Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/daach

Neolithic Temples of Malta: 3D analysis points to novel roof reconstruction

Madeline G.P. Robinson *, Augustine Porter, Will Figueira, Roland Fletcher
University of Sydney, 2006, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Neolithic temples of Malta are among the oldest examples of prehistoric architecture, yet the construction of
Photogrammetry their roofs remains a mystery. The absence of any roofs or roofing material at the temple sites has resulted in
3D modelling conjecture regarding the original appearance of these megalithic structures. The most valuable indications of
Maltese temples
prehistoric Maltese roof architecture are found in the Neolithic burial complex, the Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni.
Neolithic architecture
Digital reconstruction
Two chambers in the Hypogeum are modelled closely after the above-ground temples, with indications of a roof
LiDAR structural system on the ceilings. This paper uses LiDAR and photogrammetry-derived 3D models to provide a
partial temple roof reconstruction that has its design entirely based on contemporaneous archaeology.
Photogrammetric reconstruction of the Mnajdra and Tarxien temple complexes allowed for detailed archi-
tectural analyses including key structural features and any indications of previous roof construction that would be
evident in situ. A LiDAR model of the carved chambers of the Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni was superimposed onto
corresponding positions in the temple models. Merging the LiDAR imagery onto the photogrammetry temple
models confirmed structural consistency between the two megalithic complexes; supporting the theory that the
carved façades were a deliberate reflection of the original architecture of the Maltese temples. This evidence
points to an entirely new temple roof reconstruction, founded upon the archaeology of Neolithic Malta.

1. Introduction
The Neolithic temples of Malta date to c. 5,600–4,500 BP yet a sur-
prising number of them have survived. Spread around the two main
islands of Malta and Gozo, these megalithic structures are the oldest still-
standing monuments on record (Stroud, 2013). One striking and consis-
tent feature shared by the Maltese temple complexes is the absence of any
evidence of roofing. With no apparent roof material found around or
within the temples, the form of the roofs has been a matter of intense
debate. Determining the original roof construction for the Maltese temples
is important as it provides insight into the engineering capabilities and
construction methods developed by an isolated prehistoric island society.
This paper uses 3D reconstruction of the remaining archaeological
representations of the original temple architecture to demonstrate the
viability of an alternative roof structural system for the Neolithic Temples
of Malta. Photogrammetry models of the Mnajdra and Tarxien temples
were created for analyses of the structural arrangement and megalithic
engineering to identify any indications of previous roofing structural
systems. Photogrammetry is an established method of accurately digi-
tizing artefacts for archival and analysis purposes (Lerma et al., 2010).
The diverse capabilities of 3D technology are becoming an invaluable
method of structural analysis of small and large scale objects in archae-
ology, allowing for fast recording processes, detailed documentation and
interactive visualisation. The Mnajdra and Tarxien temples were chosen
for their optimal states of preservation, the quality of photogrammetry
model produced and important architectural clues. The size, complexity
and fragility of the structures are not conducive to easy visual survey on
site. The methods involved in digital rendering do not impact or disturb
the sites and are a reliable approach that enable multi-directional and
multi-scalar analysis of the monuments and the detection of key struc-
tural detail easily overlooked by simple observation. Recording could be
carried out in any direction of angle of view without impacting the
integrity of the building. For example, tops of walls and large stone slabs
could be recorded without climbing on the structures. High-resolution
photogrammetry was therefore an ideal method to conduct intensive
analyses in preparation for configuring a new roof reconstruction.
The most informative evidence for Maltese temple roof architecture
lies in the Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni, an underground labyrinth of rock-
cut tombs dating to 5,300–5,000 BP. Fortunately for the interests of this
investigation, two chambers in the Hypogeum were carved with the same
fundamental design. Decorating the chamber walls are life-size repre-
sentations of the interior architecture of the above ground temples. With

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: madeline.robinson@sydney.edu.au (M.G.P. Robinson).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2019.e00095
Received 1 December 2018; Received in revised form 1 March 2019; Accepted 18 March 2019
2212-0548/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.G.P. Robinson et al.
access to a LiDAR model of the Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni (permission
granted by Malta Heritage) these carvings, in collaboration with the few
remaining smaller depictions of the temples, were used as the foundation
of a new roof reconstruction proposal for the Neolithic temples of Malta.
1.1. Indications of the original architecture
1.1.1. The Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni
Located in Casal Paola, southeast Malta, the Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni
was constructed approximately halfway into the ‘Temple Period’
(5,600–4,500 BP) of Neolithic Malta as a secondary reburial site.
Reaching a depth of 10.6 m, the Hypogeum contains three levels of
passageways, chambers and tombs. When first excavated it contained a
variety of cultural material including pottery, beads and humanoid fig-
urines and an estimated 7,000 skeletons (Trump, 2002). Flynn (2005)
suggested that to descend into the Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni would not
be unlike entering one of the megalithic temples. The experience would
be comparable due to the similar arrangement of curved limestone rooms
and portals leading off into the other enclosed areas. Within the middle
level of the Hypogeum, two rock-cut chamber entrances are bordered
with ornamental carvings that make these structures even more alike. In
the central chamber of the middle layer, the aptly named Main Room and
the adjoining smaller chamber named the ‘Holy of Holies’ are clear
recreations of the impressions of the above-ground temples (Fig. 1).
These chambers share the architecture and structural systems of the
temples, especially in the design of entrances and ceilings. These are
significant near full size representations of the components that form the
original interior architecture of the associated aboveground temples. In
the Hypogeum, however, these components are reassembled as parts, not
in the layout of their parts in the temples.
Fig. 1. a) The carved façade within the Main Room. b) The carved façade within
the 'Holy of 'Holies'. Source: Malta Heritage. Used with permission.
2
Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx
Defining the chamber portals are trilithon entrances (two uprights,
labelled R1 and L1 capped with a lintel base slab) configured within a
larger ‘box entrance’ design. A box entrance structure consists of four
uprights - the two inner (R1 and L1) of the trilithon entrance plus another
outer set of uprights (R2 and L2) with a fitted horizontal base lintel slab
on top.
Positioned on top of the box structures in the Hypogeum carvings are
one to two significantly curved corbelled beams. The level of detail here
is such that the joins between the uprights and horizontal beams are
discernible. The care taken to depict these details indicates that this is a
faithful recreation of the engineering of the doorways, not just artistic
embellishment. Given the representation of the single slab uprights, the
minimal hypothesis and the pragmatic engineering expectations is that
the large horizontal features also indicate single beams. A separate issue
is of what these beams where made of. What would be considered the
ceiling of the chambers is a flat area defined by the curved beams. These
features can be better seen in the LiDAR images of this section of the
Hypogeum (Fig. 2).
The representation of the box structure in the Hypogeum is another
crucial feature. Remains of the box entrance structures can be found in all
the aboveground temple complexes (except for the older Ggantija tem-
ples), confirming that these carvings reflect architectural details used in
the temples. This evidence from the Hypogeum strongly implies that the
temples also had roofs constructed with corbelled ‘beams’ above the
carved façades.
1.1.2. The box entrance structure
All the temple complexes, excepting the oldest Ggantija, indicate that
the inner passageways employed the structural engineering of the ‘box
entrance’. The optimal conditions of the Mnajdra and Tarxien temple
complexes means their box entrance structures are still clearly discern-
ible (Fig. 3). Unlike the box structures shown in the Hypogeum, which
depict the four uprights at the same height, those constructed in the
temples have the outer L2 and R2 uprights extending above the inner L1
and R1 uprights. The overall similarity, however, undeniably indicates
the carvings are a representation of the temples.
1.1.3. Mgarr model
The Mgarr model is a small 3.7
4.5 cm carved limestone model of a
single celled temple found at the site of the temple of Mgarr. It is ovoid in
shape exhibiting a trilithon entrance within a box structure, roofed with
what appears to be seven long horizontal beams (Fig. 4). The dimensions
that these beams would have to span if it is to scale (using a doorway
between 1.3 and 1.5 m) would equal a temple between 7.6 and 10 m long
and between 6.2 and 8 m wide. These dimensions are consistent with the
oldest and smallest temple at Mnajdra – the Eastern Temple.
1.1.4. Carving at Mnajdra
On the inside of the outer left upright (L2) of the box structure of cell
B in the Central Temple of Mnajdra is a carving depicting the inner
Fig. 2. LiDAR model of the carved ceiling and corbelled beams in the Main
Room. Source of LiDAR model: Malta Heritage. Used with permission.
M.G.P. Robinson et al.
Fig. 3. Box entrance structures of a) Mnajdra Southern b) Mnajdra Central c) Tarxien Central d) Tarxien Eastern.
Fig. 4. The front and top views of the carved model found at Mgarr. Note the parallel grooves on the roof and it is clearly a single celled room. Source: Au-
thor’s photograph.
passageway façade. This is very clearly not a carving of the main entrance
as the façades entrance to Mnajdra Central has two portals and the
carving indicates only one. Depicted very clearly is a trilithon entrance
embedded within a box structure (Fig. 5). The interesting feature of this
carving is the three long beams above a shorter lintel beam – this is very
similar to the carved façade in the ‘Holy of Holies’ in the Hypogeum of
Hal Saflieni.
Fig. 5. The carving of the temple passageway of the Central Temple of Mnajdra.
Source: Author’s photograph.
3
Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx
1.1.5. Other amulets and carvings
Several smaller artefacts discovered amongst numerous temple sites
also portray the original exterior and interior design of the temples. The
2.5 cm long carved greenstone amulet found at Tarxien shows a temple
façade depicting a trilithon entrance and box structure with four V-per-
forations for attachment (Trump, 2002). The graffiti on a slab found at
the Skorba temples, north-west Malta, shows two impressions of a temple
façade, one finished, the other incomplete. The complete carving shows
again a box structure. Another carving found at Tarxien is an 8.9 cm
limestone piece showing the interior of a niche containing numerous
objects and a ceiling comprised of horizontal slabs. This is the first
indication of an interior where a lateral course of beams is used. Other
such pieces of evidence include fragmented miniature models of the
temples, intended as prototypes or modelled plans. One such model is not
of a roof at all, but of a ground plan. A ceramic model broken into two
pieces found at Hagar Qim represents the walls of two apses complete
with the entrance jambs. Two broken pieces of a temple façade model
found at Tarxien are also crucial pieces of evidence. When configured
together, this model shows the height and the architectural design of the
original façade wall that once fronted the main entrances to the temples.
These models offer clues to the method of designing and executing the
construction of the temples.
2. Method
From late January to February 2017, approximately 6,500 photo-
graphs were taken of the Mnajdra and Tarxien temple complexes to build
the photogrammetry models. Photographs were taken using three DSLR
M.G.P. Robinson et al.
cameras, at either 2560
1920 or 4032
3024 pixel resolution. Scaled
features (required for correct scaling of the resulting models) were cir-
cular targets, two targets printed per A4 sheet exactly 141 mm apart.
Twenty targets were used per temple site, positioned at specific locations
on the ground, leaning against or on top of the walls. Four targets were
used per apse, concentrating around the portals.
Models were processed using Photoscan Pro v1.2 by Agisoft on a
networked system of five high performance Windows OS nodes, each
with slightly different specifications (Windows 7, Windows 10 profes-
sional; Intel i7 and Xenon processors; Nvidia Quadra and GeForce
graphics card; 16-128 GB of RAM). Images were assessed using the Image
Quality tool in Photoscan Pro and images with a value less than 0.5 were
not included in reconstructions. Reconstruction parameters were tailored
to individual models based on processing time, effect on depth, picture
quality and number of cameras and are summarised in Table 1.
The model reconstruction process first aligns photographs based on
matching of features in pairs of photos and generates a sparse point cloud
as well as an estimate of the position from which all the photographs were
taken. All pixels from all photographs are then projected onto the 3D
space, reconciling differences in their estimates depth, to create a dense
point cloud. A surface mesh of interconnecting triangular faces is then fit
to the dense cloud and the original imagery is used to fully texturise the
mesh, giving the final model. As processing time scales nearly exponen-
tially with the number of photographs (due to many pairwise operations),
in situations where there are a significant number of photographs, full
models can be made my merging smaller chunks. Here, models were built
from chunks of temple sections – i.e. individual apses. Once built to the
mesh stage, models were then aligned and merged to create a larger
section of the temple. This process of smaller models merged to make
larger models was continued until the whole temple was complete. It was
at this point that the texture was applied to the final whole model. This
method was developed to reduce the likelihood of holes occurring in the
models and reduced processing time. Once completed, the models were
scaled and analysed. The photogrammetry models produced include
Mnajdra Central, Mnajdra Southern and Tarxien Central.
The CAD software Geomagic Control was used to explore the LiDAR
model of the Hypogeum, with attention focussed primarily on the carved
façades in the ‘Holy of Holies’ and the Main Room. These two rooms were
isolated from the larger model for later comparative analyses. The
photogrammetry models of the Mnajdra and Tarxien complexes were
then uploaded into Geomagic in an OBJ Geometry format, and both the
Hypogeum chamber models were configured onto each temple model.
This was to confirm structural consistency, gain an understanding of the
original ceiling architecture and provided a template for the recon-
struction. With the design and positioning of the roof supports estab-
lished, each temple case study was scrutinised in both mesh and textured
formats to locate any grooves or markings on the extant blocks which
indicate locations of the support beams and lintels previously fitted on to
the temples' walls and upright slabs. These indications of previous con-
struction were measured, along with the remaining temple structure to
determine the appropriate dimensions of the reconstruction. Once
structural comparisons were completed, a representation of the proposed
new roof structure was digitally reconstructed onto stills of the temple
models using Adobe Photoshop 2015.
Table 1
Processing parameters for each photogrammetry model.
Mnajdra Mnajdra Tarxien
Central Southern Central
Alignment parameters: High High High
Accuracy
Pre-pair selection Disabled Disabled Disabled
Dense Point Cloud: Quality Medium Medium High
Dense Point Cloud: Depth Moderate Moderate Moderate
filtering
Face count Medium Medium Medium
4
Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx
3. Results
3D models of the Mnajdra Central, Mnajdra Southern and Tarxien
Central temples were successfully created using parameters outlined in
Table 1 (Fig. 6). Video components are accessible below in the electronic
version of this paper. The Mnajdra Central temple model was built with
an alignment of 83% of photographs creating a dense cloud consisting of
93,748,530 points (122,820 points per m2) and producing a ground
resolution of 1.19 mm per pixel (þ- 0.825 pixel reprojection error). The
Mnajdra Southern temple model aligned 96% of the photographs, a
ground resolution of 3.36 cm per pixel (þ-0.791 pixel reprojection error),
and produced a dense cloud consisting of 261,643,874 points. In the
process of merging smaller model sections together to construct the
Mnajdra Southern temple model, a computational error occurred. This
produced an incorrect flying altitude, resulting in incorrect ground
coverage and coverage area estimates. This error did not affect the use-
fulness of the Mnajdra Southern model for determining its architectural
features. The Tarxien Central temple model aligned 99.9% of photo-
graphs taken, a dense cloud of 251,148,346 points (1,569,677 points per
m2) and a ground resolution of 0.796 mm per pixel (þ-0.949 pixel
reprojection error). All three models were of sufficient resolution and
fidelity to allow for detailed assessments of the structural engineering of
the temples and any superficial markings on the stones.
3.1. Proposed reconstruction
Superimposing the Hypogeum LiDAR onto the 3D models of the three
temple models provided the foundation of the new roof reconstruction
proposal (Fig. 7). Video link is available below in electronic version of
paper.
The overlaid models exhibit how cleanly the box structures of the
Hypogeum carvings fit onto the temples’ inner box structure passage-
ways, thus providing the beginnings of a roof structure. The new roof
proposal therefore consists of base lintel beams positioned between the
R2 and L2 uprights and series of long curved corbelled beams on top of
the box structure, each beam extending further forward out past the
previous one to define and reduce the space of the central axis of the
temple. The distance reduction combined with the corbel overhang and a
key feature indicated in Fig. 2 of a curved lateral connecting beam is
critical for future discussion of the way in which the space across the apse
areas were roofed in the temples.
3.2. Mnajdra Central temple reconstruction
Mnajdra Central temple's inner connecting passageway from cell A to
B is where the reconstruction was positioned. This location was optimal
due to its consistency with the carved façades of the Hypogeum, its
optimal state of preservation and important engineering clues. The most
crucial feature exhibited within Mnajdra Central is the carving on the
side of the L2 upright detailing the original appearance of the inner
passageway (Fig. 5). As the carving depicts three beams on top of the base
lintel beam, the reconstruction for Mnajdra Central included three
corbelled beams above the base lintel of the trilithon doorway.
The box structure uprights also provide indications of missing struc-
tural features. These include angled grooves cut into the walls sur-
rounding the portal seemingly to support a lintel stone that has since
disappeared (Fig. 8). Another set of large grooves within the uprights of
the adjoining framed entrance of cell A are noticeable, as are very
shallow matching grooves in the R2 and L2 uprights which were only
identified via scrutiny of the 3D models (Fig. 8).
The first set of grooves in the wall suggests several possible fittings of
a lintel beam. Although the indentations are not identical, the angular
grooves suggest that a stone was cut to fit between the uprights. Behind
these grooves are larger, more spherical cuts into the uprights in the
entrance of cell A. These indicate that another limestone slab was posi-
tioned here, locking in between the uprights (Fig. 9).
M.G.P. Robinson et al. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 6. Photogrammetry models of a) Mnajdra Central, b) Mnajdra Southern and c) Tarxien Central.

Fig. 7. LiDAR models of the two carved façades in the Hypogeum modelled onto the a) Mnajdra Central b) Mnajdra Southern and c) Tarxien Central temple models
without any distortion of their dimensions, simply scaled to fit.

5
M.G.P. Robinson et al.
Fig. 8. Grooves in the walls and uprights surrounding the portal of the inner
passageway of Mnajdra Central show where previous lintels may have been
positioned. A mesh photogrammetry model shows these cut marks more clearly
than textured.
More difficult to see are the marks on the R2 and L2 uprights. The
shallow grooves, pictured in Fig. 9a) are almost symmetrical in shape and
size (0.6
0.5 m) indicating that the lintel base beam extended to these
outer uprights and, like the inner smaller lintel stone, was cut to fit on
these limestone uprights. The R1 and L1 uprights would have supported
this beam, as the base of each groove is consistent with the top of the
inner uprights. This indicates that the smaller lintel beam fit between the
L1 and R1 behind the larger lintel beam (Fig. 9 b).
Using what is represented in the Hypogeum, the carving on the L2
upright and the indications on the remaining limestone, the rest of the
reconstruction can be configured. The base slab would extend to 5.6 m
long and going by the grooves in the R2 and L2 uprights, is around 0.6 m
wide and 0.5 m high. Three beams were then drawn above the base lintel
slab to mirror what is depicted in the carving on the L2 upright. Mea-
surements of the corbelled beams were estimated as there are no remains
indicating how high the roof extended above. To be dimensionally
consistent with the surrounding architecture and achieve a distinct
corbelled appearance as shown in the Hypogeum, these beams were
Fig. 9. a) Shallow grooves in the R2 and L2 uprights of Mnajdra Central. b) Placement of the inner lintel beams and the base slab on the box entrance structure of
Mnajdra Central.
6
Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx
drawn with increasing lengths of 6, 6.4 and 6.8 m by 0.5 m high. Beams
were also calculated with a depth of 1.5 m to be uniform with the depths
of the L2 and R2 uprights, therefore producing a minimum combined
corbelled overhang of 137.5 m using a harmonic corbelling block system
(Fig. 10).
3.3. Mnajdra Southern temple reconstruction
Like Mnajdra Central, the inner connecting passageway of Mnajdra
Southern was where the reconstruction was configured, containing the
remains of the box entrance structure. In this site, the lower lintel slab of
the trilithon doorway has survived. As such, a 5.8 m base slab was
positioned on top, connecting the R2 and L2 uprights and completing the
box structure. Unfortunately, erosion has destroyed much of the top re-
gion of the temple. The L2 upright, however, does exhibit some indica-
tion of a square marking similar to that shown in the uprights at Mnajdra
Central (Fig. 11).
Unlike Mnajdra Central, the apse walls continue above the box
entrance structure. The height difference between the R2 and L2 uprights
and the highest point of the apse wall is 1.2 m. Two beams 0.6 m thick
and 1 m deep would fit perfectly in the 1.2 m gap to bring the height of
the box entrance level with the top of the inner apse walls. To be
consistent with the Hypogeum, the lintel beams will increase in length by
0.4 m, giving a slight overhang of 0.2 m on either side. With two beams,
the total overhang would be 3⁄4 of the beams’ depths, i.e. 0.75 m
(Fig. 12).
3.4. Tarxien Central temple reconstruction
The second passageway within Tarxien Central was chosen to posi-
tion the proposed reconstruction simply because the top of the temple
could be successfully modelled, unlike the main passageway into Tarxien
Central. Whilst Tarxien is a structurally consistent temple, it has suffered
from recent renovations that have altered the original appearance of
slabs reducing the entasis: replaced with slabs of more cubic design.
Fortunately, however, original groove marks have survived in Tarxien
M.G.P. Robinson et al.
Fig. 10. A front, side and aerial representations of the proposed reconstruction at Mnajdra Central.
Fig. 11. Groove markings in the L2 upright of Mnajdra Southern.
Central indicating original construction. The grooves are in the same
places as the Mnajdra Central and Southern temples and are similar in
shape (Fig. 13).
Again, this suggests that the base lintel slab was fitted here as a
locking lintel beam. This base beam would have been around 3.8 m long,
0.5 m high and 0.6 m deep to fit the groove marks. This block could have
been easily removed once the roof disappeared, but its purpose was
presumably to secure the interior passageway. Unfortunately, the ma-
jority of the wall has not survived, with only the upright slabs remaining.
This makes identifying the number of the corbelled beams above the
entrance difficult. The narrow depth of the second chamber of Tarxien
Central however, means that it would only require two corbelled beams
4.8 and 5.2 m long, 1.85 m deep and a corresponding height of 40 cm to
reduce the opening considerably. Applying the harmonic corbelling
block structure system determined a total overhang of 1.4 m with two
beams of 1.85 m depth to match the upright depths.
The dimensions of the box structure of Tarxien Central, out of the
7
Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx
three different box structures analysed, is the most dimensionally
consistent with what is represented in the carving in the ‘Holy of ‘Holies’,
which also exhibits two corbelled beams. Their similarity makes a visu-
alisation of the reconstruction comparably easy using images of both
structures (Fig. 14). The reconstructions therefore look very similar to
what is portrayed in the Hypogeum (Fig. 15).
4. Discussion
The clear similarities between the carved façades in the Hypogeum of
Hal Saflieni and the remains within the passageways of the Neolithic
temples of Malta strongly suggest that the carved façades within the
Hypogeum's chambers intended to reflect the interior architecture of the
aboveground temples. With the development of 3D modelling, a new
avenue of visual reconstruction has been employed to rebuild the missing
roofs of the temples of Malta, entirely based on the archaeology. The
undeniable resemblance of the carvings and rounded chamber walls
M.G.P. Robinson et al.
Fig. 12. Front, side and aerial representation of the reconstruction on Mnajdra Southern.
Fig. 13. Grooves in the R2 and L2 uprights at Tarxien Central indicating pre-
vious construction.
within the Main Room and the ‘Holy of Holies’ to the box entrance
structure remains and the curvature of the temple apses enabled a near
perfect superimposition of the LiDAR to the photogrammetry models of
the temples. This presented a new method of archaeological recon-
struction and architectural investigation into the Neolithic temples of
Malta. It also demonstrated the importance of recognising artistic rep-
resentation in archaeology. By neglecting to confer with or incorporate
the designs exhibited in the available archaeology, architectural re-
constructions will inevitably stray from the original style developed by
the society in question, resulting in the imposition of contemporary en-
gineering or architecture.
The results of this method produced reconstructions comprising of a
series of corbelled curved beams that extended out towards the centre of
the room. This reconstruction, however, raises an issue with the original
8
Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 14. Transformed image of the ‘Holy of Holies’ carving onto the box
entrance structure of Tarxien Central. Source of Hypogeum image:
Malta Heritage.
roofing material. The long, distinctly curved beams that comprise the
majority of the reconstruction pose a problem if assumed to be limestone
as the archaeological record of Neolithic Malta is not irrefutably in
support of a limestone roof. There are no remains of any roof material at
any of the temple sites. There are no records of fragmented or displaced
huge limestone slabs in any stratigraphic layers within the temples when
they were first excavated, and this reconstruction unfortunately depends
upon large material. The largest limestone slabs used in the megalithic
structures include a 6.4
5.2 m slab at Hagar Qim and several huge
perimeter wall slabs of Ggantija are still present (Stroud, 2010:33),
arguably such huge limestone roofing blocks would therefore still be on
site. Trump (1966) questioned the possibility that “[w]here the blocks
were not so deeply buried … they were removed entirely, but direct
evidence is of course lacking” (1966:8). This, however, does not explain
M.G.P. Robinson et al.
Fig. 15. Front, side and aerial representations of the reconstruction on Tarxien Central.
why the taphonomy of all the temples is so consistent. The same archi-
tectural features of each temple complex are either still evident (such as
the walls and floor) or not (the roof and façade wall), even when these
areas were exposed prior to excavation. The huge quantities of large
limestone slabs or smashed pieces of them should have been very com-
mon on all temple sites. This is too coincidental to be so easily attributed
to the work of thieves and demolition. This therefore suggests either that
the reconstruction, based on the archaeology of the Hypogeum, is
incorrect, or that some other organic material, such as wood, may have
been used to span these distances. There have been ongoing fierce de-
bates regarding the employment of timber in the Neolithic temples of
Malta, which will not be heavily discussed in this report. Timber does,
however, solve the issue of the concave nature of the major beams in the
roof reconstruction. It can be procured as curved pieces from trunks or
branches and small beams can be bent or cut into curved shapes from
trees such Pinus halepensis and Quercus ilex which were present at fluc-
tuating levels during the Temple Period according to palynological an-
alyses (Gambin et al., 2016). The curvature of the beams featured in the
Hypogeum cannot be attributed to artistic license as the entire, extant
temple architecture is curved – from the ground plan to the curved edges
and entasis of the blocks. As the limestone on Malta fissures into usefully
straight rectangular blocks (Evans, 1959; Ridley, 1971) to carve the
limestone into curved forms as represented in the Hypogeum would have
been very demanding. Crucially, there is no indication at any temple site
that the temple builders used or carved curved limestone slabs. In theory,
beams of limestone could have a concave face on one side and the other
remained straight, however, there is no evidence for this kind of practice
either. This is where timber could be viewed as a potential roof material
alternative; the discovery of wood ash in the stratigraphy within several
9
Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx
temples accompanied by indications of burning on the walls is consistent
with this argument – as Evans (1959) noted “[w]hat was there in the
temples to burn so furiously – unless they were roofed with wood?”.
5. Conclusion
Through the applications of photogrammetry and digital 3D model-
ling, a new roof reconstruction proposal has been created derived entirely
from the remaining archaeological depictions of the original architecture.
Matching the LiDAR imagery of the carved façades in the ‘Holy of Holies’
and Main Room in the Hypogeum of Hal Saflieni onto the 3D photo-
grammetry models of the Mnajdra Central, Mnajdra Southern and Tarxien
Central temples has verified their structural consistency. This established
the carved representations within the Hypogeum as indicators of the
original interior architecture of the temples. Via photogrammetry
modelling, indications of this roof structural system were identified in the
temples' remaining limestone blocks, further supporting this theory, and
provided a template to exhibit the new roof structural system. This process
has consequently produced a new archaeologically-defensible roof
reconstruction proposal for the Neolithic temples of Malta.
Declarations of interest
None.
Funding
This project was supported by the Carlyle Greenwell Research Fund
[scholarship number SC1126].
M.G.P. Robinson et al. Digital Applications in Archaeology and Cultural Heritage xxx (xxxx) xxx

Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Patrick Giang, Alexandra Robinson
and Tim Robinson in the preparation of this paper. A special thankyou to
Malta Heritage and Katya Stroud for allowing the author access to temple
sites and for the permission to use the LiDAR models of the Hypogeum of
Hal Saflieni for this project.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.daach.2019.e00095.
References
Evans, J.D., 1959. Malta. Thames and Hudson, London.
Flynn, B., 2005. Exploration of Maltese prehistoric temples through the application of
multimedia technologies. In: Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, vol. 5,
pp. 23–34.
Gambin, B., Andrieu-Ponel, V., M
edail, F., Marriner, N., Peyron, O., Montade, V.,
Gambin, T., Morhange, C., Belkacem, D., Djamali, M., 2016. 7300 years of vegetation
history and climate for NW Malta: a Holocene perspective. Clim. Past Discuss. 11,
4505–4567. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-273-2016.
Lerma, J.L., Navarro, S., Cabrelles, M., Villaverde, V., 2010. Terrestrial laser scanning and
close range photogrammetry for 3D archaeological documentation: the Upper
Palaeolithic Cave of Parpall
o as a case study. J. Archaeol. Sci. 37 (3), 499–507. htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016/J.JAS.2009.10.011.
Ridley, M., 1971. The Megalithic Art of the Maltese Islands, Link House. Dolphin Press,
West Street, Poole, Dorset.
_ Qim & Mnajdra: Prehistoric Temples. Heritage Books, Qrendi,
Stroud, K., 2010. Hagar
Malta.
Stroud, K., 2013. Preface. In: Vella, G. (Ed.), 2013. Ggantija: the Oldest Free-Standing
Structure in the World, Malta, Malta Heritage.
Trump, D., 1966. Skorba. Thames and Hudson, London.
Trump, D., 2002. Malta: Prehistory and Temples, Malta. Midsea Books.

10