Introduction:

Ceramic tiles have become an integral part in designing and decorating homes,
offices, shopping malls etc. The demand for ceramic tiles has increased rapidly in
every part of the world. To address this demand, production plants has installed
across the world. Like all other production plants, ceramic tiles production plant
includes every aspect of engineering. Production, automation, electrical, mechanical
etc. engineers have been working in these plants to ensure the production of tiles.
Production of ceramic tiles involves several unit operations and processes. One of
the unit operations of ceramic tiles production is glaze production by weighing,
mixing and grinding raw materials. Then purifying the glaze.
Pressure compensating or iso-static dies:
A die in which an incompressible fluid occupies a space separating a rigid part of
the punch from a flexible part that comes into contact with the powders to be
pressed, during pressing, then, this compensates for the density differences caused
by the non-uniformity of the powder filling.
Category Water absorption (%) Product type
B ǀǀǀ >10 Monoporsa or rapid
double fired tile
B ǀǀ b 6-10 Single fired tile (semi-
porous)
B ǀǀ a 3-6 Vitrified single fired tile
Bǀb 0.5-3 Frost-resistant single fired
tile
Bǀa <0.5 Porcelain tile

Tubed or boxed burners:

The temperature distribution across the cross-section and length of the kiln can be
optimized via the use of tubed or boxed burners. In addition, to supplying a mix of
convective and radiated heat, these also allow the heat to be directed to more
sensitive sections of the kiln such as side walls or at the centre of the chamber as
required.

Definition of Glaze:
Glaze is defined as;
“A mixture of powdered materials that often includes a premelted glass material
made into a slip and applied to a ceramic body by dipping or spraying and capable of
fusing to glassy coating when dried and fired”.

Types:
There are two types of glazes according to the brightness;
 Matt glaze
  Bright glaze (Polished glaze).

Notes regarding glaze preparation:

Base glaze is simply the combination of materials that melts at desired
temperature. It is either transparent or opaque, matt, semi-matt, glossy etc.
Calcination:
The heating of solids to a high temperature for the purpose of removing volatile
substances, volatile substances are those which can be easily evaporated or
change from solid to vapor form at low temperature, oxidizing a portion of mass or
rendering them friable (can be broken into powder by crushing them with the palm
of your hand). The release of volatile matter during calcination minimizes internal
shrinkage in later processing stages that can lead to the development of internal
stresses and eventually cracking or warping.
Ball milling:
Ball mills are used for the fine grinding of the ceramic materials. The materials has
to be reduced to sand size (up to 2mm or less) before grinding in a ball mill.
A porcelain body for lining bricks and pebbles is
 China clay (40%)
 Feldspar (30%)
 Quartz (25%)
 Bond clay (5%)
Pebbles or balls can be made from vitreous clay bodies. The hardness of pebbles
is tested with penknife to make sure it is above 5.5 (moh’s scale). Pebbles must be
spherical. Size should be between 2.5 and 5cm diameter.
 In large ball mills, pebbles are removed when they are less than 2-3cm.
 In small ball mills, pebbles smaller than 1.5 -2cm are discarded.
As the pebbles are grind down, they contribute a small amount of material to the
glaze. Usually this is not enough to make a difference in the glaze.
Mill speed:
The speed of ball mill having a diameter D, rotating at “n” revolutions per minute
has a peripheral speed of
π
v=( )× D × n
60
The speed of ball mill exerts a centrifugal force on the pebbles lying against the
drum wall, this force raises the pebble of mass “m” by an angle α with respect to
the horizontal, this is the point at which the force of gravity is equal to the
opposing centrifugal force:
 C f =m v 2 ( )
D
2
=mgsen(∝)

This equation indicates that the angle to which the pebble is raised is independent
of the mass “m” of the pebbles and depend only on the rotation speed of the mill.
Once the angle α is exceeded the pebbles up against the drum wall fall away from
it because, at this point, gravity overcomes the centrifugal force.
They thus fall back into the mill, tracing a parabola as they do so. The angle β
that the pebbles achieve beyond the lift angle α is known as the cascade angle.
Pebbles that are close to the axis of rotation have a circulatory speed as
compared to those who are at the boundary of ball mill. These pebbles are not
lifted upward and their motion in upward direction is hindered by the balls present
in upper layer. Thus there are two types of motions in the ball mill which causes
grinding; rotary and cascade motion.
The angle of lift can also be expressed as a function of mill RPM;

v= ( 60π )× Dn
And centripetal acceleration as;

c a=0.0055× D n2

Critical speed of ball mill:

“The peripheral speed at which partial centrifugation begins and pebbles start
sticking to the lining of the ball mill is called critical speed of ball mill.”
29.9
The critical speed (c) of ball mill is given by the following equation; c= where r
√r
is the internal radius of the ball mill In meters.
Grinding of material takes place between the pebbles of the ball mill as they roll
down the slope of the cylinder.
 At speed which is 30% of critical speed, grinding takes place mainly
between pebbles and lining.
 At 70% of critical speed, a good cascading rolling produces efficient
grinding.
 At 90%, very little grinding takes place.
Cascading:
The motion of the charge in a tumbling mill which occurs when the grinding media
roll down from the top of the load to the toe of the load.
Cataracting:
The motion of the charge in a tumbling mill which occurs when the grinding media
are ejected from the top of the load onto the toe of the load.
Properties of material that influence the grinding process:
Properties of materials that influence the grinding process are as following:-
 Linear dimensions of the particles of the materials to be ground. These
concern the;
o Diameter, where particles are spherical.
o Side length, where particles are cube shaped.
 Dimensions of the external surface of the particles to be ground.
 Hardness;
o Compression resistance.
o Impact resistance.
o Abrasion resistance.
 Material surface.
 Specific weight.
 Moisture content and hygroscopic characteristics.
 Tendency to agglomerate or flocculate_ reduces grinding efficiency.
Process occurring during grinding:
The grinding process involves the following processes;
 Simple compression (crushing)
 Percussion
 Abrasion
 Impact
 Cutting
Morphological and physical characteristics of ceramic raw materials influencing
the grinding processes are;
Clays
 Mineralogical nature
 Plasticity
 Electrostatic interaction with water.
These characteristics are identified via the analysis of;
 Percentage and nature of residual materials
 Clayey particle dimensions
 Specific surface area
 Ionic exchange capacity
 Presence of soluble salts
Non-clayey materials
 Size and particle size distribution
 Base structure
 Since most of the raw materials used in ceramic industry are heterogeneous,
therefore following necessities need to be taken into account;
 Dispersion of the various components in the clay or mix must be all but
perfect.
 Some mineralogical components need to be ground to different degrees.
 Certain impurities contained in the raw materials need to be removed from
the mix before grinding it.
Dry grinding and wet grinding:
Wet grinding reduces in-mix particle size greatly and provides better
homogenization. Dry grinding technology may be used where raw materials are
homogenous from both a morphological and hardness standpoint, when the final
product is of modest quality or with double-firing products in general.
Chemical defloculants (which can also reduce the quantity of water in the slip, thus
providing economic gains) allow manufacturers to produce particles with a diameter
of even less than one micron (almost zero residue on 63µm screen).
Dry grinding is used to produce double fire biscuit and in the production of wall tiles.
While wet grinding is used with natural mixes of clays and hard materials, that is with
heterogeneous blends sized in such a way as to make their refinement with even the
most efficient dry grinding system impractical; bodies are, above all, prepared using
wet grinding technology where ceramic compositions are consist of various
components, specific weight and particle sizes.
Wet grinding theory:
Kick’s law: states that “the energy needed to crush a solid materials to a specified
fraction of its original size is the same, regardless of the original size of the feed
material.”
This energy is proportional to the logarithm of the ratio between the initial and final
diameters of the material. The law can be expressed mathematically as follows;

W =K K log ( Dd )
Where;
W =required energy

K K =constant dependent on type of material

D=average ¿ particles before grinding

d=average¿ particles after grinding

Rittinger’s law: States that “The energy needed to reduce the size of a solid particle
is directly proportional to the resultant increase in surface area.” The law can be
expressed mathematically as follows:
 1 1
W =K r ( − )
d D
W =required energy

K r =constant dependent on particle shape

d=average¿ particles after grinding

D=average ¿ particles before grinding

In other words, the quantity of energy needed to reduce the size of a given weight of
material still depends on the initial and final size of the ground material. For example,
it can be estimated that, if it takes 2.5 hours to ground the material from 1mm to
100µm (reduction ratio 10:1), in another 2.5 hours the material will pass from 100µm
to just 53µm (reduction ratio 2:1) because the change in surface area remains same.
It should however be observed that in practice the amount of energy observed that
in practice the amount of energy absorbed by the machines is always greater than
the amount of energy calculated via the above formula because the actual work also
involves:-
 Energy needed to overcome the cohesion linking the particles in the pieces
being ground.
 Deformation energy (plastic and elastic deformation)
 Energy absorbed in the attrition between grinding media.
 Energy absorbed by vibrations.
 Energy lost as heat.
Bond theory: He observed that the energy required to reduce a material from an
initial size of d o to a final size of d 1 is defined by the difference between the total
quantities of energy needed to pass from a theoretically infinite size to sizes d o ∧d 1
respectively.

Raw materials:
Major raw materials are; Potassium feldspar, sodium feldspar, kaolin, dolomite,
calcined kaolin, alumina oxide, quartz, calcium carbonate, zirconium silicate, low
temperature frits, high temperature frits, calcined talc, barium carbonate, zinc oxide,
wollastonite, nepheline, magnesium oxide, clays, strontium carbonate, cmc and
sodium tripolyphosphate.

Potassium feldspar:
Feldspar is the name for the largest group of minerals in igneous rocks; Composed
of aluminum silicate plus and sodium; Granite consists of quartz, feldspar, and other
minerals in small amounts. Molecular mass of potassium feldspar is 278.33.
Chemical composition
All the rock-forming feldspars are aluminosilicate minerals with the general
formula AT4O8 in which A = potassium, sodium, or calcium (Ca); and T = silicon (Si)
and aluminum (Al), with a Si:Al ratio ranging from 3:1 to 1:1. Microcline
and orthoclase are potassium feldspars (KAlSi3O8), usually designated or in
discussions involving their end-member composition. Albeit (NaAlSi3O8—usually
designated Ab) and anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8—an) are end-members of
the plagioclase series. Sanidine, anorthoclase, and the perthites are alkali feldspars
whose chemical compositions lie between or and Ab.
As is apparent from the preceding statements, solid solution plays an important
role in the rock-making feldspars. (Members of solid-solution series are single
crystalline phases whose chemical compositions are intermediate to those of two or
more end-members.) The alkali (Or-Ab) series exhibits complete solid solution at
high temperatures but only incomplete solid solution at low temperatures;
substitution of potassium for sodium is involved. The plagioclase (Ab-An) series
exhibits essentially complete solid solution at both high and low temperatures;
coupled substitution of sodium and silicon by calcium and aluminum occurs. The
An-Or system has only limited solid-solution tendencies.
The most obvious differences between the high- and low-temperature diagrams
are along the alkali-feldspar (Or-Ab) join (the boundary line between the phases).
As indicated, sanidine and anorthoclase are high-temperature alkali feldspars,
and perthite is their low-temperature analogue. Sanidine is a single-phase alkali
feldspar; although frequently described chemically by the formula (K, Na)AlSi 3O8,
most analyzed specimens of sanidine range between Or 50 and Or80.
(This designation is used to specify the fractions of the constituents. For example,
Or80 indicates that the mineral is composed of 80 percent KAlSi 3O8 and 20 [i.e., 100
− 80] percent NaAlSi3O8.) Anorthoclase is a variously used name that is most often
applied to apparently homogeneous alkali feldspar masses, at least some of which
consist of sub microscopic lamellae (layers) of albeit and orthoclase; their bulk
compositions typically range between Or25 and Or60. Perthite consists
of intimate intermixtures of a potassium feldspar—either microcline or orthoclase—
and a sodium-rich plagioclase that occurs as microscopic to macroscopic masses
within the potassium feldspar host.
Many perthites are formed when high-temperature potassium-sodium feldspars of
appropriate compositions are cooled in such a manner that the original solid-
solution phase exsolves (i.e., unmixes, so that a homogeneous mineral separates
into two or more different minerals) to form intermixtures—sometimes termed
intergrowths—of two phases.
Some perthites, however, appear to have been formed as a result of partial
replacement of original potassium feldspars by sodium-bearing fluids. In any case,
perthite is the name properly applied to intimate mixtures in which the potassium
feldspar component predominates over the plagioclase constituent,
whereas antiperthite is the name given to intimate mixtures in which the plagioclase
constituent is predominant. Perthites are common, whereas antiperthites are
relatively rare.
 The plagioclase series is essentially continuous at both high and low temperatures.
The names of members of the series designate relative proportions of the end-
members. Although plagioclase grains in some rocks are essentially homogeneous,
those in many rocks are zoned—i.e., different parts of individual grains have
different Ab and A contents. One explanation for zoning in plagioclases formed
from magmas can be implied from information known about the Ab-A system. Upon
cooling, the first crystals that form from a melt with the composition X (= An50) will
have the composition Y (approximately An83). With further cooling, in some cases
the first and subsequently formed crystals will react continuously with the remaining
liquid, thereby maintaining equilibrium; when the liquid becomes totally crystallized,
the system will consist of homogeneous plagioclase crystals. In cases in which
such equilibrium is not maintained during cooling, the early and subsequently
formed feldspars have different An contents. For example, zoned crystals may form
with differing An contents arranged one on top of another so that their margins are
relatively sodium-rich as compared to their earlier-formed, more calcium-rich cores.
The resulting zoning may be gradational or well-defined or may assume some
combination of these characteristics.
Many elements other than those required for the Or, Ab, and An end-member
compositions have been recorded in analyses of feldspars. Those that have been
recorded to occur as substitutions within the feldspar structures include lithium (Li),
rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), magnesium (Mg), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), yttrium
(Y), ferrous iron (Fe2+), thallium (Tl), lead (Pb), lanthanum (La) and other rare earth
elements, and ammonium (NH4) in the A position; and titanium (Ti), ferric (Fe3+) and
ferrous (Fe2+) iron, boron (B), gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), and phosphorus (P) in
the T position. Of these, substitution of some barium for potassium and some
titanium or ferric iron or both for aluminum are especially common in alkali
feldspars. Several other elements also have been recorded as traces in feldspar
analyses; it seems very likely, however, that some of these elements may reside in
impurities—i.e., within unrecognized microscopic or sub microscopic inclusions of
other minerals.
Crystal structure
Sanidine and orthoclase are monoclinic or nearly so; the plagioclase feldspars
are triclinic. All, however, have the same fundamental structure: it consists of
a continuous, negatively charged, three-dimensional framework that is made up of
corner-sharing SiO4 and AlO4 tetrahedrons (each tetrahedron consists of a
central silicon or aluminum atom bonded to four oxygen atoms) and positively
charged cations (e.g., the potassium, sodium, and/or calcium) that occupy relatively
large interstices within the framework. Although the framework is sufficiently elastic
to adjust itself to the different sizes of the A cations, the relatively large potassium
cations give structures that have a monoclinic or only slightly off-monoclinic
symmetry, whereas the smaller sodium and calcium cations lead to distorted
structures that have triclinic symmetry.
One aspect of the feldspar—especially the potassium feldspar—structures that is
of particular interest is termed ordering (see figure). This phenomenon is indicative
of the conditions under which the feldspar was formed and its subsequent thermal
history. Ordering in feldspars is based on the distributional pattern of silicon and
aluminum within the different tetrahedrons. It can be characterized as follows:
silicon and aluminum have a random distribution within the tetrahedrons
of sanidine, an arrangement termed disordered; they have a regular distribution
within the constituent tetrahedrons of microcline, an arrangement termed ordered;
and they are distributed within the tetrahedrons of orthoclase in a manner usually
characterized as only partly ordered. The disordered structure of sanidine reflects
formation at high temperatures followed by rapid cooling; the high degree of
ordering of microcline reflects either growth at low temperatures or very slow
cooling from higher temperatures; the partial ordering of orthoclase indicates either
formation at intermediate temperatures or formation at high temperatures followed
by fairly slow cooling. With regard to this phenomenon, it is also noteworthy that all
plagioclase feldspars are more nearly ordered than their associated potassium
feldspars regardless of the temperatures that prevailed when they were formed.
Crystals of all the common rock-forming feldspars tend to look alike; megascopic
examination of crystal form typically cannot be used to distinguish between
feldspars. The angle between the face that intersects the b axis and is parallel
to a and c and the face that intersects the c axis and is parallel to a and b is 90° for
the monoclinic feldspars and ranges from about 86° to roughly 89°30′ for the
triclinic feldspars; the deviations from 90° are not readily discernible with the naked
eye. In any case, feldspar crystals are relatively rare; almost all occur in miarolitic
cavities, in pegmatite masses, or as phenocrysts within porphyries. (A porphyry is
an igneous rock containing conspicuous crystals, called phenocrysts, surrounded
by a matrix of finer-grained minerals or glass or both.) In most rocks, both alkali and
plagioclase feldspars occur as irregularly shaped grains with only a few or no
crystal faces. This general absence of crystal faces reflects the fact that
crystallization of these feldspars was interfered with by previously formed minerals
within the same mass.
Both crystals and irregularly shaped grains of feldspars are commonly twinned.
Some individual grains are twinned in two or more ways. Two common kinds of
twinning—those designated Carlsbad twinning and albeit twinning—are shown
in the figure. Carlsbad twinning occurs in both monoclinic and triclinic feldspars;
albeit twinning occurs only in triclinic feldspars. Albeit twinning, which is typically
polysynthetic (i.e., multiple or repeated), can be observed as a set of parallel lines
on certain crystal or cleavage surfaces of many plagioclase feldspars.
Physical properties
It is important to be able to distinguish feldspar group minerals from other rock-
forming minerals and from one another because their presence (versus absence),
along with their relative quantities, serves as the basis for classifying and naming
many rocks, especially those of igneous origin. In the laboratory, it is relatively easy
to identify the feldspars by determining their chemical compositions, their
structures, or their optical properties. In some cases, staining techniques are
employed. Fortunately, most feldspar grains can also be identified rather easily on
the basis of macroscopic examination in the field, using properties such as those
described in the remainder of this article.
Common properties of the group
As might be suspected on the basis of their similar chemical compositions and
structures, all of the rock-forming feldspars have several similar properties. As
indicated by the fact that they lack inherent colour, feldspars can be colourless,
white, or nearly any colour if impure. In general, however, orthoclase and microcline
have a reddish tinge that ranges from a pale, flesh like pink to brick-red, whereas
typical rock-forming plagioclases are white to dark Gray. As a group, feldspars
range from transparent to nearly opaque, have non-metallic lustres—typically
vitreous to sub vitreous on fractures and pearly or porcelaneous on cleavage
surfaces, exhibit two cleavages—one perfect, the other good—at or near 90° to
each other, and have a Mohs hardness of approximately 6.
The presence of two cleavages at or near 90° distinguishes the feldspars from all
other common rock-forming minerals except halite and the pyroxenes. The
hardness (21/2) and the salty taste of halite make that distinction clear. The Gray to
black streak of the common rock-forming pyroxenes, which contrasts markedly with
the white or slightly tinted hues of the streaks of the feldspars—including those that
are dark-coloured—affords a simple way to distinguish between these minerals,
even those that are similar in appearance. (Streak is the colour of
a mineral’s powder, which can be produced readily by pounding or scratching the
mineral with a geologic pick or hammer.)
Identification of specific feldspars
Alkali feldspars can often be distinguished from plagioclase feldspars because most
grains of the latter exhibit albeit twinning (see above Crystal structure), which
is manifested by parallel lines on certain cleavage surfaces, whereas grains of
alkali feldspars do not. This criterion is not, however, absolute; some plagioclase
feldspars are not polysynthetically twinned. Furthermore, upon only cursory
examination some perthitic textures may be mistaken for polysynthetic twinning.
Fortunately, this resemblance is seldom confusing once one has thoroughly
examined several examples of both features. The two features differ rather
markedly: the traces of the polysynthetic twinning are straight, whereas the perthitic
textures that are most likely to be mistaken for polysynthetic twinning have an
interdigitated appearance.
Another property that is sometimes used to distinguish between alkali and
plagioclase feldspars is their different specific gravity values. The ideal value for the
potassium-rich alkali feldspars is 2.56, which is less than the lowest value for the
plagioclases (namely, 2.62 for albeit).
Sanidine is usually distinguished rather easily from the other alkali feldspars
because it typically appears glassy—i.e., it tends to be colourless, and much of it is
transparent. Microcline and orthoclase, by contrast, are characteristically white,
light Gray, or flesh- to salmon-coloured and subtranslucent. Except for its green
variety, usually called amazonstone or amazonite, microcline can seldom be
distinguished from orthoclase by macroscopic means. In the past, much microcline
was misidentified as orthoclase because of the incorrect assumption that all
microcline is green. Today, prudent geologists identify potassium feldspars other
than sanidine simply as alkali, or in some cases potassium, feldspars when
describing rocks on the basis of macroscopic examination. That is to say, they do
not make a distinction between microcline and orthoclase until they have proved
their identity by determining, for example, their optical properties. Upon
macroscopic examination, anorthoclase is also generally identified merely as
an alkali feldspar except by those who are acquainted with the rocks known to
contain anorthoclase.
The rock-forming plagioclases can seldom be identified as to species by
macroscopic means. Nevertheless, some rules of thumb can be employed: White
or off-white plagioclase feldspars that exhibit a bluish iridescence (the so-
called peristerites) have overall albeit compositions, even though they are sub
microscopic intergrowths of 70 percent An 2 and 30 percent An25; and dark-coloured
plagioclases that exhibit iridescence of such hues as blue, green, yellow, or orange
are labradorites. In addition, the identities of associated minerals tend to indicate
the approximate An-Ab contents of the plagioclase feldspars—for example, biotite
most commonly accompanies albeit or oligoclase; hornblende commonly occurs
with andesine; and the pyroxenes, augite and/or hypersthene, typically
accompany labradorite or bytownite. Additional characteristics for two of the
feldspars are as follows: Microcline commonly exhibits “grid twinning.” This
combination of two kinds of twinning, although best seen by means of a microscope
equipped to use doubly polarized light, is sometimes discernible macroscopically.
(Polarized refers to light that vibrates in a single plane.) Plagioclase feldspars
that constitute lamellar masses in complex pegmatites are albeit; this variety is
often referred to by the name cleavelandite.
Origin and occurrence
Feldspars occur in all classes of rocks. They are widely distributed in igneous
rocks, which indicates that they have formed by crystallization from magma.
Physical weathering of feldspar-bearing rocks may result in sediments
and sedimentary rocks that contain feldspars; however, this is a rare occurrence
because in most environments the feldspars tend to be altered to other substances,
such as clay minerals. They also may be found in many metamorphic rocks formed
from precursor rocks that contained feldspars and/or the chemical elements
required for their formation. In addition, feldspars occur in veins and pegmatites, in
which they were apparently deposited by fluids, and within sediments and soils, in
which they were probably deposited by groundwater solutions. Some of the typical
occurrences for the individual species are given in the table.
Some typical occurrences of the rock-forming feldspars
Potassium feldspars
sanidine potassium-rich volcanic rocks and near-surface minor intrusions—
e.g., rhyolites, trachytes, and high-temperature contact
 metamorphic rocks
orthoclase potassium-rich dike rocks—e.g., rhyolite and trachyte porphyries;
granites, granodiorites, and syenites**; moderate- to high-grade
metamorphic gneisses and schists; and sandstones
microcline granitic pegmatites, hydrothermal veins; granites, granodiorites,
and syenites**; low- to moderate-grade metamorphic rocks;
sandstones and conglomerates
Plagioclase feldspars
albeit granites; granitic pegmatites; low-grade metamorphic gneisses and
schists; sandstones
oligoclase granodiorites and monzonites; sandstones; moderate-grade
metamorphic rocks
andesine diorites; andesites; moderate-grade metamorphic rocks, especially
amphibolites
labradorit gabbros and anorthosites***; diabases and basalts
e
bytownite gabbros and anorthosites***; diabases and basalts
anorthite gabbros; contact-metamorphosed impure limestones; and high-
grade metamorphic rocks
*Including perthites. In addition, anorthoclase occurs only in a few rather
abnormal syenites (e.g., larvikite), and adularia—transparent, colourless to white,
commonly opalescent potassium feldspar with a pseudo rhombohedral habit—
occurs in some low-temperature hydrothermal veins.
**Typical syenites consist of nearly 90 percent alkali feldspar.
***Typical anorthosites consist of about 90 percent plagioclase feldspar.

Uses
Feldspars are used widely in the glass and ceramics industries. Alkali feldspars are
more commonly used commercially than plagioclase feldspars. Albeit, or soda spar
as it is known commercially, is used in ceramics. The feldspar-rich rocks larvikite
and a few anorthosites are employed as both interior and exterior facing slabs.
In addition, several feldspars are used as gemstones. For example, varieties that
show opalescence are sold as moonstone. Spectrolite is a trade name
for labradorite with strong colour flashes. Sunstone (oligoclase or orthoclase) is
typically yellow to orange to brown with a golden sheen; this effect appears to be
due to reflections from inclusions of red hematite. Amazonite, a green variety of
microcline, is used as an ornamental material.
Sanidine occurs as phenocrysts (large noticeable crystals) in extrusive felsic
igneous rocks such as rhyolite and trachyte. It indicates that the rocks cooled
quickly after their eruption. Sanidine is also diagnostic of high-temperature contact
metamorphism as an indicator of sanidinite hornfels or facies.
Orthoclase is a primary constituent of intrusive felsic igneous rocks such
as granite, granodiorite, and syenites. It may also occur in some metamorphic
pelitic schists and gneisses. Microcline, also found in granitic rocks and pegmatites,
is present in sedimentary rocks such as sandstones and conglomerates. It can also
occur in metamorphic rocks.
Albeit is found commonly in granites, syenites, rhyolites, and trachytes. Albeit is
common in pegmatites and may replace earlier formed microcline as cleavelandite.
It is also common in low-grade metamorphic rocks ranging
from zeolite to greenschist facies.
Oligoclase is characteristic of granodiorites and monzonites. It may also have a
sparkle owing to inclusions of hematite, in which case it is called sunstone.
Oligoclase is found in metamorphic rocks formed under moderate temperature
conditions such as amphibolite facies.
Certain feldspars are somewhat less common. Anorthite is found only in gabbros,
though it is common in certain high-grade metamorphic rocks such as granulite
facies. Many metamorphosed limestones also contain anorthite. Bytownite is also
only found in gabbros, whereas labradorite is found in gabbros, basalts, and
anorthosites. Labradorite is often iridescent. This quality makes it desirable for
interior and exterior building slabs. In contrast, andesine is rare except in andesites
and diorites.
In the early 21st century Turkey led the world in feldspar production. Other major
producers include Italy, China, and the United States.

Anorthite:
A feldspar mineral, calcium aluminosilicate (CaAl2Si2O8), that occurs as white or
grayish, brittle, glassy crystals. Primarily a rock-forming mineral, it is used in the
manufacture of glass and ceramics. Anorthite occurs in basic igneous rocks, as at
Trentino, Italy; Södermanland, Swed.; Tamil Nadu, India; Miyake, Japan; and
Franklin, N.J.
The feldspar minerals are mixtures of sodium, potassium, and calcium
aluminosilicates; they belong to a ternary system in which any mineral may be
classed by its percentage of each of three pure compounds, called end-members:
sodium aluminosilicate, potassium aluminosilicate, and calcium aluminosilicate.
Anorthite is the calcium-bearing end-member of the system; its symbol is An.

Anorthite and the sodium-bearing end-member of the system, albeit (NaAlSi3O8),

form a solid-solution series in which the two intermingle; thus, in nature there is a
continuous chemical variation between the two compounds. Any member of this
series is called a plagioclase.

Sodium feldspar: