can be used to adaptively change the restoration
period. A washout filter-based frequency restoration methods
have been presented in [70] where, an adjustable delay inherited
by the low-pass filter is adaptively tuned by the variation of the
active and reactive power injection.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
Several control methods for the grid-forming inverters for
power-sharing, synchronization, and voltage and frequency
restoration have been briefly discussed in this article. Two most
basic grid-forming control strategies have been presented. It has
been shown that, although the output voltage amplitude and
frequency obtained from the two basic controllers are the same,
the and -axis components can be different. Droop and virtual
inertia based power-sharing methods have been reviewed. While
the droop-based methods are straightforward and easy to
implement, virtual inertia-based methods can be used to
artificially include inertia in an inertia-less system. Two grid-
forming inverter synchronization methods have been reviewed
in this article. The article has also reviewed the state-of-the-art
frequency and voltage restoration methods developed for
decentralized operations that focus on the local measurements
for more accurate performances. All these control features,
when combined, can intensify the role of an ordinary grid-
forming inverter as the next-generation power source for the
future power grid.
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