1

HIERACHY OF ORGANISATION IN LIVING THINGS

The cell theory

All living organisms have a basic common structure; cells. Similar cells make up tissues which work
together to form organs. Organs working together form systems. Systems make up an organism.

Cells tissues organs systems organisms

TABLE 1 : Definitions of cell, tissue, organs, system and their examples in plants and animals

Unit Definition Examples in plants Examples in animals

cell Basic unit of living
organisms
tissue Similar cells working
together to perform a
specific function
organ A group of tissues
working together to
perform a particular
function
System A group of organs
working towards a
common goal
organism
Xylem cell , root hair Red blood cell, motor
cell, phloem cell, nerve cell, phagocyte,
guard cell lymphocyte
Palisade mesophyll, Ligament, tendon,
epidermal tissue, cartilage, bone
spongy mesophyll
Flower, roots, Liver, kidney, lungs
branches, leaves
Transport, Reproductive,
reproductive, respiratory,
excretory
Seedling, shrub, tree Amoeba, bird, rat,
frog, snake, fish

Cell structure and function

ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL

TABLE 2: Parts of plant and animal cells, their descriptions and functions
 2

PART Description FUNCTION

Cell membrane Partially permeable
membrane
cytoplasm A jelly –like fluid
nucleus A cell organelle
Mitochondrion A cell organelle
ribosome A cell organelle
chloroplasts A cell organelle
Cell wall Tough structure made of the
carbohydrate cellulose
vacuole Structure within the
cytoplasm surrounded by a
membrane called tonoplast
Controls exchange between the
cell and its surroundings
• Site of chemical reactions
e.g. Anaerobic respiration
• Storage of food reserves
such as oil droplets and
starch granules
• Controls chemical
reactions in the cell e.g.
cell division
• Contains genetic
information about an
organism
Site of aerobic respiration
Site of protein synthesis
Site of photosynthesis
• Provides cell with
mechanical support
• Pathway for movement
of water and mineral
salts
• Contains cell sap
• Storage of various
substances including
waste products

SPECIALISED CELLS

These types of cells perform specific functions only. They have distinctive features which make them
more adapted to performing their functions.

TABLE 3: Specialised animal and plant cells , their functions, adaptations and advantages of the
adaptations.

SPECIALISED ANIMAL CELLS

Specialized cell Function Adaptation Advantages of the

adaptation

Red blood cell Transports oxygen around • Contains haemoglobin Haemoglobin binds oxygen
the body forming oxyhaemoglobin

• Biconcave shaped Increases surface area for

diffusion of oxygen

• Has no nucleus Increases volume for

carrying haemoglobin and
oxygen

• Spongy cytoplasm Allows cell to change shape

and squeeze through
narrow capillaries
 3
Motor nerve cell Conducts electrical
impulses from the spinal
cord to effectors
Phagocyte Engulfs and digests
pathogens
Lymphocyte Produces antibodies that
clump pathogens for easy
phagocytosis
SPECIALISED PLANT CELLS
Root hair cell Absorbs water and mineral
salts from the soil
Xylem cell • Transports water
and mineral salts
up the plant
• Supports the plant
• Has myelin sheath
• It is elongated
• Cytoplasm branches
into numerous
filaments called
dendrites
• Irregularly shaped
nucleus?
• Has a large nucleus
• Has an elongation
(root hair)
• Has large vacuole
• No chloroplasts
• No cytoplasm
• No end walls
• Has pits (narrow
areas of the cell wall)
Insulates the cell against
loss of electrical impulses
To carry impulses long
distances around the body
To pick impulses from a
large number of
neighboring cells
Enables the cell to change
shape?
Allows production of a lot
of antibodies
Increases surface area for
absorption;
Water by osmosis
Mineral salts by
active transport
Storage of large volumes of
water
Increases volume for
storage of water
Creates free passage of
water
Many cells join to form a
continuous tube
Allow water and ions to
leave the xylem cell to
other cells
Water proofs the cells
 4

• Lignified cell walls Supports the plant

Phloem cell • Transports • End plates are Allows passage of

dissolved organic perforated dissolved organic materials
materials up and • Mitochondria in a To release energy for
down the plant reduced cytoplasm active transportation of
dissolved organic
substances

MODES OF PARTICLE TRANSPORT IN CELLS

1. PASSIVE TRANSPORT

A non-energy consuming process in which substances are transferred down their concentration
gradient. Osmosis and diffusion are examples of passive transport.

a) DIFFUSION

Definition: Movement of molecules from a region of their high potential to a region of their low
potential, down a concentration gradient.

Factors that affect the rate of diffusion.

i) Temperature.

High temperature increase the average kinetic energy of molecules. Molecules collide with one
another more often and the distance between them increases, thereby increasing the rate of diffusion.
The higher the temperature the faster the rate of diffusion.

ii) Particle size

Heavy molecules diffuse much slowly than light ones because they have a large inertia. The heavier
the particles the slower the rate of diffusion.
 5

iii) Concentration gradient

Where molecules are at their high concentration they collide with each other more often, spaces
between them increase very quickly as they move into the area of their least concentration. The
steeper the gradient the faster the rate of diffusion.

b) OSMOSIS

Definition: Movement of water molecules from a region of their high water potential to a region of
their low potential across a selectively permeable membrane. Osmosis is a special type of diffusion
involving transfer of water molecules.

TABLE 4: Differences and between diffusion, osmosis

diffusion osmosis

2. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
 6

Definition: An energy consuming process in which substances are transported against their
concentration gradient. The particles are transported across the membrane by action of carrier
proteins which are embedded in the cytoplasm.

OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE TRANSPORT IN ROOT HAIR CELLS

• Water is transported from a region its high water potential in the soil into the root hair cell
where it is at a low water potential by osmosis. The steeper the gradient the faster the rate of
diffusion.
• Mineral ions (salts) are transported from their low ion potential in the soil to their high ion
potential inside the root hair cell by active transport.

OSMOSIS IN PLANT CELLS

 7

1. Turgid cells

• If a plant cell is placed in a solution of higher water potential than its contents,
Water moves into the cell (sap vacuole) by osmosis
Volume of the cell increases
Pressure inside the cell increases and cell becomes firm
Cell membrane pushes against the cell wall and cell becomes turgid

2. Flaccid cells

• If a plant cell is placed in a solution of lower water potential than its contents,
Water moves out of the cell (sap vacuole) by osmosis
The volume of the cell decreases
Pressure inside the cell decreases and cell becomes flaccid
Cell membrane is pulled away (detaches) from the cell wall and cell becomes
plasmolysed
 8

Plasmolysis

This is when the cell membrane is detached (pulled away) from the cell wall as turgor pressure
inside the cell vacuole decreased due to osmosis out of the cell.

Wilting

When plant cells become flaccid and plasmolysed, the whole plant wilts.

OSMOSIS IN ANIMAL CELLS

1. Bursting

• If an animal cell is placed in a solution of higher water potential than its contents,
Water moves into the cell by osmosis
Volume of the cell increases
Pressure inside the cell increases
Cell bursts as it does not have a cell wall to give it mechanical support

2. Shrinking cells

• If an animal cell is placed in a solution of lower water potential than its contents,
Water moves out of the cell by osmosis
Volume of the cell deceases
Pressure inside the decreases
Cell shrinks (becomes crenated)
 9

STRUCTURE OF A LEAF
 10

TISSUE CELL ADAPTATION Advantages of the Function of

adaptations tissue
Upper epidermis • One cell thick To maximize passage Protective
• Flattened, of light energy to the
transparent cells palisade messopyll

• External walls Waterproof and

covered by a waxy protects cells from
cuticle (cutin) drying up
(dessication) and
infection
Palisade mesophll • Column shaped Increases surface area Main
cells for absorption of light photosynthetic
energy
• Numerous Carry out maximized
chloroplasts photosynthesis
Increases space for
• a reduced carrying chloroplasts
cytoplasm
Spongy msophyll • Irregularly shaped Leave air spaces for Allows gaseous
cells efficient gaseous exchange
exchange
• Few chloroplasts Carry out
photosynthesis (but
lower than in palisade
mesophyll)
Vascular Xylem • No end walls To form a continuos Transports water
bundle • Lignified cell walls tube and mineral salts
Water proofs and
 11

prevents water loss

Phloem along the tube Transports
• Perforated end dissolved organic
plates Allows movement of substances
dissolved organic
substances between
cells
Lower epidermis • One cell thick To maximize passage Protective
• Flattened, of light energy to the
transparent cells palisade messopyll

• External walls Waterproof and

covered by a waxy protects cells from
cuticle (cutin) drying up
(dessication) and
infection
• Guard cells present
Open and close the
• few chloroplasts in stomata
guard cells Carry out
photosynthesis

Guard cells

Guard cells surround the stomata and the control opening and closure of the stomata to allow
gaseous exchange and transpiration. There are numerous stomata on the lower epidermis
than the upper epidermis to reduce transpiration rates.

Carbon dioxide diffuses into the intercellular airspaces through the stomata where it
becomes concentrated before diffusing into the cells to be used in photosynthesis. Oxygen
produced during photosynthesis diffuses into the intercellular airspaces and then out of the
leaf into the atmosphere through the stomata.
 12

NUTRITION

Modes of nutrition

1) autotrophic nutrition

This is a mode of nutrition in which organisms (autotrophs) build up all organic molecules they need
from simple inorganic chemicals. Autotrophs may either be photo-autotrophs or chemo-autotophs.

Photo-autotrophs (holozyphytic)
These are organisms which have chlorophyll which absorbs light energy from the sun and
make it available for synthesis of their organic molecules. e.g green plants, algae, and some
bacteria carry out photosynthesis to make their own food.

Chemo-autotrophs
These are bacteria which derive energy from chemical reactions involving simple, inorganic
compounds. This energy is then used to build up their organic substances.

2) heterotrophic nutrition

In this mode of nutrition, organisms use the complex organic molecules made by autotrophs
as food. e.g. - herbivores eat plants as food
- carnivores eat other animals as food
- omnivores eat both plants and animals as food
- parasites depend on their host for nutrition
- saprophytes use decaying matter as their source of nutrition

NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Photosynthesis
This is a process by which plants make their own food using light energy from the sun.
Word equation

Carbon dioxide + water light energy glucose + oxygen

chlorophyll

Chemical/symbol equation

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

During photosynthesis,

• sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll in the chloroplasts to provide energy for

photosynthesis
• Carbon dioxide combines with water in a chemical reaction to form glucose
 13

• Oxygen is released as a by-product of photosynthesis and it diffuses into the

airspaces and out of the leaf through the stomata.
• Glucose molecules join in a chemical reaction to form starch

Light energy from the sun changes to chemical energy stored in the starch.

Uses of starch produced during photosynthesis

• Broken down to glucose which is used in respiration to give energy

• Synthesisis of cellulose which is used to build new cell walls ( or to thicken existing ones )
• Synthesis of proteins, fats, pigments, etc.

Storage of starch

Starch produced in the leaves may be transported as sucrose in phloem vessels to storage organs such
as

- Seeds
- Fruits
- Tubers
- Rhizomes
- Leaves ( to lower the water potential of the cells)

TESTING FOR PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Testing for starch

Title Investigating if a green leaf contains starch

Aim To test the leaf for starch
Equipment Beaker, dropper, test tube, white tile, Bunsen burner, alcohol, water, iodine
solution, green leaf (from a plant that was exposed to all factors needed for
photosynthesis)
Method 1. Boil the leaf for 2 minutes to kill the cytoplasm, denature enzymes, break
open the cells, and make the leaf permeable to iodine solution
2. Place the leaf in 5 cm3 alcohol inside a test tube and boil the alcohol in a
water bath at 100 oC for 3 minutes to remove the chlorophyll and make
the colour changes clearly visible.
3. Remove the leaf from the boiling alcohol and place it in hot water for 2
minutes to,
- Rinse the leaf
- Soften the leaf
4. Spread the leaf on a white tile ( to set contrast) and add 2 cm3 of iodine
solution to the leaf
5. Observe the colour change
DIAGRAM
 14

RESULTS A blue-black complex forms as iodine solution reacts with starch

Conclusion A green leaf contains starch

Factors affecting photosynthesis

• Water – it is a reactant in photosynthesis and low supplies will mean low photosynthetic
rates

• Light energy from the sun – activates photosynthesis and as its intensity increase the rate of
photosynthesis will go up

• Carbon dioxide – it is a reactant in photosynthesis and low supplies will mean low
photosynthetic rates

• Temperature – affects enzyme activity. Enzymes work best at optimum temperatures . low
temperature deactivate them while denature them.

Limiting factors of photosynthesis

A limiting factor is an external condition that restricts the effect of others. Photosynthesis is
limited by,

• Light intensity

• Carbon dioxide concentration

• Temperature

Only one factor can limit photosynthesis at a time, i.e. it prevents any further increase in the rate of
the reaction.

An increase in light intensity speeds up photosynthesis but only up to a certain point beyond which
any further increase in light intensity has only a small effect or non at all. This might be due to the fact
that the chlorophyll is saturated with light energy and can absorb the light no more. At this point light
intensity is limiting the photosynthetic rate’

An increase in the concentration of the carbon dioxide will increase the rate of reaction limited by
light intensity but also up to a certain point beyond which the increase in carbon dioxide
concentration will not increase the rate any further. Up to this point the reaction would have been
limited by carbon dioxide concentration.

To increase the rate of reaction limited by carbon dioxide, temperature has to be increased. An
increase in temperature will increase enzyme activity and therefore photosynthetic rate. Increased
temperature will increase the rate also up to a certain point beyond which the increase in
 15

temperature will not increase the rate any further. At this point light intensity or carbondioxide
concentration will start limiting the reaction rate.

Investigating the conditions needed for photosynthesis

TITLE Investigating if chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis

Aim To Investigate if chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis
Equipment Beaker, dropper,test tube,white tile,Bunsen burner,alcohol,water,iodine
solution,variegated leaf
Method 1. Boil the leaf for 2 minutes
2. Place the leaf in 5 cm3 alcohol inside a test tube and boil the alcohol
in a water bath at 100 oC for 3 minutes
3. Remove the leaf from the boiling alcohol and place it in hot water for
2 minutes
4. Spread the leaf on a white tile and add 2 cm3 of iodine solution to the
leaf
5. Observe the colour change

Diagram

Results The green patches turn blue-black while the white patches remain white.
Conclusion Chlorophyll is needed for photosynthesis

Title Investigating if carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis

Aim To Investigate if carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis
Equipment Two destarched plants, two jars, sodium hydroxide solution (absorb CO2),
sodium hydrogen carbonate (produces CO2), starch testing equipment
Method 1. Take two de-starched plants and place one under a jar with a small dish of
sodium hydroxide (soda lime) and place the other plant under a jar with a
small dish of sodium hydrogen carbonate
2. Leave the jars in a well lit sunny place for a day.
3. Test the leaf from each plant for starch
 16

Diagram

Results The leaf from the jar with sodium hydrogen carbonate turns brown with
iodine solution while the leaf from the jar with sodium hydroxide remains
brown with iodine solution.

Title Investigate if light needed for photosynthesis

Aim To investigate if light needed for photosynthesis
Equipment Aluminum foil, green leaf still attached to a tree, starch testing equipment
Method 1. cover some part of the leaf with aluminum foil for a day
2. remove the leaf from the plant and test it for starch
Diagram

Results The part of the leaf covered with aluminum foil stained brown with iodine solution
while the parts that were not covered stained blue-black
Conclusion Light is needed for photosynthesis
 17

Title Investigating if oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Aim To Investigate if oxygen is produced during photosynthesis
equipment Two jars, two de-starched plants, two lit candles
Method 1. place the two plants under separate jars for a day; one in the dark , another in a
well lit place
2. Quickly place the lit candles under the jars
3. Observe what happens
4. Record the results
DIAGRAM
Results The candle placed under the jar in a lit place burns longer than the candle laced in the
jar from the dark
Conclusion Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Title Investigating if oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Aim To investigate if oxygen is produced during photosynthesis
equipment Pond weed ( elodea ), funnel, a test tube, plasticine for support, glowing splint
Method 1. arrange the apparatus as in the diagram and leave them in a well lit place for a day
2. lower the glowing splint in the test tube containing the gas collected
DIAGRAM

Results The gas relights the glowing splint

Conclusion Oxygen is produced during photosynthesis

Adaptations of leaves to carrying out photosynthesis

• Thin leaves – this reduces the diffusion distance for carbon dioxide from the airspaces to the
palisade mesophyll for the process of photosynthesis

• Presence of chlorophyll – chlorophyll is the pigment that absorbs light energy from the sun to
activate the process of photosynthesis

• Large intercellular air spaces – allow efficient exchange of gases ; carbon dioxide into the leaf
for photosynthesis and oxygen out to the atmosphere.

• Thin upper epidermis – it is one cell thick to maximize passage of light energy to the min
photosynthetic cells, the palisade mesophyll cells.

• palisade mesophyll underlying the upper epidermis – to maximize absorption of light energy
before it is absorbed by other cells

• thick network of veins – veins are vascular bundles. The network of xylem vessels supply
water needed for photosynthesis to each and every cell
 18

Transport and circulation in plants

Vascular bundles

Transport functions in plans is carried out by two specialized tissues; xylem and phloem. These
tissues form tubes that are collected together in groups to form vascular bundles.

Table : vascular bundles in cross and vertical sections of stem, root, and leaves

Cross section
dicot

stem

root

leaf
 19

Xylem tissue

Xylem tissue transports water (and mineral ions) up the plant from the roots to the leaves.

Adaptation Advantage of the adaptation to water transport

Lignified cell walls • Waterproofs so that water always moves in an upward direction

• Strengthens to withstand outward forces of water moving in the

vessels and supports the plant

Elongated tubes To transport water from roots to distant parts like leaves

Hollow tubes To create free passage for water

Highly branched at To supply water to each and every cell in the canopy
the canopy

Has pits To allow water to leave the vessel to neighbouring cells

Uses of water by plants

• Reacts with water to form carbohydrates in photosynthesis

• To cool the plant as a result of transpiration
• A medium for chemical reactions in cell
• Dissolving substances transported in vascular bundles
• Keeping cells firm and turgid giving plants shape

TRANSPIRATION

This is loss of water vapour from stomata of leaves.

Factors that affect that affect the rate of transpiration

a) Temperature

High temperature increase the average kinetic energy of water molecules in a leaf. Diffusion of water
vapour into the intercellular air spaces and out of the stomata becomes faster and transpiration rates
go up. The higher the temperature the higher the rate of transpiration.

High temperatures also reduce the relative humidity in the air thus lowering the water potential of
the atmospheric air as compared to the inside of the leaf. Water vapour then difusses from a region of
its high concentration inside the leaf to a region of its low concentration in the atmosphere through
the stomata. The steeper the water potential gradient the higher the rate of transpiration.

b) Humidity

Low humidity in the air reduces the water potential of the atmosphere and increases the water
potential gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere thus increasing the rate at which water
diffuses from inside the leaf to the atmosphere. The higher the humidity the lower the rate of
transpiration.
 20

c) Wind

As wind blows it carries away moisture around the leaf thus lowering the water potential of the
atmospheric air as compared to the inside of the leaf. Water vapour then diffuses from a region of its
high concentration inside the leave to a region of its low concentration in the atmosphere through the
stomata. The stronger the wind the higher the rate of transpiration.

d) Light intensity

Stomata open in response to light and allow transpiration to occur. In dim light they open a little and
they become fully open in bright light. The higher the intensity the larger the rates of transpiration. At
night stomata close and transpiration stops.

The process of transpiration

Water vapour diffuses from stomata of leaves into the atmosphere down a water potential gradient.
The loss of water at the leaves creates an upward pull on water in the xylem called transpiration pull.
Water is pulled upwards along the xylem in a continuous column and not as droplets as its molecules
have high cohesive forces holding them together (or has high tensile strength). This process of water
movement through xylem is called transpiration stream. As the leaves lose water vapour , more
water is absorbed from the soil though osmosis by root hair cells.
 21

Adaptation of plants to reducing transpiration and water loss

1. Reduced leaf surface area – some plants have small surface areas with few stomata from
which transpiration can occur, eg pinus

2. Sunken stomata – some plants have stomata sunken in pits. Water vapour is trapped in the
pits and this helps to lower the water potential gradient between the intercellular airspaces
and the atmosphere thus reducing transpiration. E.g. oleander.

3. Hairs around the stomata – these help to trap moist air, lowering the water potential
gradient between the intercellular airspaces and the atmosphere thus reducing transpiration.
Marram grass

4. Rolling of leaves

Rolled leaves trap moist air, lowering the water potential gradient between the intercellular
airspaces and the atmosphere thus reducing transpiration.

5. Closure of stomata during the day – as stomata open in response to light some plants open
their stomata at night and keep them closed during the day to reduce transpiration.

6. Thick waxy cuticles – these prevent evaporation from leaf surfaces thus reducing water loss

7. Leaf fall – leaves fall in severely dry periods so no transpiration can occur.

Importance of transpiration to plants

• Cools plants – as water lost through transpiration evaporates from the leaf surface it carries
away with it thus cooling the plant

• Supplies water for photosynthesis – as water is lost through transpiration, a transpiration

pull is created which pulls water up to the leaves to be used in photosynthesis

Measuring rates of photosynthesis

The potometer

These are apparatus used to measure how much water has been lost by a plant shoot during
transpiration.
 22

The photometer gives an idea of how much water has been lost due to transpiration as some of
the water may be used,

• in photosynthesis

• to keep cells turgid

• provide medium for chemical reactions in cells

Phloem tissue

Adaptation Advantage of the adaptation to water transport

Has numerous chloroplasts For production of energy during respiration used in active
transport of dissolved organic substances

Has companion cells For production of energy used in active transport of dissolved
organic substances

Elongated tubes To transport dissolved organic substances from roots to distant

parts like leaves

Highly branched at the canopy To supply dissolved organic substances to each and every cell in
the canopy

Translocation

This is transport of dissolved organic substances through the phloem. There is a mass flow of organic
substances dissolved in water up and down the plant from the leaves to the roots and from storage
organs such as roots to the leaves. The main substances translocated in phloem is sucrose. Other
substances translocated include amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol.
 23

NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

Balanced diet
 24

This is a meal containing all food nutrients needed by the body in the right proportions.

It contains the right amount of ;

- Carbohydrates
- Fats
- proteins
- Minerals
- Vitamins

The diet must also have cellulose/roughage and water.

Carbohydrates ( 17Kj)

They include starch and sugars and are the chief energy sources. They are organic compounds
containing the elements;

- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Oxygen

Their basic formula is (CH2O). “n” – indicates the number of carbons, hydrogen and oxygen. There are
three main groups of carbohydrates;

- Monosaccharides
- Disaccharides
- Polysaccharides

Monosaccharides

Are basic building units of complex carbohydrates. Carbohydrates which contain 6 or fewer carbons
are monosaccharides. E.g. glucose ( C6H1206), fructose, galactose.

Characteristics

- water soluble

-sweet to taste

-white crystals in solid state.

Dissaccharides

Built up from 2 simple sugar molecules e.g. sucrose, maltose and lactose.

In the formation of a disaccharide molecule, 2 simple sugars lose a molecule of water ( condensation
reaction )as is shown in the equation below,

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 C12H22011 + H2 O

(Maltose)

Glucose + glucose maltose

 25

Glucose + fructose sucrose

Glucose + galactose lactose

These are reversible condensation processes that are catalysed by specific enzymes. E.g.

Sucrose + water glucose + fructose

Lactose + water glucose + galactose

Condensation is a reaction in which two or more molecules combine to form a larger molecule with
elimination of of one or more molecules of water.

Characteristics

- water soluble

- sweet(er) to taste

- white crystals in solid state

- diffuse more slowly than monosaccharides

POLYSACCHARIDES

Are made of many joined glucose molecules. General formula : C6H2O5)n where n is usually a large
number between 200 and 500. each link formed between two monosaccharides results in loss of one
molecule of water. Common examples include:

- Starch
- Cellulose
- Glycogen

Characteristics

- Water soluble

STARCH

It is the storage form of glucose in plants.

CELLULOSE

Found in plant cell walls. It is permeable to water, salts and other solutes.

In mans diet cellulose provides roughage which

- Makes food bulky and activates peristalsis in the gut enabling movement of food
- Prevents constipation
- absorbs water and makes faeces watery

LIPIDS [(fats and oils), 39 kJ/g ]

 26

These organic compounds made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen but the amount of
oxygen is low.

Each fat molecule made up of two parts;

- glycerol
- fatty acids

a fat molecule is made of 1 glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid molecules.

different fats contain different fatty acids. Glycerol and fatty acids are linked together by
condensation. Fats are split by hydrolysis, that is addition of water.

Fats are made of two types ;

- Saturated fats
- Unsaturated fats

A saturated fat cannot take in any more hydrogen atoms whereas an unsaturated fat can take up more
hydrogen atoms. Animal fats are mostly saturated.

Sources : butter, meat, cooking oil, nuts

Dietary importance

- Energy store for the body

- Insulates the body
- Can be used in respiration
- Building up of cell membrane (lipo-proteins)
- Lubricates movable joints
- Source of fat soluble vitamins A,D,E and K.

PROTEINS ( 20 kJ/g )

Are made of the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some proteins may also contain
sulphur. A protein molecule is made up many smaller molecules called amino acids linked together in
chains.

Amino acids are first linked together to form small chains called polypeptides. Several polypeptides
are joined together to form a protein molecule. The linking takes place by condensation.

Above 40 OC protein molecules change shape and are said to be denatured. Proteins are body
building nutrients found in meat, beans, fish, eggs.

Dietary importance

- Growth
- Repair of worn-out tissues
- Making of enzymes

Vitamin Source Deficiency

 27

A (retinol) Liver, cheese, butter, milk, eggs, • Poor night vision (night
carrots blindness)
C ( ascorbic acid) Citrus fruits, ,fresh vegetables • Scurvy ( bleeding under the
skin)
• Swollen and bleeding gums
• Poor healing wounds
D Butter, cheese, eggs yolk, liver • rickets

Mineral Sources Functions Deficiency

Iron Liver, eggs Formation of haemoglobin aneamia

Iodine Iodated salt Forms thyroxine, a hormone goitre
produced in the glands of the neck
Calcium Eggs, milk, cheese Formation of strong bones rickets
phosphorus Potatoes, fresh Formation of strong bones rickets
vegetables

WATER

Water is a universal solvent in all living systems. It is used in,

• cellular chemical reactions of cells

• a medium for dissolving substances
• transporting dissolved substances around the body

SPECIAL DIETARY NEEDS

Pregnancy

A developing embryo needs protein for development of its tissues, calcium and vitamins for bone
development and iron for formation of haemoglobin. A pregnant woman therefore needs to increase
intake of food ( diet) rich in the nutrients to meet the body’s needs.

Lactating mothers

Lactating mothers need a diet adequate in proteins, vitamins, minerals to produce enough quality
milk to meet the baby’s needs.

Growing children

Children need an extra intake of calcium for growing bones, iron for red blood cells, vitamins for
resistance against disease and protein for developing muscles. They require more energy because
they are still growing and more active than adults.

ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

Energy requirements depend on

• activity ( occupation or exercise )

• age
• sex
 28

Basal metabolism

This is the amount of metabolism required to keep a person alive e.g. maintaining heart beat, brain
functions, breathing and producing body heat. Metabolism is driven by energy from respiration.
These energy requirements differ from males to females and reduces as one gets older.

FOOD TESTS

TEST METHOD RESULTS

IODINE TEST 1. Crush 1g of food sample in 2cm3 of water Positive test results: blue-black colour
(Test for starch) 2. Add 1cm3 iodine solution to the sample
3. Observe and record the results Negative test results: brown colour
BENNEDICTS TEST 1. Crush 1g of food sample in 2cm3 water Positive test results: green, yellow, orange,
(Test for reducing 2. Add 1cm3 of Benedicts solution to the red brown colours
sugars) extract in a test tube
3. Heat the mixture by placing the test tube Negative test results: blue colour
in a beaker of boiling water
BUIRET 1. Crush 1g of food sample in water Positive test results : purple colour
(Test for protein) 2. Add 5cm3 of sodium hydroxide to the Negative test results : blue
extract in a test tube
3. Add 5cm3 of dilute copper sulphate to the
test tube
4. Observe and record the results
EMULSION / 1. Crush the food sample in ethanol Positive test results : white suspension
ETHANOL TEST 2. Filter and pour filtrate in water Negative test results : colourless mixture
(Test for fats) 3. Observe and record the results

ENZYMES

Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions in the body. They are biological catalysts that
are made in the in the cells.

Enzymes are involved in two types of reactions :

1. Anabolic reactions

In these types of reaction enzymes build up large complex molecules from simple ones, the process
called anabolism. e.g.

- two glucose molecules can be joined form maltose

- amino acids can be joined to form peptides.
 29

2. Catabolic reactions

Large molecules can be broken down into small, simple ones. The process is called catabolism. e.g.

- amylase can break down starch to maltose molecules

- lipase breaks down fats to fatty acids and glycerol
- pepsin breaks down proteins to peptides

The molecule on which the enzyme acts is called the substrate and the molecules formed during the
reaction are called products. During a reaction the enzyme binds to the substrate at its binding site to
form an enzyme-substrate complex.

Properties of enzymes

Enzymes are,

1. all proteins
2. sensitive to temperature
3. pH specific
4. Substrate specific
5. Are catalysts
 30

1. Enzymes are proteins made of molecules with a very precise three dimensional shape,
containing a cleft called the active site

2. sensitive to temperature

- Enzymes work best at their optimum temperatures, the temperatures at

which activity is highest. Optimum temperature for most enzymes is 40 0c.
- temperatures above 40 0c cause the three dimensional shape of the enzymes
to change and they are then said to be denatured. They can no longer
catalyse reactions as the substrate cannot fit in the active site which has
changed shape. The change is irreversible.
- Very low temperatures deactivate enzymes making then incapable of
catalyzing reactions but once the temperatures are increased activity is then
restored.

3. pH specific
Most enzymes have an optimum pH close to pH 7, which is the normal intracellular pH.
Extracellular enzymes have different pH requirements, e.g. pepsin works best in highly acidic
conditions in the range of pH 1-2.
At extreme values of pH, away from optimum, the enzyme molecule can change shape as the
forces holding the molecule together become weakened and it becomes denatured.
 31

4. Substrate specific
Enzymes work only on one kind of a substrate. The enzyme will only catalise the substrate
whose binding site is specific to its active site e.g. amylase digest starch only but not
substrates like fat or protein.

5. Are catalysts
Enzymes only speed up metabolic reactions but are not used up or altered during the
reactions.

ENZYMES AND THE LOCK AND KEY HYPOTHESIS

The lock and key hypothesis helps to explain the way enzymes function. The lock is the
substrate while the key is the enzyme. Enzymes are the substrate specific just like the key
fits into specific lock. During catalysis, the binding site of the substrate fits with the active
site of the enzyme to form an enzyme –substrate complex just as a key and the lock fit to
make the lock and key combination. The enzyme catalises the breakdown or bonding of
substrates to form end products just like the key turns the lock mechanism to form a new
configuration in the lock. Enzymes are not altered in chemical reactions just as the key turns
the lock mechanism and remains unchanged.

Human digestive system

Digestion in humans takes place in the alimentary canal or the gut. Digestion is the process of
beraking down food into simple soluble substances that can be absorbed into the
bloodstream. There are two forms of digestion in the gut,

1. Physical digestion

This is the process of breaking food down into smaller pieces to increase their surface area
for easier digestion by enzymes. E.g.
o Chewing by action of teeth
o Emulsion of fats by bile
o Peristalsis by stomach walls as they churn food
into chyme

2. Chemical digestion

This is the breakdown of food by action of enzymes. E.g. starch digestion by salivary amylase.
 32

The human alimentary canal

In the mouth

This is where digestion begins. The process of taking food into the mouth is called ingestion.

Food is broken down into smaller pieces by teeth, to increase their surface area for
easier digestion by enzymes
Food is mixed with saliva secreted by the salivary glands and rolled into a bolus by
the tongue. Saliva contains,
• Mucus which lubricates food for easy swallowing
• Salivary amylase digests starch into maltose

The process of chewing, mixing food with saliva and rolling it into a bolus is called
mastication.

The bolus is then swallowed.

The process of swallowing

• the tongue presses upwards and back against the roof of the mouth, forcing the bolus
to the back of the mouth
• the soft palate closes the nasal cavity at the back
• the larynx cartilage round the roof of the windpipe is pulled upward so that the
glottis (opening of the windpipe) lies under the back of the tongue
• the glottis is also partly closed by contraction of a ring of muscle
 33

• The epiglottis helps to prevent food from going down the windpipe instead of the
gullet
• Swallowing begins voluntarily but once food reaches back of the mouth swallowing
becomes an involuntary reflex action

The bolus then moves down the esophagus/ gullet

In the esophagus

Food moves down the oesophagas by peristalsis. Peristalsis is rhythmatic contraction and
relaxation of muscles of the esophagus.

When the circular muscles above the bolus contract, the radial muscles relax making that
region of the oesophagas narrow thus pushing the bolus down. Contraction of the radial
muscles and relaxation of the circular muscles just below the bolus make that region wide
thus allowing the bolus to move downwards.

Contraction in one region of the esophagus is followed by another contraction just below it so
that a wave of contraction passes along the oesophagus pushing food in front of it.

Food then enters the stomach.

In the stomach

The stomach is acidic, at pH 2. This pH is due to hydrochloric acid that is present in gastric
juice secreted by the walls of the stomach. This is an optimum environment for action of
proteases, enzymes that digest proteins.

• pepsin digests proteins into peptides

 34

To prevent self digestion by proteases and corrosion by the hydrochloric acidic,

pepsin is secreted in an inactive form called pepsinogen and only becomes active in
hydrochloric acid in the stomach
walls of the stomach are covered by mucus which is not digested by the proteases

While in the stomach the food is churned into a creamy mass called chime. The pyloric
sphincter muscle opens at intervals to allow small quantities of chime to pass into the
duodenum.

At the duodenum

Bile from the gall bladder is secreted into the duodenum to,

Neutralize acidic chime for optimum action of lipase, p. amylase, maltase and trypsin

Emulsify fats and increase their surface area for easier digestion by lipase.
The pancreas also secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains,

pancreatic amylase which digests starch into maltose

trypsin which digests peptides into amino acids
lipase which digests fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol are the end products of digestion and are
absorbed at the ileum.

At the ileum

This is where digestion ends. The walls of the Ileum secrete intestinal juice which contains
maltase which digest maltose into glucose, sucrose which digests sucrose into glucose and
fructose which digests fructose into glucose.

Glucose and amino acids are absorbed into the bloodstream

Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into the lymphatic system ( but are later
poured back into the bloodstream)

Adaptations of the ileum for absorption

• long to present a large surface area for absorption

• Has millions of villi to increase surface area for absorption
• Has a network of capillaries for efficient absorption and transportation

Structure of villi
 35

Adaptations of villus for absorption

Has,

microvilli to increase surface area for absorption

a network of capillaries for efficient absorption and transportation
a one cell thick epithelium creating a short diffusion distance for absorbed
substances

numerous villi increase the surface area for efficient absorption

The undigested remains pass into the colon.

In the colon

water is absorbed from undigested food remains most of which is cellulose

The food remains are now called faeces. The faeces move into the colon.

In the rectum

it is a temporary storage of faeces

Faeces are then expelled from the body through the anus in a process called egestion or
defication.

Role played by the liver in digestion

 36

Amino acids and glucose from the ileum are transported to the liver by the hepatic portal
vein. The liver

Regulates blood sugar

converts excess glucose to glycogen with the help of insulin secreted by the
pancreas when blood glucose levels are high
stores glycogen
converts stored glycogen to glucose with the help of glucagon secreted by
the pancreas when glucose levels in blood fall below normal
deaminates excess amino acids into UREA and glycogen. Urea is later excreted by the
kidneys

Apart from acting on the products of digestion, the liver also

breaks down dead red blood cells to produce pigments bilirubin and bile.
Bile is then stored in the gall bladder
Stores iron from the break down of red blood cells
breaks down used hormones
stores fat soluble vitamins e.g. vitamin A and D
manufacture of blood proteins e.g. fibrinogen
detoxification of harmful substances e.g. drugs are converted to harmless
substances before being excreted while hormones are converted to inactive
compounds so limiting their activity in the body

Assimilation

This is the process of utilising the end products of digestion.

Glucose is oxidized to release energy

Amino acids are used in protein synthesis
Fatty acids and glycerol are used in synthesis cell membranes and cytoplasm or can
be oxidized to release energy
 37

The circulatory system

It is made of
• The heart
• Blood vessels
• Valves
• Blood

The heart

Function

To pump blood around the body.

 38

The cardiac cycle

This is contraction of the two atria followed by contraction of the two ventricles, and
relaxation. It is made of
• Systole - contraction of ventricles
• Diastole – relaxation of the ventricles

Circulation

Blood passes twice through the heart in one complete circulation. This is called double/dual
circulation. Dual circulation is made of,

• Pulmonary circuit
• Systemic circuit

Pulmonary circuit

The right ventricle pumps blood through the pulmonary circuit.

The right atrium receives blood from the vena cava. From the right atrium, the blood flows
into the right ventricle. Most of the ventricular filling is passive and the atrium contracts
(diastole) to add a little more blood to the ventricular volume just at the end of the period of
filling. The right ventricle contracts (systole) and pumps blood into the pulmonary artery,
which transports blood to the lungs. The pulmonary vein returns oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left atrium.

Summary

Heart lungs heart

 39

Systemic circuit

The left ventricle pumps blood through the systemic circuit.

The right atrium receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary vein. From the left atrium
blood enters the left ventricle. Just like in the right hand side of the heart, most of the
ventricular filling is passive and the atrium contracts to add a little more blood to the
ventricular volume just at the end of the period of filling. The left ventricle is more muscular
than the right ventricle and it contracts with a large force to pump oxygenated blood at a
high pressure into the aorta to start circulation throughout the body and eventually back to
the right atrium.

Summary

Heart body heart

Differences between pulmonary and systemic circuit

Pulmonary Systemic

pressure low high

Direction of blood flow Heart to lungs to heart Heart to body cells to heart

Blood quality Low ( contains carbon dioxide High ( contains digested food in
and digested food in low high concentrations and
concentrations. oxygen)
 40

Plan of the main blood vessels in the human body

Blood vessels

These are tubes within which blood flows round the body. they are of three types

• Arteries
• Veins
• Capillaries

Arteries

Function
 41

• carry oxygenated blood from the heart to body parts ( except the pulmonary artery
that carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs)

Description

• Thick muscular walls with thick elastic fibres to withstand the high pressure of blood from
the heart

• Narrow lumen

Structure

Veins

Function

• carry deoxygenated blood from body parts to the heart ( except the pulmonary vein that
carries oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart)

Description

• thin muscular walls with thin elastic fibres

• wide lumen
• have valves

Structure

Capillaries

Function
 42

• allow exchange between blood and tissue fluid. They distribute useful substances to body
cells and remove waste material from cells

Description

• walls are one cell thick

• walls are partially permeable

Structure

Pulse

Pulse is a result of contraction and relaxation of the elastic walls of arteries due to high pressure
generated when ventricles contract.

There is no pulse in veins as blood moves at low pressure.

Pulse rate

This is the number of heart beats per minute.

Effect of exercise on pulse rate

• increases pulse rate

This happens because,

the heart beats faster
more blood is pumped to the muscles
more glucose and oxygen are transported to the muscles
respiration increases
more energy is released for the exercise

Coronary heart disease

This is disease caused by blockage/occlusion of the coronary artery which supplies the heart muscle
with oxygen and glucose. If the coronary artery is blocked the cardiac muscle suffocates and the heart
may stop beating and one suffers from heart attack.

Coronary artery may be blocked by,

a fatty substance called artheroma that gets deposited in the

arteries
a blood clot called thrombus which forms when the surface of the
artheroma becomes rough causing platelets to initiate blood
clotting

Factors contributing to heart disease

1. Fatty diet – cause risk of fat and cholesterol deposit in arteries

2. smoking – nicotine in tobacco smoke roughness the lining of arteries and promotes fat and
fibrin deposition
3. lack of exercise – exercise helps to burn fats and reduce the risk of heart attack
 43

4. Stress – high stress levels lead to high blood pressure. High bllod pressure increases the risk of
heart attack
5. Heredity – one can be born with the tendency of heart attack
Preventative measures of heart attack

Avoid smoking
Avoid fatty diet
Exercise regularly
Avoid or deal with stress

BLOOD

Blood is made of

• Plasma

• Red blood cells( erythrocytes)

• White blood cells

• Platelets

BLOOD PLASMA

This is a pale yellow liquid made up of water (90%) and different substances dissolved in it;
eg;

- Dissolved food substances;

Glucose
Amino acids
Mineral salts
vitamins
- Blood proteins;
Fibrinogen
Enzymes
Antibodies
Hormones
Albumin

- Excretory products;
Urea
Carbon dioxide
 44

FUNCTIONS

• Transports dissolved and floating substances around the body

• Distributes heat around the body

BLOOD CELLS

1. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

Characteristics

• minute, disc-like and biconcave shaped cells

• does not have a nucleus.

• Contain a red pigment called haemoglobin.

Function;

• transport oxygen around the body. Haemoglobin binds with oxygen as blood passes
through the lungs to form oxy-haemoglobin.

2. White Blood Cells

Function

• to fight against diseases- causing micro-organisms

There are two type of white blood cells;

 45

• Phagocytes
• Lymphocytes

Phagocytes

Characteristics

• have irregularly shaped nucleus to enable them to change shape to be able to squeeze
through capillary walls

Function

These cells defend the body by a process called phagocytosis;

Phagocytosis

1) phagocyte migrates towards a pathogen

2) pathogen attaches to the phagocyte
3) phagocyte engulfs (surrounds)the pathogen
4) phagocyte releases digestive enzymes that digests pathogen
5) useful material from pathogen is absorbed and waste is excreted

Lymphocytes

Characteristics

• These have a large nucleus covering more than ¾ of the cell area.

Function;

• Produce antibodies that

o Clump pathogens for easy phagocytosis

 46

o Neutralize toxins produced by pathogens

3. Platelets

Characteristics

• small pieces or fragments of cells produced by the red bone marrow.

• Made of cytoplasm surrounded by cell membrane

• No nucleus

• Irregularly shaped

Function

• Help in blood clotting.

Blood clotting

When a blood vessel is cut or damaged, the platelets produce some substance (enzyme) that
converts the soluble fibrinogen into fibrin which is insoluble in blood plasma;

o Fibrin fibres form a mesh which trap red blood cells and platelets which becomes a blood
clot.
o The blood clot
stops the bleeding.
Prevents entry of pathogens

The blood clot eventually dries and hardens to form a scab which also prevents entry of pathogens.

TRANSFER OF MATERIALS BETWEEN CAPILLARY AND TISSUE FLUID

Arterial blood pressure in the capillaries forces part of blood plasma through the capillary walls. This
fluid is not blood nor plasma, but tissue fluid. It lacks proteins and red blood cells. Tissue fluid
surrounds and bathes every living cell. It contains glucose, oxygen, amino acids, glycerol, vitamins and
minerals which diffuse into the cells
 47

It also contains waste chemicals such as carbon dioxide, water, ammonia and used hormones which
diffuse from cells at the venous end where pressure is low. Most of the tissue fluid then passes back
into the capillary while some enter the blind ending thin walled vessels called lymphatics.

BLOOD RELATED DISEASES

• ANAEMIA
• LEUKEMIA
• MALARIA
• HIV/AIDS

1. ANAEMIA

Anaemia is a condition in which a person’s blood has reduced ability to carry oxygen around the
body due to;

a) insufficient (reduction in number of Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)

b) reduction in the amount of haemoglobin contained in the red blood cells.

Types of Anaemia;

• Deficiency Anaemia
• Sickle Cell Anaemia

Deficiency anaemia

Cause; lack of dietary iron of Vit B12. Lack of iron results in less amount of haemoglobin in red blood
cells, this makes them (RBCs) less efficient in transporting Oxygen

Iron is needed to make haemoglobin; ie, somebody who is iron difficient will have;

less haemoglobin and this will in turn

reduce the number of red blood cells in the person’s blood
 48

This means less oxygen will be carried around the body in the blood
Less oxygen supply to cells for respiration
low rate of respiration in cells
less energy released in body cells and that is why an anaemic person always feels
tired/exhausted because of low energy available in his body cells.

SYMPTOMS

1. tiredness
2. dizziness

PREVENTION

Eat food rich in Iron which include; red meat (liver, kidneys…), green leafy vegetables(cabbage,
spinach…), eggs, ground nuts, bread…

Sickle Cell Anaemia

This is a type of anaemia in which a person has an abnormal haemoglobin which give the red blood
cells an abnormal shape of a sickle (agricultural digging tool). With this shape Red blood cells are
inefficient in transporting Oxygen around the body.

Cause; genetic inheritance

2. LEUKEMIA (Blood Cancer)

Cause;

This is the uncontrollable division of leucocytes (white bone marrow cells) due to;

1. Viral Infection
2. Radiation
3. Spontaneous mutation
4. Genetic inheritance

Symptoms/signs;

1. High count of white blood cells

 49

2. Abnormal immature W.B.Cs

3. Anaemic conditions
4. Uncontrollable bleeding (due to fewer platelets)
5. Fever / fatigue
6. Weight loss
7. Bone pain
8. Masses of leukemic cells
9. etc

Treatment;

1. Chemotherapy
2. Radiotherapy
3. Bone marrow transplant
4. Blood transfusion
5. Steroids medication

3. MALARIA

Cause;

♦ Caused by a parasite plasmodium which lives and breeds inside a person’s erythrocytes(Red
Blood Cells) and liver cells. It is transmitted from person to person by female anopheles
mosquito. Plasmodium is an endoparasite, it spends part of its life in the red blood cells of
humans and part of its life in the female anopheles mosquito.

Transmission;

♦ Female anopheles mosquito bites a person who has malaria,

- thrusts its feeding tube(stylet) thru human skin
- injects saliva (that contains anticoagulant) to prevent blood clotting
- sucks up blood that contain plasmodium.
♦ Plasmodium develops and multiplies in the mosquito’s stomach, moves toward the salivary
glands and mouth parts.
♦ Mosquito(infected) bites another person, injecting saliva with plasmodium into the
circulation(red blood cells) of a new victim, plasmodium will then be taken to the liver cells to
reproduce and multiply.
♦ After two weeks daughter cells (plasmodium) break out of liver cells and invade red blood cells to
reproduce more
- then they break out of these cells (destroying them in the process) to
invade new red blood cells… e.t.c.
- Person may suffer from anaemia because of reduction in number of red
blood cells.
 50

Symptoms

1. cold stage
Patient experiences shivering and chattering of teeth that last for two hours

2. Hot stage (fever)

- Patient feels hot (body temp. about 40˚C and above)
- Rapid breathing
- Increased pulse rate
- Headache
This stage lasts 3 to 4hours

3. Sweating stage
- uncontrollable sweating for up to 4hours
- patient feels exhausted/tiredness
- body temperature falls to below normal
Then the cold stage again and cycle continues…

CONTROL OF MALARIA

1. Use of drugs that kill plasmodium in the red blood cells and liver cells
(egs of drugs; quinine,chloroquine and primaquine phosphate)

2. Healthy people may be given preventative drugs(prophylaxis)

3. Use of insecticides (such as DDT, mosquito coils, e.t.c..) to kill mosquito

4. Prevent mosquito from breeding by;

- draining all stagnant water, swamps

- spraying ponds and lakes with oil and insecticides

5. Use biological control to kill mosquito;

- introduce fish that feeds on mosquito larvae, in water bodies

- introduce bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis) that produces a protein which is poisonous to

 51

moisquito larvae.

6. Use mosquito nets and fly gauzes

5. HIV/AIDS

AIDS stands for ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICENCY SYNDROME

Cause; HIV (which stands for HUMAN IMMUNE VIRUS)

EFFECTS; When the virus enters the body, it attacks and destroys T-lymphocytes (CD4-T-cells)
which are part of the body’s natural immune system.
- The virus enters the T-cell
- Virus uses T-cell’s DNA to make energy & reproduce
- T-cell burst open to release thousands of viruses into blood
- Each virus enters a new T-cell, reproduces…
- Number of T-lymphocytes reduces (low CD4 count)
- Number of virus increases (High viral load)
- Less lymphocytes means weak immune system
- Any disease may affect the body and the body may suffer from a collection of many
diseases (syndrome) due to weakened immune system (hence AIDS )

SYMPTOMS/SIGNS

Phase1 (Window Period)

- Point of infection
- Exposure to HIV infection source
- No symptoms
- Virus multiplying but antibodies not yet enough to be detected by HIV test
- Transmission to other people possible

Phase2 (Acute HIV Syndrome)

- 4-8 years after infection

- Symptoms/signs include;

• headache
• fever
• rash
• vomiting
• Whitish fungal patches on mouth/tongue
• Cervical cancer
• diarrhoea
 52

- Enough antibodies produced and can be detected by an HIV test

- Symptoms disappear after few weeks

Phase3 (Latent stage)

- No symptoms

- CD4-T cells decrease in number

(to about 200 CD4 – T cells)

- Viral load increases

Phase4 (Full Blown AIDS)

- Symptoms include;

Swollen glands in neck, armpits, groin, etc…

Persistent night sweating
Persistent tiredness
Persistent cough
White fungal coat on the tongue or mouth
Persistent diarrhoea
Sudden weight loss
Pneumonia
Skin cancer (Kaposi’s sarcoma)
Meningitis
Stiffness of the neck
Mood swing
Loss of awareness to self and environment
Etc…

TRANSMISSION

1. Unprotected sexual intercourse with HIV+ person

2. Blood transfusions
3. Through unsterilised sharp objects (syringed and needles) which illegal drug users share
when administering drugs. Also those used at hospitals.
4. Mother to child transmission through the placenta, as well as through breast feeding.

TREATMENT.

HIV/AIDS has no cure, but a patient can be given a programme of drugs (Anti Retroviral Drugs) to
help him to live longer. Examples of ARVs; AZT, Zidovudine, Dextra Sulphate, etc…

ARVs do not cure HIV/AIDS! but reduce the rate of infection of HIV by;
- Inhibiting protein synthesis in Hiv cells
- Reducing budding of virus from host cell
- Blocking Hiv cells from binding with the CD4 receptors
 53

CONTROL OF AIDS

1. Use of condoms
2. Abstinence
3. Being faithful to one life partner
4. Early treatment and testing
5. Sex education

Respiration

This is the process by which living cells break down glucose to release energy

Respiration is of two types

o Aerobic respiration
o Anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration

This is when glucose is completely oxidised in the presence of oxygen to release energy. It takes place
in the mitochondria.

Word equation

Glucose + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water + ATP

Chemical/symbol equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Anaerobic respiration

This is incomplete oxidation of glucose in the absence of oxygen to release energy. It takes place in the
cytoplasm.

During anaerobic respiration glucose is not completely broken down to carbon dioxide and water but
converted to alcohol (ethanol) or lactic acid. Anaerobic respiration resulting in production of ethanol
is called fermentation. Anaerobic respiration resulting in production of lactic acid takes place in
muscles during vigorous exercise.

Fermentation

Fermentation occurs mainly in yeast cells and is used in beer brewing and bread baking.

Word equation

Glucose alcohol + carbon dioxide + ATP

Chemical equation

C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + ATP

Anaerobic respiration in muscles

During exercise glucose is broken down to lactic acid which builds up in the muscles to give fatigue
(tiredness). This build up results in an oxygen debt created in the muscles.

Word equation
 54

Glucose lactic acid + energy

Symbol equation

C6H12O6 C3H6O3 + ATP

Immediately after exercise one has to continue breathing in deeply to supply oxygen used in the liver
to oxidise the lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water and pay up the oxygen debt.
 55

REPRODUCTION
This is the production of new individuals by one or two parents.
It is of two types:

• Sexual reproduction
• Asexual reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

This is a process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent.

- Offspring also identical to parent

- No sex cells involved

TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Binary Fission Budding Vegetative propagation

1. Binary Fission

This is a method common in unicellular organisms and it involves splitting of a parent cell to form
two identical (daughter) cells. Examples of organisms reproducing by this method;

- Bacteria
- Amoeba
- Yeast
 56

Eg; in Bacteria

2. Budding;

In this type, a new individual organism forms as an outgrowth/bud on the body of an adult (parent)
organism. The bud breaks off and develops as an independent individual. Budding occurs in
Hydra(animal) and Yeast

Eg; In Hydra

SKIP 4 LINES Diagrams!!!!

In Yeast
 57

3. Asexual Reproduction in Plants (Vegetative Propagation)

Plants using this method use vegetative parts (stems, leaves and roots) to reproduce.

a) Stolons; These are horizontal stems that form roots at intervals where a new plant
will form. These stems grow horizontally above the ground.

Eg; in strawberries and some grass species

b) Rhizomes;
These are horizontal underground stems that may give rise to new plants.

c) Stem Tubers As a plant grows, some of its stems grow down into the ground and are used to
store food (from leaves) which make them swollen (hence potato tubers). When the parent dies,
it leaves these tubers in the ground to develop into independent plants.
 58

d) Bulbs; These are short, vertical underground stems with many fleshy modified
leaves. These stems are large buds that store food and can later on give rise to new plants.

Eg. in Onions and lilies

COMMERCIALLY IMPORTANT APPLICATIONS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS;

1. Grafting
2. Stem cuttings
3. Layering
4. Budding
5. Cloning
 59

Grafting: It involves;

a) cutting a branch/twig (scion) from one plant with good, desirable characteristics
b) Inserting the branch into a cut made on the stem/branch of a rooted plant (root stock)
c) Taping the cut surfaces together

For grafting to be successful;

i) Scion and root stock must be from related plant species

ii) Both scion and root stock must have same diameter

iii) their vascular bundles must match so that there is continuous flow of water and organic
subatances between the stock and the scion..

iv) Grease or wax must be applied around the union to prevent water loss and entry of pathogens

This is an appropriate method to propagate rose, fruit trees(eg; grapes) and rubber trees.

Stem cuttings; Involves;

i) Cutting shoots/branches from desirable plants

ii) Cut ends treated with a rooting hormone to promote root development

iii) Place the shoot in the moist soil where roots will develop within two weeks

This is appropriate to propagate sugar cane and some vegetables

 60

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

This process involves fusion of nuclei from two games to form a zygote, and results in the production of
genetically dissimilar offspring from parents.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Flower is a sexual Reproductive Structure in plants, It may contain both the male and female structure
(A plant having such flower
said to be hermaphrodite)

Diagram of flower (Insect pollinated) !!!! Wind pollinated flower

DRAW DIAGRAM

Functions of floral parts

PART Function
1. Sepals Enclose and protect a flower will at bud stage
2. Petals Coloured and scented to attract insects for pollination
May have nectar guides to direct insects to nectar
3. Stamens (male parts) Anther: have 4 sacs in which pollen is made
anther and filament Filament: holds the anther in the best position to release pollen
4. Carpels (female parts) Stigma: receives pollen during pollination
stigma, style and ovary Style: holds the stigma in the best position to receive pollen.
Ovary: produce ovules
Pollination

This is a process involving transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma. There are two types of
pollination;

Self-pollination

Transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower OR to the stigma of another
flower in the same plant.
 61

Cross-pollination

Transfer of pollen from the anther of a flower in one plant to the stigma of a flower of another plant
(of the same species).

Agents of Pollination

These a ways in which pollen is transferred. Pollen can be transferred by insects, small animals
(which feed on pollen and nectar) and wind

Comparison between Insect-pollinated flowers and wind-Pollinated flower

INSECT-POLLINATED FLOWER WIND-POLLINATED FLOWER

1. Large and brightly coloured petals Petals reduced into bracts and dull coloured
2. Scented petals Petals have no scent
3. Contains nectarines (produce No nectarines
nectar) - no nectar guides
- have nectar guides
4. Anthers and stigmas enclosed in Anthers and stigmas hanging outside the flower (to catch
the flower wind with pollen)
5. Small anthers and stigmas Large anthers and stigmas
6. lobed stigma Feathery stigma
7. small amount of sticky/rough Large amounts of smooth, light pollen
pollen made
8. Ovary may contain one or more Ovary contains only one ovule
ovules
 62

FERTILISATION

After pollination, the pollen grain germinates into a pollen tube down the style, thru which a male
nucleus will travel to fuse with the female nucleus (at the ovule) to form a zygote. A zygote will then
develop into an embryo plant.

After fertilisation;

- sepals, petals, stamens and stigmas fall off

- ovary develops into a fruit
. ovary wall hardens and dries up, eg in nuts
. Or it may become fleshy and soft as in apples
- ovules develop into seeds
- food from leaves is stored in cotyledons
- outer layer of ovule grows thick and hard (testa)

SEEDS

Mature seeds can either be endospermic or non-endospermic

Non-endospermic seed
In this seed, the endosperm has disappeared and it is replaced with two cotyledons which store all
the foods substances in the seed, and also produce digestive enzymes.
 63

Functions of parts of non-endospermic seed

1. Hilum
A scar that was left where seed was attached to the fruit. It transported food (from leaves), water and
mineral salts(from the roots) when fruit was attached to main plant.

2. Micropyle
A small opening thru which;
- pollen tube entered the ovule to deliver male nucleus
- Water and oxygen enters the sees during germination
- Carbon dioxide leaves the seed during germination

3. Testa (seed coat)

Outer covering of the seed that protects the seed against;

- fungal infection
- bacterial infection
- excessive loss of water
- physical agents like fire and chemicals in animal guts ( enzymes )

4. Cotyledons
- These are food stores in the seed that also produce and store enzymes.
- Respiration takes place in the cotyledons to release energy for germination

5. Embryo
This was formed from a zygote and is made up of Plumule (which will grow above ground into a
shoot system) and Radicle (grows into the ground and forms a root system)
The embryo germinates into a seedling when conditions are suitable.
 64

Germination

Environmental Conditions For Germination

The following conditions must be present in order for seeds to germinate

Water
Oxygen
Suitable Temperature

Water

Adequate water is needed for

• activate enzymes for the biochemical reactions associated with germination

• dissolve and transport food nutrients in the food stores

• soften the seed coat for emergence of radicle

Oxygen

It is required for aerobic respiration. The energy released is used to drive chemical reactions within
the cells of the embryo during its period of growth.

Suitable Temperature

Gives optimum temperature for maximum enzyme activity.

The Role of Enzymes in Seed germination

• catalyse the oxidation of glucose to release energy for the growing embryo

• catalyses break down of insoluble food into soluble food nutrients

o starch is broken down by amylase to maltose and then maltose to glucose by

maltase

o proteins are broken by proteases to amino acids

 65

Seed Dispersal

This is the scattering of seeds from the parent plant to new sites. After seed development either the
entire fruit or the seed(s) contained within are dispersed from the parent plant.

Advantages of Seed dispersal

I. It reduces chances of competition for nutrients, water, light & space

II. There is also more chance of finding a fresh area to colonize, thus increasing the overall
species population in time. (it promotes plants diversity in different localities)
III.
Disadvantages

I. There is a possibility of not finding a suitable place for germination

Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal.

There are three main external agents (mechanisms) of dispersal, namely;

Animal
Wind
Water
self dispersal

1. Animal Dispersed Seeds

Example

They have hooks or spines with which they attach themselves to the skin, fur or wool
of passing animals and thus carried over some distance before dropping off or being
scratched off. E.g. goose grass, buttercup etc.
Contained in succulent fruits which have edible fleshly parts. E.g. tomatoes,
strawberry, mulberry, wild berries, grapes etc. The fruit is eaten & digested but the
seeds are resistant to digestive enzymes & pass unharmed through the gut of the
animal to be deposited with faeces often on fertile soils.
 66

2. Wind Dispersed Seeds

Example

Parachute- like fruits & seed – seeds of willow herb & the fruit of dandelion have
projecting feathery hairs (parachute-like strutures) which increase their surface
area. As a result, the seeds have increased air resistance and float over long
distances before sinking to the ground. It is therefore likely to be carried a long way
from the parent plant by slight air current.
Winged fruits – Fruits of sycamore & ash trees have wing-like outgrowths from the
ovary walls or leaf-like structures on the flower stalk. These wings cause the fruit to
spin as it falls from the tree & slow down its fall. This delay increases the chances of
the fruit being carried away in air currents.
Pepper pot effect – e.g. poppy has along flower on which hangs a dry hollow capsule
(formed from the ovary) with one / more openings. The wind shakes the flower stalk
and seeds are scattered on all sides through the openings in the capsule

3. Water Dispersed Seeds

Some plants e.g. Coconut have a fibrous ovary wall which enables the fruit to float on
water so that the seed is water dispersed.

4. Self Dispersed Seed

Example;

Explosive fruits – the pods of flowers in the pea family dry up in the sun and shrivel. The tough fibres
in the fruit wall shrinks & set up a tension forcing the fruit to split in half down the lines of weakness,
the two halves curl back suddenly & flick out the seed explosively releasing of seeds from the fruit.
 67

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN MAMMALS

MALE SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Scrotum

• This is a sac of skin that contains the two testes.

• It hangs outside the abdomen (between hind legs), to keep the testes at a temperature lower
than the main body temperature.
• Sperm production (spermatogenesis) taking place in the testes, requires a temperature lower
(2 – 3 ºC) than main body temperature.

Testes have two functions;

1. Production of sperm cells;

Each testis is made of tiny tubes called the seminiferous tubules which produce sperm
cells;
Seminiferous tubules unite to form a 6m coiled tube (epididymis) where sperm
cells are stored.
♦ About 1 million sperm cells produced per day

2. Production of male sex hormone Testosterone

Testosterone is produced by some cells (leydig cells) in the testis
 68

Its functions include;

♦ Development of secondary sexual characteristics in males
♦ Controls production of sperm cells

Sperm ducts These are narrow, muscular tubes ( about 40cm long) forming from the epididymis to
the urethra;

o Sperm cells a transported along these tubes during ejaculation

o Fluid not enough in the sperm ducts for sperm cells to swim
o Sperm cells moved by peristaltic contraction of muscles around the
sperm ducts

Seminal Vesicles and Prostate Gland

♦ Add seminal fluid to sperm cells to make SEMEN

♦ Seminal fluid contains;
1. mucus; - lubricates penis during sexual intercourse,
- sperm cells swim in the mucus (swimming medium)

2. Sugar (Fructose) – Source of energy for the highly mobile sperm

cells

3. Alkaline substances – used to neutralise vaginal acids during sexual

intercourse.
Urethra

Conducts urine and semen at different times thru the penis to the outside
Has sphincter muscles (valves) that closes;
• the bladder-urethra route to prevent urine flow during ejaculation
• the sperm duct-urethra route to prevent flow of semen during urination

Penis
• This is an organ made of spongi, erectile tissue
• Has some blood spaces which fill with blood to cause erection
- In an erect position, the penis deposits sperm cells as high up the female reproductive
tract as possible.

• Its tip (glans penis), when stimulated sends nerve impulses to;

1. Sphincter muscle to close the bladder

2. epididymis and sperm ducts causing them to contract
3. seminal vesicle and prostate gland to release seminal fluid
 69

FEMALE SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

- Draw 2 diagrams (side view and front view) of female reproductive system
- label; ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix, bladder & vagina.

Ovaries
1. Production of egg cells;
- Over 500 egg cells already produced at birth
- One egg cell matures and is released by one of the two ovaries every month starting at
purbety.

2. Production of Female sex hormones

- Oestrogen which ;
• controls development of female secondary sexual
characteristics
• High amounts of oestrogen stimulate ovulation
• Works together with Progesterone to thicken and maintain
inner linning of uterus
- Progesterone;
- produced in the ovaries by a substance called corpus luteum
- maintains inner linning of uterus especially during pregnancy
Oviducts
- An oviduct is a muscular tube about 12cm long that conveys an ovum from ovary to uterus.
- Inner linning of oviducts has small hairy structures (cilia) which sweep the ovum along the
oviducts
- Oviducts also move the ovum by peristalsis
- Fertilization usually takes place in the oviducts

Uterus is a thick-walled organ, 7.5cm long and 5cm wide ( expands 500times during pregnancy),
made of;
Inner layer; soft and spongi layer with some blood vessels
Outer layer; made of muscles which contract during birth (causing labour
pains)
 70

SEX CELLS COMPARED

Ovum
cytoplasm

Cell membrane
Sperm cell

Size Relatively small (0.01mm) Relatively large (0.1mm)

Number Over 1 million per day Over 500 already produced at

produced (after puberty) birth

Mobility Highly mobile (uses tail to swim) Immobile but is moved by cilia
and peristalsis in the oviducts
Life span 72 hours 24hrs

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (Infections)

These are diseases caused by bacteria (Gonorrhoea, syphilis) or viruses (HIV/AIDS, herpes, genital
warts) which is transmitted from one person to another thru unprotected sexual intercourse (with
the infected person).

Gonorrhoea

Cause; It is caused by bacteria (Neisseria gonorrhoeae) which lives and breeds in the linings of
urethra in males and cervix and vagina in females.

Effects; if left untreated, it can cause damages to urinary system, and reproductive systems
(leading to sterility), arthritis, newly born baby may get eye infection during birth.

Symptoms/signs;

In male; In females; 1. yellowish discharge from vagina

1. yellowish discharge/pus from penis 2. inflammation of ovaries, oviducts & uterus
2. pain when urinating
3. inflammation of testicles
 71

Syphilis
Cause; It is caused by bacteria (Treponema pallidum)

Three stages; (after a 3wks window period)

Stage1 (Primary Syphilis) symptoms

- Painless sore (Chancre) appears on vagina/cervix or penis/urethra.

- Sore may also appear on other places like lips, tongue, hands and rectum.
- Very infectious as liquid from sore contains the bacteria
- Sore disappears after 3wks but bacteria(in blood and lymph) continue to move deeper
into the body.

Stage2 (Secondary Syphilis) may take up to 5years

- Bacteria moves to other parts of the body and cause the following symptoms
• Sore may reappear
• Body rash(infectious)
• Patches of hair fall off
• Fever & head ache
• Sore throat
• Red and sore eyes
• Anaemia
• Wt loss

Stage3 (Tertiary/terminal Syphilis)

- May show after 5-10 years
- Bacteria have spread to important organs and caused irreparable damages including;
Damage to liver,
Damages to brain cells leading to meningitis, blindness, paralysis, lack of
coordination, slurred speech, insanity…
Damage to heart valves, blood vessels
May lead to blindness AND DEARTH!!!!!!!

Gonorrhoea and syphilis can be treated by antibiotics (eg; penicillin)

 72

4. HIV/AIDS

AIDS stands for A______________ I________________ D_______________ S_____________

Cause; HIV (which stands for H_______ I________________ V_______)

EFFECTS; When the virus enters the body, it attacks and destroys T-lymphocytes (CD4-T-cells)
which are part of the body’s natural immune system.
- The virus enters the T-cell
- Virus uses T-cell’s DNA to make energy & reproduce
- T-cell burst open to release thousands of viruses into blood
- Each virus enters a new T-cell, reproduces…
- Number of T-lymphocytes reduces (low CD4 count)
- Number of virus increases (High viral load)
- Less lymphocytes means weak immune system
- Any disease may affect the body and the body may suffer from a collection of many
diseases (syndrome) due to weakened immune system (hence AIDS )

SYMPTOMS/SIGNS

Phase1 (Window Period)

- Point of infection
- Exposure to HIV infection source
- No symptoms
- Virus multiplying but antibodies not yet enough to be detected by HIV test
- Transmission to other people possible

Phase2 (Acute HIV Syndrome)

- 4-8 years after infection

- Symptoms/signs include;

• headache
• fever
• rash
• vomiting
• Whitish fungal patches on mouth/tongue
• Cervical cancer
• diarrhoea

- Enough antibodies produced and can be detected by an HIV test

- Symptoms disappear after few weeks

Phase3 (Latent stage)

- No symptoms
- CD4-T cells decrease in number
(to about 200 CD4 – T cells)

- Viral load increases

 73

Phase4 (Full Blown AIDS)

- Symptoms include;

Swollen glands in neck, armpits, groin, etc…

Persistent night sweating
Persistent tiredness
Persistent cough
White fungal coat on the tongue or mouth
Persistent diarrhoea
Sudden weight loss
Pneumonia
Skin cancer (Kaposi’s sarcoma)
Meningitis
Stiffness of the neck
Mood swing
Loss of awareness to self and environment
Etc…

TRANSMISSION

5. Unprotected sexual intercourse with HIV positive person

6. Blood transfusions
7. Through unsterilised sharp objects (syringed and needles) which illegal drug users share
when administering drugs. Also those used at hospitals.
8. Mother to child transmission through the placenta, as well as through breast feeding.
9. Others (controversial) include; saliva, tears, sweat, urine…

TREATMENT.

HIV/AIDS has no cure, but a patient can be given a programme of drugs (Anti Retroviral Drugs) to
help him to live longer. Examples of ARVs; AZT, Zidovudine, Dextra Sulphate, etc…

ARVs do not cure HIV/AIDS! but reduce the rate of infection of HIV by;

- Inhibiting protein synthesis in Hiv cells

- Reducing budding of virus from host cell
- Blocking HIV cells from binding with the CD4 receptors

CONTROL OF STDs

6. Use of condoms
7. Abstinence
8. Being faithful to one life partner
9. Early treatment and testing
10. Sex education
 74

METHODS OF BIRTH CONTROL

These are methods used to prevent unwanted pregnancy;

- used for family planning

- limit number of births (babies)
- used for child spacing
- Used for population control

Methods of birth control may be put into groups;

1. Natural methods

withdrawal

Abstinence Calendar /Rhythm

a) Rhythm method (safe period)

This depends on the woman (and possibly her partner) understanding how her menstrual cycle
works. She should be able to calculate the times at which pregnancy is possible. In addition, the
woman may also observe a slight increase in body temperature when ovulation sets in. (the
temperature rise at ovulation is 0.5 0C) unfortunately the menstrual cycle is always unpredictable
especially in teenagers.

b) Withdrawal method

This depends on the men, who should pull out his penis from the woman’s vagina before
ejaculation. This is however an unreliable method because some semen would have long passed
into the vagina even before complete ejaculation.

2. Mechanical methods

Condom
diaphram IUD

Condoms
a) Male Condom is a thin sheath which is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse to prevent
the sperms from entering the vagina. The penis must be removed cautiously from the vagina
immediately after ejaculation to avoid spillage of sperms.

b) Female Condom is also a thin sheath inserted inside the vagina before intercourse to collect
the sperms from the penis.
 75

Diaphragm (the cap)

A dome shaped device which fits over the cervix to prevent entry of sperms. They come in
different sizes & a woman must be trained how to insert it by a doctor or at a family welfare
clinic. Diaphragms offer more protection when used together with a spermicidal cream. It must
remain in place for sometime after intercourse (about 8 hours), then it can be removed, washed,
dried powdered & kept in a container.

Intra-Uterine Device (IUDs)

IUDs are fitted inside the uterus by a doctor. The IUD touches the wall of the uterus & prevents
implantation of the embryo. The IUD is removed by a doctor by pulling the strings attached to it
which pass though the cervix. IUDs are usually used by women who have already had a child and
they remain effective fro 8 - 10 years.

3. Chemical/hormonal methods

‘Morning after’ Pill

Spermicide depo provera injection

Contraceptive Pill

a) Spermicidal creams

A woman uses an applicant to put spermicides insides her vagina just before intercourse kill
sperms. Spermicides are not very effective on their own & so are often coupled with diaphragms
for back up.

b) The Pill

The contraceptive pill contains one / both hormones oestrogen & progesterone. The
contraception of hormones stops the ovaries from producing eggs. The woman takes the pill
everyday for 21 days of her menstrual cycle. When she stops taking this pill menstruation occurs.
The woman can then begin taking the pill again on day one of her next menstrual cycle. If she
forgets to take the pill for a day then the protection is incomplete & so another contraception
must used until the woman’s menstrual cycle.

c) Norplant

It consists of six capsules which are inserted under the skin in the woman’ arm. It contains
progesterone which prevents ovulation. It is effective 24 hours after insertion and remains
effective for five years. The norplant also thickens the cervical mucus making it difficult fro the
sperm to enter the uterus. It also makes the inner lining o the uterus unsuitable for the fertilized
egg to get implanted.
 76

d) The injection

this contains the hormone progesterone. Once injected into the arm of the woman the hormone is
slowly released into the body for the next 2 – 3 months. The progesterone stops the production of
eggs. Injected contraceptives are useful for women who have difficulties taking the pill or
experience problems with other methods of contraception.

4. Surgical Method (Sterilisation)

It involves a minor operation

• in men it is called Vasectomy; In males the spermducts are tied & cut by a surgeon. The
man can still ejaculate as the ducts are only cut below the seminal vesicles but the fluid
ejaculated will contain no sperms. This prevents the sperms from the reaching the egg.

• in females it is called Tubal ligation). In females the oviducts are tied & cut to prevent the
passage of eggs from the ovaries.

MENSTRUAL CYCLE
 77

The cycle starts with menstruation (days 1-5). Menstruation is the discharge of blood, uterus lining
and a dead ovum through the vagina. Menstruation occurs every 28 days.

A day or two before menstruation stops, the pituitary gland of the brain releases Follicle Stimulating
Hormone (FSH) which triggers follicle development in one of the ovaries.

The developing follicle starts producing oestrogen which repairs the lining of the uterus. It also
triggers the pituitary gland to produce Leutenising Hormone (LH) which stops further development
of follicles but leaves only one to continue developing.

A day before ovulation, oestrogen and LH levels increase rapidly causing the mature follicle ( now
called the Graffian follicle ) to break and release an ovum, a process called ovulation. Ovulation occurs
on day 15.

What remains of the follicle after ovulation turns into the Corpus Leuteum. The Corpus Leuteum
starts producing progesterone which thickens the uterus lining making it ready for implantation.

At day 26 the Corpus Leuteum breaks down and the levels of progesterone fall causing the lining of
the uterus to shrink and break down. Menstruation starts again.

Effect of Diet on Menstrual Cycle

Females are advised to eat food rich in iron as they loose a lot of blood during menstruation. Females
lacking iron miss periods during certain months & some may eventually become anaemic. These kind
of people are normally given iron supplements in the form of tablets & normally advised to eat lots of
green vegetables to gain iron.

Effect of Emotional State on Menstrual Cycle

Anxiety, stress & excitement may result in a female having her menstrual periods earlier than normal.

Fertilization

This is the fusion of the nuclei of the male and female gametes to form a zygote. During fertilization
only one sperm fertilizes the ovum.
 78

Identical & Non-identical Twins (Fraternal twins)

Identical twins

are twins resulting from the separation of one fertilized egg to form two complete
individuals. These individuals may share the placenta & amnion. They also have the same sex
& closely resemble each other in every respect.

Fraternal Twins (non-identical twins)

Results from two different ova fertilized by two different sperms. Each embryo will have its
own placenta & amnion. It is possible that they may be of the same or different sexes & may
not resemble each other.
 79

EMRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

SKIP 6 LINES FOR DIAGRAM

The placenta

It made of tissues of the mother and the embryo and it provides a medium of exchange between the
mother and the embryo. It

• Contains a network of capillaries which provide a large surface area for diffusion and
exchange of substances.

• Is supplied with a lot of blood to supply and carry away substances from the foetus.

Amnion & Amniotic Fluid

The amnion (also called amniotic sac) is a thin membrane covering the embryo & has a protective
function. The sac is filled with a fluid known as amniotic fluid which supports the embryo & protect it
from mechanical shock. As the embryo increases in size the amniotic sac also expands to
accommodate it.

UMBLICAL CORD

It has two blood vessels:

• Umbilical vein – carries oxygenated blood and nutrient to the embryo from the mother
 80

• Umbilical artery - carries deoxygenated blood and metabolic waste from the embryo to the
mother

SPECIAL DIETARY NEEDS OF A PREGNANT WOMAN

A woman needs adequate supply of food

She must eat plenty of nourishing foods, especially proteins for the growing baby
She needs an increased intake of calcium & vitamin D (i.e. in milk) for the formation of strong
bones if the baby
She must have an increased intake of carbohydrates for the energy needed to carry the
growing baby.
She should avoid taking any drug unless seriously necessary & prescribed by a medical
practitioner.
She must also avoid alcohol & smoking as these interfere with the growth of the baby leading
to miscarriage still born or children born underweight.

Advantages of Breast Feeding over Bottle Feeding

Breast milk is ready made & cheap

It is always at right temperature required by the baby
It almost all the required nutrients e.g. proteins, fats, sugar, vitamins & salts in correct
quantities
It contains anti-bodies to any disease from which the mother has recovered
It also carries white blood cells which produce ant-bodies or ingest bacteria
Its free from bacteria
It helps to establish an emotional bond between mother & child.

GENETICS, INHERITENCE & NATURAL SELECTION

GENETICS

• The study of the transmission of genes from one generation to the next

INHERITANCE
 81

• The process through which genes are passed from a parent organism to its offspring.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

CHROMOSOMES

• Compact coils of DNA in a cell’s nucleus that carries the code for the organism’s inherited
characteristics

Chromosomes are two very tightly coiled strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

which are found in the nucleus of the cells, they carry genes.

Each type of organism has a fixed number of chromosomes. In some organism this number is made
up of autosomal (non-sex) chromosomes and sex chromosomes. Humans have 46 chromosomes in
every cell of their bodies, 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes ( X-chromosomes and Y-
chromosome). In females, two X-chromosomes are present while males have one X-chromosome and
one Y-chromosome, Each egg and sperm cell has only 23 chromosomes. When an egg and a sperm cell
combine during fertilization, they produce one cell with 46 chromosomes. Chromosomes are present
in homologous pairs.

Homologous chromosomes

• a pair of chromosomes, one from each inherited parent, that have corresponding gene
sequences and that pair during meiosis.

Homologous autosomes are identical in length, size, shape, and gene sequence. Sex chromosomes are
nonidentical but still homologous. They are joined at the center by a centromere.
 82

Karyotype

The genetic map of an organism.

Human karyotype

Ploidy

• number of sets of chromosomes in a cell.

Haploid

• containing one set of chromosomes.

Diploid
 83

• containing two sets of chromosomes, each inherited from one parent.

Gene

• A segment of DNA on a chromosome that determines a particular inherited trait

Genes are located on chromosomes in the nucleus of a cell. It may be defined as the unit of inheritance
which is passed from parents to offspring. Genes are found along the length of a chromosome. The
chemical which forms the genes is called the DNA.

DNA

• The genetic molecule in a cell’s nucleus that determines the organism’s genetic traits

A DNA molecule consists of large complex molecules made up of smaller molecules of compounds
called nucleotides. A nucleotide consists of;

• A five Carbon sugar (Deoxyribose)

• A base e.g. Thymine, Cytosine, Adenine, Guanine
• A phosphate group

It is the functional unit of chromosomes which determine the individual's characteristics such as eye
colour and nose shape. The genes are arranged along the length of each chromosome like a string of
beads. Each gene controls specific characteristics, but sometimes a characteristic may be controlled
by several genes acting together.

ALLELES

• An alternate form of a gene for a particular trait

 84

• Different pairs of the same gene

• one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that occupy the same locus (position) in
homologous chromosomes.

Each gene can exist in a number of forms e.g. TT, Tt, t t. They are found at the same locus (position)
but on different chromosomes of the homologous pair. Alleles also control alternate characteristics
e.g. Tallness and shortness. In the case of eye colour for humans one allele may be for the blue eyes
and another might be for brown eyes.

Haploid cells can have only one allele of each gene for any particular character. E.g. the gamete may
carry a brown allele or a blue allele. Usually applies to the nucleus of gametes.

Diploid cells have two alleles of each gene. These could be two alleles for blue eyes or two alleles for
brown eyes or" they could have one allele each for blue and brown. Most cells of the body are diploid.

ALLELES AND SYMBOLS

Alleles are usually represented by symbols, letters are generally used. Dominant alleles are used in
the upper case (capital letters) and recessive alleles are used in lower case. In the case of the allele
controlling eye colour in humans, brown eye is dominant to blue eye. So the capital letter B can
represent brown, and small letter b can represent blue

B - brown allele, b - blue allele.

Brown eye and blue eye are two phenotypes.

Their genotype could be as follows:

Phenotype brown eyes blue eyes

Genotype Bb or BB bb

heterozygous Homozygous Homozygous recessive

dominant
 85

LOCUS (Plural LOCI)

• a position occupied by a gene along a chromosome

HOMOZYGOUS

• Possessing two identical genes for the same trait

Will breed true for the characteristics. True breeding means the observable trait is the only form
present in many generations.

E.g. TT – Homozygous dominant (homozygote)

tt – Homozygous recessive

HETEROZYGOUS

• Possessing two different genes for the same trait

Will not breed true for the characteristics. Both alleles are present at a locus.

e.g. Tt

GENOTYPE
 86

• the genetic makeup of an individual.

It is the genotype which determines characteristics. Genotype is controlled by the sequence of bases
in a DNA strand, which controls that characteristic. If both alleles are the same, for example: both blue
and both brown, then the genotype for this characteristic is called homozygous. If the alleles are
different, for example one for each colour, then the genotype is called heterozygous.

PHENOTYPE

• Observable characteristic of an organism .

e.g. Tallness, colour of eyes

TRAIT

• A quality or characteristic which makes one thing different from another.

DOMINANT

• the gene which is always expressed phenotypically when inherited in the heterozygous and
homozygous condition.

In genetic terms, dominant alleles show their characteristics whether their genotype is homozygous
or heterozygous.

RECESSIVE

• the gene which is not expressed phenotypically when inherited in the heterozygous
condition.

The allele whose characteristic does not appear in the organism is called recessive. It suppressed by
the dominant gene. Recessive alleles show their characteristics when their genotype is homozygous.
 87

GENETIC DIAGRAMS

These are used to show inheritance of genes by offspring. They may also be used to determine the
unknown genotype given the known genotype from parents or offspring.

CELL DIVISION

Cell division in living organisms leads to growth and repair or formation of sex cells (gametes). Genes
are passed to the resultant daughter cells from parent cell during division by chromosomes. This
leads to inheritance of parental genes by offspring, hence similarities between the two.

There are two types of cell division:

• MITOSIS
• MEIOSIS

MITOSIS

This is the type of cell division that occurs in ordinary body cells during growth. Mitotic cell division
occurs in stages (namely; Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase). During mitotic division
the daughter cells end up with the same number of chromosomes as their parent cell. The
chromosome number produced is known as the diploid number.
88
 89

Interphase

• synthesis of organelles
• cell increases in size
• DNA replicates
• Chromosomes exist as a pair of chromatids

Prophase

Metaphase
 90

Anaphase
 91

Telophase

Importance of Mitotic division

 92

maintains genetic stability within a population of species

leads to cell multiplication & hence growth of the organism
makes asexual reproduction, regeneration & cell replacement possible

MEIOSIS

This is the type of division that occurs in gonads during gamete formation i.e sperm production
(spermatogenesis) in testes and egg production (oogenesis) in ovaries.. In meiosis division, the
chromosome number is halved i.e a diploid parent cell produces haploid daughter cells. The
chromosome number is therefore known as the haploid number. A diploid parent cell produces
haploid daughter cells

STAGES OF MEIOSIS
 93

Prophase I

Metaphase I

Anaphase I
 94

Telophase I

Prophase II

Metaphase II
 95

Anaphase II

Telophase II

Gene segregation
Separation of genes into different sperms or ova during formation of gametes by meiosis.

Consequences of meiosis
 96

A. Gamete formation.
B. Maintains variation through recombination + independent assortment of chromosomes

Mitosis and meiosis compared

mitosis meiosis

Occurs during cell division in somatic cells Occurs in the final stages of cell division leading to
production of gametes

Resulting cells are diploid Resulting cells are haploid

Chromosomes and genes in each daughter cell are The homologous chromosomes and their genes are
identical randomly assorted between the gametes

Produces individuals genetically identical to each other Produces individuals showing variations from each
and their parents during asexual reproduction other and their parents during sexual reproduction

Gregor Mendel

He investigated inheritance using pea plants. He recorded 7 traits, including color and shape of seeds,
flower color, pod color and shape, height and position of flowers. In his experiments he performed
what is called the monohybrid cross and the dihybrid cross.

MONOHYBRID CROSS (Also called "single-factor inheritance"

This the inheritance of one particular characteristic from parents with different genotypes. Genes or
characteristics that are common among a species are known as wild type while those that occur
rarely as a result of mutations are known as mutant genes
 97

Mendel crossed true breeding parents (P1) and obtained offspring he called first filial generation (F1
generation) . He observed that parents (P1) with pure-breeding strains of red x white flowers
produced all red flowers (F1).

Parent
Phenotype red x white
Genotype RR x rr
Gamates R R r r

F1 genotype Rr Rr Rr Rr
F1 phenotype red red red red
phenotypic ratio; all red
From this example we can make the following deductions:

• Offspring inherit the phenotype of the dominant trait in a cross between true breeds.
• Offspring are carriers of the recessive trait even though it is not expressed.

He then allowed the F1 generation to self pollinate and he obtained the second filial
generation (F2 generation).
Parent
Phenotype red x red
Genotype Rr x Rr
Gamates R r x r r

F2 genotype rr Rr rr Rr
F2 phenotype red red white red
phenotypic ratio; 3 red: 1 white

Mendel discovered that traits could disappear in one generation, only to reappear in another
generation. This illustrates the disappearance of the color white flower in F1 generation and
reappearance in F2 generation. The trait that appeared is dominant while the trait that
disappeared is recessive.
 98

Menedel crossed a true-breeding Tall pea plant and a true breeding short plant where tall is dominant
over short. The allele for this trait is represented by letter T.

From this example the following deductions can be made.

• The appearance of a recessive trait in offspring of two parents bearing the dominant trait
means that both parents are carriers of the recessive allele.
 99

• 75 % of offspring from hybrid cross bear a dominant trait

Example of Monihybrid inheritance ( not Mendel,s work)

In mice the colour of skin is expressed by a single gene. Black colour is dominant while the brown
colour is recessive. The dominant allele for this gene is represented by letter B while the recessive
gene is represented by letter b. A cross between a black mouse and a brown mouse is shown in the
genetic diagram below:

This is an example of a cross between two true breeds (homozygotes). They are also known as wild
types or true –breed.

From this example we can make the following deductions:

• Offspring inherit the phenotype of the dominant trait in a cross between true breeds.
• Offspring are carriers of the recessive trait even though it is not expressed.

Punnet Square

A simple way to predict the relative frequencies of each phenotype is to use a Punnett square,
in which rows represent all possible alleles carried by female gamate and columns represent
all possible alleles carried by male gamate. Then, each cell represents the genotype of the
resulting zygote. Note, that if R and r are equally common in female gamate and male gamate,
then there will be 3 red genotypes and 1 white genotype, or a 3:1 ratio.
 100

Male

Gamete R r

R RR Rr

Female r Rr rr

After many more crosses Mendel suggested that there must be two heritable factors in each
individual, and that these factors (alleles) segregate at random into gametes prior to mating.
This conclusion is known as Mendel's first law: the Law of Segregation.

Mendel also crossed a heterozygous individual from F1 or F2 with a homozygous recessive

individual and obtained phenotypes in the ratio 1:1.

Parent
Phenotype red x white
Genotype Rr x rr
Gamates R r x r r

F1 genotype Rr Rr rr Rr
F1 phenotype red red white white

phenotypic ratio, 2 red : 2 white

Why Observed Ratios Differ From Expected Rations

Observed ratios sometimes differ from expected ratios especially when there are small number of
progeny because

• fertilization between sperm & ovum is a matter of chance, one can never tell whether a B or
b sperm will fertilize a B or b ovum. It is possible that out of six offsprings, only one may have
a certain defect
 101

DIHYBRID CROSS

Mendel also collected data on crosses between strains which differed in two traits.
Example
He crossed a plant with round yellow seeds (SSYY) with a plant having wrinkled green seeds (
ssyy). These ratios are predicted from a Punnett square in which each gamete carries an allele
from two loci. One locus is for seed shape and the other is for seed color. S is dominant to s and
causes round seeds while Y is dominant to y and causes yellow seeds.
Round yellow

SY SY
sy SsYy SsYy
Wrinkled
sy SsYy SsYy
green

F1 generation are all round and yellow (SsYy)

Mendel continued this experiment to the next generation – the dihybrid cross. He self
pollinated individuals from the F1 generation (SsYy).

SY Sy sY sy
SY SSYY SSYy SsYY SsYy

Sy SsYy SSyy SsYy Ssyy

sY SsYY SsYy ssYY ssYy

sy SsYy Ssyy ssYy ssyy

The resulting F1 dihybrid cross produced approximately 9 round yellow, 3 round green, 3
wrinkled yellow and 1 wrinkled green plant (9:3:3:1 ratio).
The tendency for two traits to be inherited independently is known as Mendel’s second law:
the Law of independent assortment.

EXAMPLE 2 ( not Mendel’s work)

In man a certain gene which codes for hair colour either give black or red colour. Another gene results
in either straight or curly hair. Black is dominant over red while curly is dominant over straight.

B – black hair b – red hair

C – curly hair c – straight hair
If a homozygote for black, curly hair is crossed with a homozygote for red, straight hair the genetic
diagram would look as shown below.
 102

F2 genotypes and phenotypes

Phenotypic Ratio: Black, curly: Black, straight: Red, curly: Red, straight

9 : 3 : 3 : 1

Linkage brings exceptions to Mendel's second law.

When genes are located near each other on a chromosomal, they do not assort independently. This
happens in

• Sex linkage
• Color blindness
 103

• Hemophilia
TEST CROSS (BACK CROSS)

The way to discover an unknown genotype of an organism showing a dominant phenotype is by

carrying out a further cross known as the test cross. The test cross is used to determine the
genotype of a dominant phenotype. It always involves crossing of the unknown genotype to the
homozygous recessive. This is the genotype of one the parents in the standard monohybrid cross
and that is why it is also known as Back Cross.

Example 1

An individual with brown eye colour may be B B or B b, therefore the exact genotype is not
apparent from the phenotype, unlike the genotype of a blue eye which can only be from b b. The
exact genotype of the brown eye coloured individual may be determined by crossing of the
unknown genotype to the homozygous recessive.

i.e.

B_ x bb

The outcomes of two possible crosses are shown;

 104

i) Involving genotype BB

Parental Phenotype brown eyed × Blue eyed

Parental genotype BB X bb

Gamates B B × b b

Back cross progeny genotype; Bb Bb Bb Bb

Progeny phenotype; (all brown eyed)

If the unknown genotype is B B, then all the back cross progeny will inherit a B from the parent and
will show a dominant trait (brown)

ii) Involving genotype B b

Parental phenotype Brown eyed × Blue eyed

Parental genotype Bb x bb

Gamates B b × b b
 105

Back cross progeny Genotype; Bb Bb bb bb

Progeny phenotype; 2 Brown eyed and 2 blue eyed

If the unknown genotype is B b; each of the offsprings has 1 in 2 chances of receiving a B and the
same chance for receiving a b.

Therefore on average, the offsprings of a heterozygous and a homozygous recessive show a ratio of:

1 heterozygote: 1 homozygote recessive

PEDIGREEES FOR MONOHYBRID CROSSES

A Pedigree is a record of the ancestry of an individual. A pedigree in the form of a chart can be used to
illustrate the transmission of a heritable condition in a family.

The symbols used in a pedigree chart;

= Normal Male
 106

= Affected Male

= Normal Female

= Affected Female

= Marriage

A marriage with four children, 1 daughter and 3 sons, 1 of whom is affected by the inherited condition
will be shown as follows;

Complete Dominance

The expression of an allele may completely overshadow its alternative form in a homologous pair.
Such an allele will be expressed fully but its alternative form is not expressed. In this combination, the
expressed allele is said to be completely dominant over its alternative form, which is said to be
recessive. A recessive allele will only be expressed in a homozygous combination.
 107

Example

Let a gene coding for eye colour in humans be represented by the letter B.

Then capital letter B shows a dominant allele

While small letter (b) represents a recessive allele

COMBINATIONS

BB gives a black eye colour (homozygous dominant)

Bb also gives a black eye colour (heterozygous)

bb gives a brown eye colour (homozygous recessive)

Therefore an allele shows complete dominance if it is fully expressed in heterozygous combinations

(heterozygotes), while its recessive form is only expressed in its homozygotes.

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE

This sometimes means the same as ' Co-dominance', but strictly it applies to a case where the effect of
a recessive allele is not completely masked by the dominant allele. Heterozygotes show partial
expression the recessive allele. The dominant allele is not fully expressed unless it is paired with
another dominant form, giving a partial expression of the recessive allele. As a result the organism
shows a combined phenotype for that particular gene.

Example 1

In some plants a gene represented with letter R codes for flower colour. R represents the dominant
allele while r represents the recessive allele.

COMBINATIONS
 108

RR gives red flowers (homozygous dominant)

Rr gives pink flowers (heterozygous)

rr gives white flowers (homozygous recessive)

The heterozygotes show an intermediate phenotype.

Example 2

Sickle cell Anaemia:

* It affects haemoglobin in red blood cells.

* It causes the red blood cells to distort when the blood is deoxygenated.

This is an allele in humans which if inherited in the homozygous recessive form gives rise to a
condition called sickle cell anaemia.

a) Normal allele: HbA HbA ( do not have sickle cell anaemia – homozygous dominant)

b) A sufferer: Hbs Hbs ( severe anaemia - Homozygous recessive)

c) Sickle-CelI trait HbA Hbs ( mild symptoms of anaemia - Heterozygous) ( A not completely
dominant over recessive allele, s)

Incomplete dominance in plant species

In a certain plant species (snapdragons), a red flowered individual when crossed with a white
flowered individual, will produce pink flowered offspring. If these flowers are self pollinated, the pink
flowered plants will produce an F2 generation with flowers in the ratio of 1 red: 2 pink: 1 white.

This is incomplete dominance, where the heterozygote produces a condition intermediate between
those produced by the two homozygotes. Neither gene nor allele is completely dominant over the
other.
 109

Parental phenotype red flowed × white flowered

Parental genotype RR X rr

Parental genotype R R × r r

Back cross progeny Genotype; Rr Rr Rr Rr

Progeny phenotype; all red

If the F1 generation self pollinate,

Gametes R r
R RR Rr
r Rr rr

F2 phenotypes

1RR : 2Rr : 1rr

red pink white

CO-DOMINANCE
 110

In some genes, alternative forms in a heterozygous combination are equally dominant,

If both genes in a pair produce their effects in an individual, the alleles are called co-dominant i.e.
none one does not overshadow the expression of the other. As a result, the heterozygote shows an
equal expression of both alleles, giving a combined phenotype.

NB. Incomplete dominance shows an intermediate expression of the phenotype while co dominance
shows equal expression of both alleles without dilutions.

Examples

1. In cows, coat colour is determined by a gene.

Allele R is dominant for red colour while W is dominant for white colour

COMBINATIONS

RR gives a red coat colour (homozygous)

RW gives a coat with read and white patches called Roan (heterozygous)

WW gives a white coat colour (homozygous)

2. In some cases a single characteristic such as blood group in humans is controlled by one gene
which has 3 alleles. They can be represented as follows:

A for blood group A (presence of A - antigen , allele IA codes for A antigens while while. while IO is
recessive to both.

B for blood group B (presence of B – antigen, IB codes for B antigens

O for blood group O (no antigen present ,IO does not produce either of the two antigens)

Alleles A and B are dominant to allele O, Allele IO is recessive to both

Alleles A and B are co-dominant. IA and IB are co-dominant

 111

There are four phenotypic blood groups. A, B, AB, and O. These blood groups are controlled by a
single gene which is normally represented by the letter I. The four blood group phenotypes have the
following genotypes.

Genotype Phenotype
IA IA , IA I0 Blood group A
I B I B, I B I 0 Blood group B
IA IB Blood group AB
I0 I0 Blood group O

Example: a woman with blood group A and a man with blood group B with three children - one with
blood group O, the second child with blood group A and the third one with blood group B. Explain this
pattern of inheritance with a genetic diagram.

Solution:

Parental phenotypes blood group A X blood group B

Parental genotypes
IA I0 x IB I0

F1 genotype

IA IB I BI 0 IA I0 I0I0
Offspring phenotype

blood AB B A O

group
 112

Co-dominance therefore refers to two genes which are pairing in homologous chromosomes with equal strength.
None of them is dominant over the other.

MUTATIONS

A mutation is a sudden change in a gene or a chromosome, which alters the way in which it controls development.

Any change in a gene or a chromosome usually has a harmful effect on the cell in which it occurs.
If the mutation occurs in a gamete, it will affect all the cells of the individual which develops from the
gamete. This will cause the whole organism to be affected.
If mutation occurs in a body cell, it will affect only those cells produced by mitosis from the affected
cells. E g Skin cancer

There are two types of mutations.

1. Gene mutation

A gene mutation changes the sequence of bases. This may result in a change of sequence of amino-acids. These
mutations are small and may involve just one base. The gene will then produce a different type of protein with
corresponding effects in the organism.

Gene mutation involves;

a. Addition
b. Deletions of one or a few base pairs
c. Substitution (rearrangement) of one base pair for another within the gene

2. Chromosome mutations

Chromosome mutations occur during nuclear division. It result in a zygote with too many, too few, or an abnormal
mixture of chromosomes.

112
 113

The changes in the number of chromosomes results from the errors occurring during cell division in both sex cells and
somatic cells. The changes in chromosome number may involve the loss or gain of a single chromosome, a condition
known as aneuploidy.

Chromosomal mutations resulting from an increase in the entire haploid sets of chromosomes lead to a condition
called euploidy / polyploidy.

Example: Down's syndrome

Down's syndrome is a condition in humans caused by a chromosome mutation during meiosis. During egg production,
two chromosomes fail to separate so an extra chromosome is present in the egg cell, ie the egg has three homologous
of chromosome 21, a condition called trisomy .

113
 114

Instead of the egg cell having 23 chromosomes it will have 24.The affected child has 47 chromosomes in his or her
cells instead of the normal 46.

Signs of Down’s syndrome

• Mental retardation
• Characteristic abnormalities of the hands, tongue, hands and eye lids
• Increased susceptibility to cardiac abnormalities and diseases such as leukemia

Types of Chromosome Mutations

Inversion – whereby a region of a chromosome breaks off & rotates through 1800 before rejoining the chromosome.

Translocation – a region of a chromosome breaking off & and rejoining either on the other end of the same
chromosome or on another non-homologous chromosome.

114
 115

Deletion – it involves the loss of a region of a chromosome, either from the ends or internally. This results in a
chromosome being deficient in certain genes. Deletion can be lethal if it affects the same gene loci on both homologous
chromosomes

Duplication – a region of a chromosome becomes duplicated so that an additional set of genes exists for the region of
duplication. The additional region of genes may be incorporated within or at the end of the chromosome

115
 116

CAUSES OF MUTATIONS

The major causes of mutations are certain chemical substances and radiation. These are called mutagens and they
include:

Ultra-violet radiation from the sun

Ionising radiation e.g X-rays, Gamma rays and beta particles from radioactive decay increases the
reactivity of atoms in DNA molecules
Mutagens i.e. chemicals that cause mutations e.g nitrous acid, tars, mustard gas, caffeine
formaldehyde, pesticides. These chemicals affect the replication process of DNA (i.e. by increasing the
probability of mistakes during replication)

CANCER

This is uncontrolled mitotic division of somatic cells resulting in formation of a tumour. Mutations can cause cancer.
The agents causing cancer are called carcinogens. Mutations may also be spontaneous, resulting as a heritable
characteristic leading to development a cancerous tomour.

DETERMINATION OF SEX IN HUMANS

116
 117

Sex is determined by the sex chromosomes X and Y

The X and Y chromosomes differ in size; the X chromosome is much longer than the Y chromosome.
A woman's chromosomes are both alike and are called X chromosomes. She has genotype XX
A man has only one X chromosome and the smaller Y chromosome. He has the genotype XY

• When meiosis takes place in the female ovary, each ovum receives one X chromosome,
so all the ova are the same., i.e. X X,
• Meiosis in the male testes results in 50% of the sperm getting one X and 50% getting one Y chromosomes.
• If an X sperm fertilizes the ovum, the zygote will be XX and grow into a girl.
• If a Y sperm fertilizes the ovum, the zygote will be XY and grow into a boy.

Female XX Male XY

Male

Gametes X Y

X XX XY
female
X XX XY

Female male

Half the children will probably be male, and the other half female.

SEX LINKAGE

• The X and Y chromosome do not only determine sex, they have other genes on them.
• Some genetic disorders affect many 'more males than females.
Example: Hemophilia and colour blindness. These diseases are called sex linked diseases.

• Sex linkage results from the fact that the X chromosome is longer than the Y
chromosome. The presence of a recessive allele on a region of an X chromosome, which does not have a
corresponding region on the Y chromosome, will result in the appearance of the recessive trait in the
phenotype. This is why sex-linked recessive conditions appear only in males and not females.

117
 118

Pedigree indicating sex linkage

n - recessive

N – dominant

118
 119

A family pedigree showing a characteristic of a recessive gene linked to the X-chromosome and absent from the Y-
chromosome.

Note:

• If the mother is affected all boys are affected

• If the mother is normal all girls are normal

HAEMOPHILIA

It is a human disease in which blood is slow to clot. The gene controlling the condition is situated on the X
chromosome in the non-overlap region with the Y chromosome,

The genes appear in two forms;

• normal (dominant)
• haemophilia (recessive).

If a carrier haemophiliac female marries a normal male and has children, then the likely chances of the children having
haemophilia can be calculated and predicted as follows;

Let: H represent normal allele for blood clotting (dominant)

h represent allele for haemophilia (recessive)

XX represent female chromosomes

XY represent male chromosomes

Parental phenotype haemophilic female normal male

Parental genotype XHXh X XHY

Gamates Xh XH X XH Y

119
 120

Offspring XhXH XhY XHXH XHY

genotype

Offspring phenotype Normal haemophilic Normal Normal Female

male Female male

The genetic diagram shows that 1 in 4 of the offspring could be haemophiliac and this could be a male child. Females
can only be carriers (a carrier is someone who has a recessive gene in their cells but has a normal phenotype).E.g. A
woman with the genotype XHXh seems perfectly normal and her blood clots in the usual way.

There are only two possible genotypes for a man. This is because the Y chromosome does not have a haemophilia or
blood clotting gene of any kind.

Genotype Phenotype

XHYh Normal

XhY Haemophiliac

VARIATION

Variation is the degree of differences between a set of parents and off-springs. These variations could be inherited or
due to external factors; e.g. temperature, light, and moisture for plants.

120
 121

Types of Variation

1. Continuous Variation

This is characterised by having two extremes of the characteristic, with intermediates existing continuously between
the two extremes. In continuous variation the characteristics in a population show a complete gradation (progression)
from one extreme to other without any break. Characteristics resulting in continuous variation are produced by the
combined effects of many genes & environmental factors.

Examples

• Height
• Weight
• Colour of organism
• Intelligence

Characteristics showing continuous variation can be easily plotted in a cumulative frequency curve or histogram as
shown below.

121
 122

2. Discontinuous Variation

This shows a discreet difference between two forms of a characteristic with no intermediates in between.
Discontinuous variation produces individuals showing clear cut differences with no intermediates in between them.

Examples

• The blood groups in humans (A, B, AB, O)

• The wing length of drosophila
• Sex in animals and plants (males & females). Sex is inherited in a discontinuous way, it cannot be altered.
• Eye colour
• Ear lobe
• Tongue rolling

122
 123

Frequency of discontinuous variations in a population can only be represented using a bar graph or pie chart but not
line graph nor histogram.

Natural Selection

123
 124

Natural selection is the process whereby the natural environment favors those organisms showing the best adapted
phenotypic variations. Natural selection eliminates those individuals that cannot these challenges of their
environment. These organisms pass their genes onto the next generation, and the new offspring are tested by the
environment. These process continuing over generations means that the genotype & phenotype of these species can
change considerably.

Theory of Evolution (Darwin/Wallace)

The development of differentiated organisms from pre-existing (less differentiated) organisms over the course of time
or is the gradual change of species over time.

The theory proposes that the species change with time. It states that the first living things were quite simple in
structure less varied than at present. It is argued that these simple creatures gave rise to successive generations, some
of which were slightly different & sometimes more complex than their ancestors.

Natural Selection means that nature chooses (selects) those organisms best fitted for survival.

Charles Darwin

He argued that certain variations help an organism to survive in the struggle for existence while other variations do
not. In each batch of offsprings, favorable variations such as strength & stamina are more likely to win the competition
for food, escape from predators & withstand diseases than their weaker fellows.

As a result organisms with favorable variations are likely to survive longer & reproduce more often than those with
unfavorable variations. Darwin called this “SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST”. Survival of the fittest means that in the
struggle for existence the fittest (those with favorable variations) will survive while those with unfavorable variations
die or are limited in number.

The essential features of the theory Darwin put forward are:

1. Overproduction of offspring - all organisms produce large numbers of offspring which if they survived would lead
to a geometric increase in the size of any population.

124
 125

2. Constancy of numbers - Despite the tendency to increase numbers due to overpopulation of offspring, most
populations actually maintain relatively constant numbers. The majority of offspring must therefore die, before they
are able to reproduce.

3. Struggle for existence - Darwin decided on the basis of 1 and 2 above that members of a species were constantly
competing with each other in an effort to survive, in this struggle for existence only a few would live long enough to
breed.

4. Variation among offspring — the sexually produced offspring of any species show individual variations so that
generally no two offspring are identical.

5. Survival of the fittest by natural selection — among the variety of offspring would be some better able to withstand
the prevailing conditions than others. That is some will be better adapted ('fitter') to survive in the struggle for
existence. These types are more likely to survive long enough to breed.

6. Like produces like - Those which survive to breed are likely to produce offspring similar to them. The advantageous
characteristic which gave them the edge in the struggle for existence are likely to be passed to the next generation.

7. Formation of new species - Individuals lacking favourable characteristics are less likely to survive long enough to
breed. Over many generations their numbers will decline. The individuals with favourable characteristics will breed
with subsequent increase in their numbers. The inheritance of one small variation will not by itself, produce a new
species. However, the development of a number of variations in a particular direction over many generations will
gradually lead to the evolution of a new species.

Selection

Selection is the process by which those who appear physically, physiological a behaviorally better adapted to the
environment survive & reproduce.

When a population increases in size, certain environmental factors become limiting, such as food availability in
animals & light in the case of plants. This produces competition for resources between members of the population.
Those organisms exhibiting characteristics which give them a competitive advantage will obtain the resource, survive
& reproduce. Organisms without characteristic are at a disadvantage & become extinct.

125
 126

Artificial selection

The basis of artificial selection is the isolation of natural population & selective of organisms showing characteristics
which have some usefulness to humans.

Artificial selection is therefore the selective breeding of organisms to emphasize their desirable features. These
features may result in increased milk or meat yield, or perhaps resistance to high or low temperatures, diseases or
drought.

Breeding programmes are important to improve agriculture, livestock or crop plants

Animal breeders will select cows for their high milk yield, sheep for their wool quality.

Plant breeders will select varieties for their high yield and resistance to fungal diseases. It is a practice by farmers all
over the world to produce plants and animals of economic importance.

126
 127

Genetic Engineering
[back to top]

Genetic engineering, also known as recombinant DNA technology, means altering the genes in a living organism to
produce a Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) with a new genotype. Various kinds of genetic modification are
possible: inserting a foreign gene from one species into another, forming a transgenic organism; altering an existing
gene so that its product is changed; or changing gene expression so that it is translated more often or not at all.

Techniques of Genetic Engineering [back to top]

Genetic engineering is a very young discipline, and is only possible due to the development of techniques from the
1960s onwards. Watson and Crick have made these techniques possible from our greater understanding of DNA and
how it functions following the discovery of its structure in 1953. Although the final goal of genetic engineering is
usually the expression of a gene in a host, in fact most of the techniques and time in genetic engineering are spent
isolating a gene and then cloning it. This table lists the techniques that we shall look at in detail.

Technique Purpose

1 cDNA To make a DNA copy of mRNA

2 Restriction Enzymes To cut DNA at specific points, making small fragments
3 DNA Ligase To join DNA fragments together

127
 128

4 Vectors To carry DNA into cells and ensure replication

5 Plasmids Common kind of vector
6 Gene Transfer To deliver a gene to a living cells
7 Genetic Markers To identify cells that have been transformed
8 Replica Plating * To make exact copies of bacterial colonies on an agar plate
9 PCR To amplify very small samples of DNA
10 DNA probes To identify and label a piece of DNA containing a certain sequence
11 Shotgun * To find a particular gene in a whole genome
12 Antisense genes * To stop the expression of a gene in a cell
13 Gene Synthesis To make a gene from scratch
14 Electrophoresis To separate fragments of DNA

* Additional information that is not directly included in AS Biology. However it can help to consolidate other
techniques.

1. Complementary DNA [back to top]

Complementary DNA (cDNA) is DNA made from mRNA. This makes use of the enzyme reverse transcriptase, which
does the reverse of transcription: it synthesises DNA from an RNA template. It is produced naturally by a group of
viruses called the retroviruses (which include HIV), and it helps them to invade cells. In genetic engineering reverse
transcriptase is used to make an artificial gene of cDNA as shown in this diagram.

Complementary DNA has helped to solve different problems in genetic engineering:

128
 129

It makes genes much easier to find. There are some 70 000 genes in the human genome, and finding one gene out of
this many is a very difficult (though not impossible) task. However a given cell only expresses a few genes, so only
makes a few different kinds of mRNA molecule. For example the b cells of the pancreas make insulin, so make lots of
mRNA molecules coding for insulin. This mRNA can be isolated from these cells and used to make cDNA of the insulin
gene.

2. Restriction Enzymes [back to top]

These are enzymes that cut DNA at specific sites. They are properly called restriction endonucleases because they cut
the bonds in the middle of the polynucleotide chain. Some restriction enzymes cut straight across both chains, forming
blunt ends, but most enzymes make a staggered cut in the two strands, forming sticky ends.

The cut ends are “sticky” because they have short stretches of single-stranded DNA with complementary sequences.
These sticky ends will stick (or anneal) to another piece of DNA by complementary base pairing, but only if they have
both been cut with the same restriction enzyme. Restriction enzymes are highly specific, and will only cut DNA at
specific base sequences, 4-8 base pairs long, called recognition sequences.

Restriction enzymes are produced naturally by bacteria as a defence against viruses (they “restrict” viral growth), but
they are enormously useful in genetic engineering for cutting DNA at precise places ("molecular scissors"). Short
lengths of DNA cut out by restriction enzymes are called restriction fragments. There are thousands of different
restriction enzymes known, with over a hundred different recognition sequences. Restriction enzymes are named
after the bacteria species they came from, so EcoR1 is from E. coli strain R, and HindIII is from Haemophilis influenzae.

129
 130

3. DNA Ligase [back to top]

This enzyme repairs broken DNA by joining two nucleotides in a

DNA strand. It is commonly used in genetic engineering to do the
reverse of a restriction enzyme, i.e. to join together complementary
restriction fragments.

The sticky ends allow two complementary restriction fragments to

anneal, but only by weak hydrogen bonds, which can quite easily be
broken, say by gentle heating. The backbone is still incomplete.

DNA ligase completes the DNA backbone by forming covalent

bonds. Restriction enzymes and DNA ligase can therefore be used
together to join lengths of DNA from different sources.

4. Vectors [back to top]

In biology a vector is something that carries things between

species. For example the mosquito is a disease vector because it
carries the malaria parasite into humans. In genetic engineering a vector is a length of DNA that carries the gene we
want into a host cell. A vector is needed because a length of DNA containing a gene on its own won’t actually do
anything inside a host cell. Since it is not part of the cell’s normal genome it won’t be replicated when the cell divides,
it won’t be expressed, and in fact it will probably be broken down pretty quickly. A vector gets round these problems
by having these properties:

• It is big enough to hold the gene we want (plus a few others), but not too big.
• It is circular (or more accurately a closed loop), so that it is less likely to be broken down (particularly in
prokaryotic cells where DNA is always circular).
• It contains control sequences, such as a replication origin and a transcription promoter, so that the gene will
be replicated, expressed, or incorporated into the cell’s normal genome.
• It contain marker genes, so that cells containing the vector can be identified.

Many different vectors have been made for different purposes in genetic engineering by modifying naturally-
occurring DNA molecules, and these are now available off the shelf. For example a cloning vector contains sequences
that cause the gene to be copied (perhaps many times) inside a cell, but not expressed. An expression vector contains
sequences causing the gene to be expressed inside a cell, preferably in response to an external stimulus, such as a
particular chemical in the medium. Different kinds of vector are also available for different lengths of DNA insert:

130
 131

TYPE OF VECTOR MAX LENGTH OF DNA INSERT

Plasmid 10 kbp
Virus or phage 30 kbp
Bacterial Artificial Chromosome (BAC) 500 kbp

5. Plasmids [back to top]

Plasmids are by far the most common kind of vector, so we shall look at how they are used in some detail. Plasmids
are short circular bits of DNA found naturally in bacterial cells. A typical plasmid contains 3-5 genes and there are
usually around 10 copies of a plasmid in a bacterial cell. Plasmids are copied separately from the main bacterial DNA
when the cell divides, so the plasmid genes are passed on to all daughter cells. They are also used naturally for
exchange of genes between bacterial cells (the nearest they get to sex), so bacterial cells will readily take up a plasmid.
Because they are so small, they are easy to handle in a test tube, and foreign genes can quite easily be incorporated
into them using restriction enzymes and DNA ligase.

One of the most common plasmids used is the R-plasmid (or pBR322). This
plasmid contains a replication origin, several recognition sequences for
different restriction enzymes (with names like PstI and EcoRI), and two marker
genes, which confer resistance to different antibiotics (ampicillin and
tetracycline).

The diagram below shows how DNA fragments can be incorporated into a
plasmid using restriction and ligase enzymes. The restriction enzyme used here
(PstI) cuts the plasmid in the middle of one of the marker genes (we’ll see why
this is useful later). The foreign DNA anneals with the plasmid and is joined
covalently by DNA ligase to form a hybrid vector (in other words a mixture or hybrid of bacterial and foreign DNA).
Several other products are also formed: some plasmids will simply re-anneal with themselves to re-form the original
plasmid, and some DNA fragments will join together to form chains or circles. Theses different products cannot easily
be separated, but it doesn’t matter, as the marker genes can be used later to identify the correct hybrid vector.

131
 132

6. Gene Transfer [back to top]

Vectors containing the genes we want must be incorporated into living cells so that they can be replicated or
expressed. The cells receiving the vector are called host cells, and once they have successfully incorporated the vector
they are said to be transformed. Vectors are large molecules which do not readily cross cell membranes, so the
membranes must be made permeable in some way. There are different ways of doing this depending on the type of
host cell.

• Heat Shock. Cells are incubated with the vector in a solution containing calcium ions at 0°C. The
temperature is then suddenly raised to about 40°C. This heat shock causes some of the cells to take up the
vector, though no one knows why. This works well for bacterial and animal cells.
• Electroporation. Cells are subjected to a high-voltage pulse, which temporarily disrupts the
membrane and allows the vector to enter the cell. This is the most efficient method of delivering genes to
bacterial cells.
• Viruses. The vector is first incorporated into a virus, which is then used to infect cells, carrying the
foreign gene along with its own genetic material. Since viruses rely on getting their DNA into host cells for
their survival they have evolved many successful methods, and so are an obvious choice for gene delivery.
The virus must first be genetically engineered to make it safe, so that it can’t reproduce itself or make toxins.
Three viruses are commonly used:

1. Bacteriophages (or phages) are viruses that infect bacteria. They are a very effective way of delivering large
genes into bacteria cells in culture.

2. Adenoviruses are human viruses that causes respiratory diseases including the common cold. Their genetic
material is double-stranded DNA, and they are ideal for delivering genes to living patients in gene therapy.
Their DNA is not incorporated into the host’s chromosomes, so it is not replicated, but their genes are
expressed.

132
 133

The adenovirus is genetically altered so that its coat proteins are not synthesised, so new virus particles cannot be
assembled and the host cell is not killed.

3. Retroviruses are a group of human viruses that include HIV. They are enclosed in a lipid membrane and their
genetic material is double-stranded RNA. On infection this RNA is copied to DNA and the DNA is incorporated
into the host’s chromosome. This means that the foreign genes are replicated into every daughter cell.

After a certain time, the dormant DNA is switched on, and the genes are expressed in all the host cells.

• Plant Tumours. This method has been used successfully to transform plant cells, which are perhaps the
hardest to do. The gene is first inserted into the Ti plasmid of the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens,
and then plants are infected with the bacterium. The bacterium inserts the Ti plasmid into the plant cells'
chromosomal DNA and causes a "crown gall" tumour. These tumour cells can be cultured in the laboratory
and whole new plants grown from them by micropropagation. Every cell of these plants contains the foreign
gene.
• Gene Gun. This extraordinary technique fires microscopic gold particles coated with the foreign DNA at the
cells using a compressed air gun. It is designed to overcome the problem of the strong cell wall in plant tissue,
since the particles can penetrate the cell wall and the cell and nuclear membranes, and deliver the DNA to the
nucleus, where it is sometimes expressed.
• Micro-Injection. A cell is held on a pipette under a microscope and the foreign DNA is injected directly into the
nucleus using an incredibly fine micro-pipette. This method is used where there are only a very few cells
available, such as fertilised animal egg cells. In the rare successful cases the fertilised egg is implanted into the

133
 134

uterus of a surrogate mother and it will develop into a normal animal, with the DNA incorporated into the
chromosomes of every cell.

• Liposomes. Vectors can be encased in liposomes, which are small membrane vesicles (see module 1). The
liposomes fuse with the cell membrane (and sometimes the nuclear membrane too), delivering the DNA into
the cell. This works for many types of cell, but is particularly useful for delivering genes to cell in vivo (such as
in gene therapy).

7. Genetic Markers [back to top]

These are needed to identify cells that have successfully taken up a vector and so become transformed. With most of
the techniques above less than 1% of the cells actually take up the vector, so a marker is needed to distinguish these
cells from all the others. We’ll look at how to do this with bacterial host cells, as that’s the most common technique.

A common marker, used in the R-plasmid, is a gene for resistance to an antibiotic such as tetracycline. Bacterial cells
taking up this plasmid can make this gene product and so are resistant to this antibiotic. So if the cells are grown on a
medium containing tetracycline all the normal untransformed cells, together with cells that have taken up DNA that’s
not in a plasmid (99%) will die. Only the 1% transformed cells will survive, and these can then be grown and cloned
on another plate.

134
 135

8. Replica Plating [back to top]

Replica plating is a simple technique for making an exact copy of an agar plate. A pad of sterile cloth the same size as
the plate is pressed on the surface of an agar plate with bacteria growing on it. Some cells from each colony will stick
to the cloth. If the cloth is then pressed onto a new agar plate, some cells will be deposited and colonies will grow in
exactly the same positions on the new plate. This technique has a number of uses, but the most common use in genetic
engineering is to help solve another problem in identifying transformed cells.

This problem is to distinguish those cells that have taken up a hybrid plasmid vector (with a foreign gene in it) from
those cells that have taken up the normal plasmid. This is where the second marker gene (for resistance to ampicillin)
is used. If the foreign gene is inserted into the middle of this marker gene, the marker gene is disrupted and won't
make its proper gene product. So cells with the hybrid plasmid will be killed by ampicillin, while cells with the normal
plasmid will be immune to ampicillin. Since this method of identification involves killing the cells we want, we must
first make a master agar plate and then make a replica plate of this to test for ampicillin resistance.

135
 136

Once the colonies of cells containing the correct hybrid plasmid vector have been identified, the appropriate colonies
on the master plate can be selected and grown on another plate.

The R-plasmid with its antibiotic-resistance genes dates from the early days of genetic engineering in the 1970s. In
recent years better plasmids with different marker genes have been developed that do not kill the desired cells, and so
do not need a replica plate. These new marker genes make an enzyme (actually lactase) that converts a colourless
substrate in the agar medium into a blue-coloured product that can easily be seen. So cells with a normal plasmid turn
blue on the correct medium, while those with the hybrid plasmid can't make the enzyme and stay white. These white
colonies can easily be identified and transferred to another plate. Another marker gene, transferred from jellyfish,
makes a green fluorescent protein (GFP).

9. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) [back to top]

Genes can be cloned by cloning the bacterial cells that contain them, but this requires quite a lot of DNA in the first
place. PCR can clone (or amplify) DNA samples as small as a single molecule. It is a newer technique, having been
developed in 1983 by Kary Mullis, for which discovery he won the Nobel prize in 1993. The polymerase chain reaction
is simply DNA replication in a test tube. If a length of DNA is mixed with the four nucleotides (A, T, C and G) and the
enzyme DNA polymerase in a test tube, then the DNA will be replicated many times. The details are shown in this
diagram:

1. Start with a sample of the DNA to be amplified, and add the four nucleotides and the enzyme DNA
polymerase.

136
 137

2. Normally (in vivo) the DNA double helix would be separated by the enzyme helicase, but in PCR (in
vitro) the strands are separated by heating to 95°C for two minutes. This breaks the hydrogen bonds.
3. DNA polymerisation always requires short lengths of DNA (about 20 bp long) called primers, to get it
started. In vivo the primers are made during replication by DNA polymerase, but in vitro they must be
synthesised separately and added at this stage. This means that a short length of the sequence of the DNA
must already be known, but it does have the advantage that only the part between the primer sequences is
replicated. The DNA must be cooled to 40°C to allow the primers to anneal to their complementary sequences
on the separated DNA strands.
4. The DNA polymerase enzyme can now extend the primers and complete the replication of the rest of
the DNA. The enzyme used in PCR is derived from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus aquaticus, which
grows naturally in hot springs at a temperature of 90°C, so it is not denatured by the high temperatures in
step 2. Its optimum temperature is about 72°C, so the mixture is heated to this temperature for a few minutes
to allow replication to take place as quickly as possible.
5. Each original DNA molecule has now been replicated to form two molecules. The cycle is repeated from step 2
and each time the number of DNA molecules doubles. This is why it is called a chain reaction, since the
number of molecules increases exponentially, like an explosive chain reaction. Typically PCR is run for 20-30
cycles.

PCR can be completely automated, so in a few hours a tiny sample of DNA can be amplified millions of times with little
effort. The product can be used for further studies, such as cloning, electrophoresis, or gene probes. Because PCR can
use such small samples it can be used in forensic medicine (with DNA taken from samples of blood, hair or semen),
and can even be used to copy DNA from mummified human bodies, extinct woolly mammoths, or from an insect that's
been encased in amber since the Jurassic period. One problem of PCR is having a pure enough sample of DNA to start
with. Any contaminant DNA will also be amplified, and this can cause problems, for example in court cases.

137
 138

10. DNA Probes [back to top]

These are used to identify and label DNA fragments that contain a specific sequence. A probe is simply a short length
of DNA (20-100 nucleotides long) with a label attached. There are two common types of label used:

• a radioactively-labelled probe (synthesised using the isotope 32P) can be visualised using photographic film
(an autoradiograph).
• a fluorescently-labelled probe will emit visible light when illuminated with invisible ultraviolet light. Probes
can be made to fluoresce with different colours.

Probes are always single-stranded, and can be made of DNA or RNA. If a probe is added to a mixture of different pieces
of DNA (e.g. restriction fragments) it will anneal (base pair) with any lengths of DNA containing the complementary
sequence. These fragments will now be labelled and will stand out from the rest of the DNA. DNA probes have many
uses in genetic engineering:

• To identify restriction fragments containing a particular gene out of the thousands of restriction fragments
formed from a genomic library. This use is described in shotguning below.
• To identify the short DNA sequences used in DNA fingerprinting.
• To identify genes from one species that are similar to those of another species. Most genes are remarkably
similar in sequence from one species to another, so for example a gene probe for a mouse gene will probably
anneal with the same gene from a human. This has aided the identification of human genes.
• To identify genetic defects. DNA probes have been prepared that match the sequences of many human genetic
disease genes such as muscular dystrophy, and cystic fibrosis. Hundreds of these probes can be stuck to a
glass slide in a grid pattern, forming a DNA microarray (or DNA chip). A sample of human DNA is added to the
array and any sequences that match any of the various probes will stick to the array and be labelled. This
allows rapid testing for a large number of genetic defects at a time.

11. Shotguning [back to top]

This is used to find one particular gene in a whole genome, a bit like finding the proverbial needle in a haystack. It is
called the shotgun technique because it starts by indiscriminately breaking up the genome (like firing a shotgun at a
soft target) and then sorting through the debris for the particular gene we want. For this to work a gene probe for the
gene is needed, which means at least a short part of the gene’s sequence must be known.

12. Antisense Genes [back to top]

138
 139

These are used to turn off the expression of a gene in a cell. The principle is very simple: a copy of the gene to be
switch off is inserted into the host genome the “wrong” way round, so that the complementary (or antisense) strand is
transcribed. The antisense mRNA produced will anneal to the normal sense mRNA forming double-stranded RNA.
Ribosomes can’t bind to this, so the mRNA is not translated, and the gene is effectively “switched off”.

13. Gene Synthesis [back to top]

It is possible to chemically synthesise a gene in the lab by laboriously joining nucleotides together in the correct order.
Automated machines can now make this much easier, but only up to a limit of about 30bp, so very few real genes
could be made this way (anyway it’s usually much easier to make cDNA). The genes for the two insulin chains (xx bp)
and for the hormone somatostatin (42 bp) have been synthesisied this way. It is very useful for making gene probes.

14. Electrophoresis [back to top]

This is a form of chromatography used to separate different pieces of DNA on the basis of their length. It might
typically be used to separate restriction fragments. The DNA samples are placed into wells at one end of a thin slab of
gel made of agarose or polyacrylamide, and covered in a buffer solution. An electric current is passed through the gel.
Each nucleotide in a molecule of DNA contains a negatively-charged phosphate group, so DNA is attracted to the
anode (the positive electrode). The molecules have to diffuse through the gel, and smaller lengths of DNA move faster
than larger lengths, which are retarded by the gel. So the smaller the length of the DNA molecule, the further down the
gel it will move in a given time. At the end of the run the current is turned off.

Unfortunately the DNA on the gel cannot be seen, so it must be visualised. There are three common methods for doing
this:

• The gel can be stained with a chemical that specifically stains DNA, such as ethidium bromide or azure A. The
DNA shows up as blue bands. This method is simple but not very sensitive.
• The DNA samples at the beginning can be radiolabelled with a radioactive isotope such as 32P. Photographic
film is placed on top of the finished gel in the dark, and the DNA shows up as dark bands on the film. This
method is extremely sensitive.

139
 140

• The DNA fragments at the beginning can be labelled with a fluorescent molecule. The DNA fragments show up
as coloured lights when the finished gel is illuminated with invisible ultraviolet light.

Applications of Genetic Engineering

[back to top]

This section contains additional information that is not directly included in AS Biology. However it can be
useful to help support and consolidate GE techniques.

We have now looked at some of the many techniques used by genetic engineers. What can be done with these
techniques? By far the most numerous applications are still as research tools, and the techniques above are helping
geneticists to understand complex genetic systems. Despite all the hype, genetic engineering still has very few
successful commercial applications, although these are increasing each year. The applications so far can usefully be
considered in three groups.

• Gene using genetically modified organisms (usually microbes) to produce

Products chemicals, usually for medical or industrial applications.

• New using gene technology to alter the characteristics of organisms (usually farm
Phenotype animals or crops)
s
• Gene using gene technology on humans to treat a disease
Therapy

Gene Products [back to top]

The biggest and most successful kind of genetic engineering is the production of gene products. These products are of
medical, agricultural or commercial value. This table shows a few of the examples of genetically engineered products
that are already available.

Product Use Host Organism

Insulin human hormone used to treat diabetes bacteria /yeast

140
 141

HGH human growth hormone, used to treat dwarfism bacteria

BST bovine growth hormone, used to increase milk yield of cows bacteria

Factor VIII human blood clotting factor, used to treat haemophiliacs bacteria

Anti-thrombin anti-blood clotting agent used in surgery goats

Penicillin antibiotic, used to kill bacteria fungi / bacteria

Vaccines hepatitis B antigen, for vaccination yeast

AAT enzyme used to treat cystic fibrosis and emphysema sheep

-glucosidase enzyme used to treat Pompe’s disease rabbits

DNase enzyme used to treat CF bacteria

rennin enzyme used in manufacture of cheese bacteria /yeast

cellulase enzyme used in paper production bacteria

PHB biodegradable plastic plants

The products are mostly proteins, which are produced directly when a gene is expressed, but they can also be non-
protein products produced by genetically-engineered enzymes. The basic idea is to transfer a gene (often human) to
another host organism (usually a microbe) so that it will make the gene product quickly, cheaply and ethically. It is
also possible to make “designer proteins” by altering gene sequences, but while this is a useful research tool, there are
no commercial applications yet.

Since the end-product is just a chemical, in principle any kind of organism could be used to produce it. By far the most
common group of host organisms used to make gene products are the bacteria, since they can be grown quickly and
the product can be purified from their cells. Unfortunately bacteria cannot not always make human proteins, and
recently animals and even plants have also been used to make gene products. In neither case is it appropriate to
extract the product from their cells, so in animals the product must be secreted in milk or urine, while in plants the
product must be secreted from the roots. This table shows some of the advantages and disadvantages of using
different organisms for the production of genetically-engineered gene products.

Type of
Advantages Disadvantages
organism

141
 142

Prokaryotes No nucleus so DNA easy to modify; have plasmids; Can’t splice introns; no post-translational
(Bacteria) small genome; genetics well understood; asexual so modification; small gene size
can be cloned; small and fast growing; easy to grow
commercially in fermenters; will use cheap
carbohydrate; few ethical problems.
Eukaryotes Can splice introns; can do post-translational Do not have plasmids (except yeast); often
modifications; can accept large genes diploid so two copies of genes may need to
be inserted; control of expression not well
understood.
Fungi (yeast, Asexual so can be cloned; haploid, so only one copy Can’t always make animals gene products
mould) needed; can be grown in vats
Plants Photosynthetic so don’t need much feeding; can be Cell walls difficult to penetrate by vector;
cloned from single cells; products can be secreted slow growing; must be grown in fields;
from roots or in sap. multicellular
Animals Most likely to be able to make human proteins; Multicellular; slow growing
(pharming) products can be secreted in milk or urine

We’ll look at some examples in detail

Human Insulin [back to top]

Insulin is a small protein hormone produced by the pancreas to regulate the blood sugar concentration. In the disease
insulin-dependent diabetes the pancreas cells don’t produce enough insulin, causing wasting symptoms and
eventually death. The disease can be successfully treated by injection of insulin extracted from the pancreases of
slaughtered cows and pigs. However the insulin from these species has a slightly different amino acid sequence from
human insulin and this can lead to immune rejection and side effects.

The human insulin gene was isolated, cloned and sequenced in the 1970s, and so it became possible to insert this gene
into bacteria, who could then produce human insulin in large amounts. Unfortunately it wasn’t that simple. In humans,
pancreatic cells first make pro-insulin, which then undergoes post-translational modification to make the final,
functional insulin. Bacterial cells cannot do post-translational modification. Eventually a synthetic cDNA gene was
made and inserted into the bacterium E. coli, which made pro-insulin, and the post-translational conversion to insulin
was carried out chemically. This technique was developed by Eli Lilly and Company in 1982 and the product,
“humulin” became the first genetically-engineered product approved for medical use.

In the 1990s the procedure was improved by using the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae instead of E. coli. Yeast, as a
eukaryote, is capable of post-translational modification, so this simplifies the production of human insulin. However
another company has developed a method of converting pig insulin into human insulin by chemically changing a few
amino acids, and this turns out to be cheaper than the genetic engineering methods. This all goes to show that genetic
engineers still have a lot to learn.

142
 143

Human Growth Hormone (HGH) [back to top]

HGH is a protein hormone secreted by the pituitary gland, which stimulates tissue growth. Low production of HGH in
childhood results in pituitary dwarfism. This can be treated with HGH extracted from dead humans, but as the
treatment caused some side effects, such as Creutzfeldt-Jacod disease (CJD), the treatment was withdrawn. The HGH
gene has been cloned and an artificial cDNA gene has been inserted into E. coli. A signal sequence has been added
which not only causes the gene to be translated but also causes the protein to be secreted from the cell, which makes
purification much easier. This genetically engineered HGH is produced by Genentech and can successfully restore
normal height to children with HGH defficiency.

Bovine Somatotrophin (BST) [back to top]

This is a growth hormone produced by cattle. The gene has been cloned in bacteria by the company Monsanto, who
can produce large quantities of BST. in the USA cattle are often injected with BST every 2 weeks, resulting in a 10%
increase in mass in beef cattle and a 25% increase in milk production in dairy cows. BST was tested in the UK in 1985,
but it was not approved and its use is currently banned in the EU. This is partly due to public concerns and partly
because there is already overproduction of milk and beef in the EU, so greater production is not necessary.

Rennin [back to top]

Rennin is an enzyme used in the production of cheese. It is produced in the stomach of juvenile mammals (including
humans) and it helps the digestion of the milk protein caesin by solidifying it so that is remains longer in the stomach.
Traditionally the cheese industry has used rennin obtained from the stomach of young calves when they are
slaughtered for veal, but there are moral and practical objections to this source. Now an artificial cDNA gene for
rennin has been made from mRNA extracted from calf stomach cells, and this gene has been inserted into a variety of
microbes such as the bacterium E. coli and the fungus Aspergillus niger. The rennin extracted from these microbes has
been very successful and 90% of all hard cheeses in the UK are made using microbial rennin. Sometimes (though not
always) these products are labelled as “vegetarian cheese”.

AAT (-1-antitrypsin) [back to top]

143
 144

AAT is a human protein made in the liver and found in the blood. As the name suggests it is an inhibitor of protease
enzymes like trypsin and elastase. There is a rare mutation of the AAT gene (a single base substitution) that causes
AAT to be inactive, and so the protease enzymes to be uninhibited. The most noticeable effect of this in the lungs,
where elastase digests the elastic tissue of the alveoli, leading to the lung disease emphysema. This condition can be
treated by inhaling an aerosol spray containing AAT so that it reaches the alveoli and inhibits the elastase there.

AAT for this treatment can be extracted from blood donations, but only in very small amounts. The gene for AAT has
been found and cloned, but AAT cannot be produced in bacteria because AAT is glycoprotein, which means it needs to
have sugars added by post translational modification. This kind of modification can only be carried out by animals,
and AAT is now produced by genetically-modified sheep. In order to make the AAT easy to extract, the gene was
coupled to a promoter for the milk protein -lactoglubulin. Since this promoter is only activated in mammary gland
cells, the AAT gene will only be expressed in mammary gland cells, and so will be secreted into the sheep's milk. This
makes it very easy to harvest and purify without harming the sheep. The first transgenic sheep to produce AAT was
called Tracy, and she was produced by PPL Pharmaceuticals in Edinburgh in 1993. This is how Tracy was made:

1. A female sheep is given a fertility drug to stimulate her egg production, and
several mature eggs are collected from her ovaries.

2. The eggs are fertilised in vitro.

3. A plasmid is prepared containing the gene for human AAT and the promoter
sequence for b-lactoglobulin. Hundreds of copies of this plasmid are
microinjected into the nucleus of the fertilised zygotes. Only a few of the
zygotes will be transformed, but at this stage you can’t tell which.

4. The zygotes divide in vitro until the embryos are at the 16-cell stage.

5. The 16-cell embryos are implanted into the uterus of surrogate mother ewes.
Only a few implantations result in a successful pregnancy.

6. Test all the offspring from the surrogate mothers for AAT production in their
milk. This is the only way to find if the zygote took up the AAT gene so that it
can be expressed. About 1 in 20 eggs are successful.

144
 145

7. Collect milk from the transgenic sheep for the rest of their lives. Their milk
contains about 35 g of AAT per litre of milk. Also breed from them in order to
build up a herd of transgenic sheep.

8. Purify the AAT, which is worth about £50 000 per mg.

New Phenotypes [back to top]

This means altering the characteristics of organisms by genetic engineering. The organisms are generally
commercially-important crops or farm animals, and the object is to improve their quality in some way. This can be
seen as a high-tech version of selective breeding, which has been used by humans to alter and improve their crops and
animals for at least 10 000 years. Nevertheless GMOs have turned out to be a highly controversial development. We
don’t need to study any of these in detail, but this table gives an idea of what is being done.

Organism Modification

Long life tomatoes There are two well-known projects, both affecting the gene for the enzyme
polygalactourinase (PG), a pectinase that softens fruits as they ripen. Tomatoes that make
less PG ripen more slowly and retain more flavour. The American “Flavr Savr” tomato used
antisense technology to silence the gene, while the British Zeneca tomato disrupted the
gene. Both were successful and were on sale for a few years, but neither is produced any
more.

Insect-resistant Genes for various powerful protein toxins have been transferred from the bacterium
crops Bacillus thuringiensis to crop plants including maize, rice and potatoes. These Bt toxins are
thousands of times more powerful than chemical insecticides, and since they are built-in to
the crops, insecticide spraying (which is non-specific and damages the environment) is
unnecessary.

Virus-resistant crops Gene for virus coat protein has been cloned and inserted into tobacco, potato and tomato
plants. The coat protein seems to “immunise” the plants, which are much more resistant to
viral attack.

Herbicide resistant The gene for resistance to the herbicide BASTA has been transferred from Streptomyces
crops bacteria to tomato, potato, corn, and wheat plants, making them resistant to Basta. Fields
can safely be sprayed with this herbicide, which will kill all weeds, but the crops. However,
this means using more agrochemicals, not less.

Pest-resistant The gene for an enzyme that synthesises a chemical toxic to weevils has been transferred
legumes from Bacillus bacteria to The Rhizobium bacteria that live in the root nodules of legume
plants. These root nodules are now resistant to attack by weevils.

145
 146

Nitrogen-fixing crops This is a huge project, which aims to transfer the 15-or-so genes required for nitrogen
fixation from the nitrogen-fixing bacteria Rhizobium into cereals and other crop plants.
These crops would then be able to fix their own atmospheric nitrogen and would not need
any fertiliser. However, the process is extremely complex, and the project is nowhere near
success.

Crop improvement Proteins in some crop plants, including wheat, are often deficient in essential amino acids
(which is why vegetarians have to watch their diet so carefully), so the protein genes are
being altered to improve their composition for human consumption.

Mastitis-resistant The gene for the enzyme lactoferrin, which helps to resists the infection that causes the
cattle udder disease mastitis, has been introduced to Herman – the first transgenic bull. Herman’s
offspring inherit this gene, do not get mastitis and so produce more milk.

Tick-resistant sheep The gene for the enzyme chitinase, which kills ticks by digesting their exoskeletons, has bee
transferred from plants to sheep. These sheep should be immune to tick parasites, and may
not need sheep dip.

Fast-growing sheep The human growth hormone gene has been transferred to sheep, so that they produce
human growth hormone and grow more quickly. However they are more prone to infection
and the females are infertile.

Fast-growing fish A number of fish species, including salmon, trout and carp, have been given a gene from
another fish (the ocean pout) which activates the fish’s own growth hormone gene so that
they grow larger and more quickly. Salmon grow to 30 times their normal mass at 10 times
the normal rate.

Environment Genes for enzymes that digest many different hydrocarbons found in crude oil have been
cleaning microbes transferred to Pseudomonas bacteria so that they can clean up oil spills.

Gene Therapy [back to top]

This is perhaps the most significant, and most controversial kind of genetic engineering. It is also the least well-
developed. The idea of gene therapy is to genetically alter humans in order to treat a disease. This could represent the
first opportunity to cure incurable diseases. Note that this is quite different from using genetically-engineered
microbes to produce a drug, vaccine or hormone to treat a disease by conventional means. Gene therapy means
altering the genotype of a tissue or even a whole human.

Cystic Fibrosis [back to top]

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common genetic disease in the UK, affecting about 1 in 2500. It is caused by a mutation
in the gene for protein called CFTR (Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Regulator). The gene is located on chromosome
7, and there are actually over 300 different mutations known, although the most common mutation is a deletion of
three bases, removing one amino acid out of 1480 amino acids in the protein. CFTR is a chloride ion channel protein
found in the cell membrane of epithelial (lining) tissue cells, and the mutation stops the protein working, so chloride
ions cannot cross the cell membrane.

146
 147

Chloride ions build up inside these cells, which cause sodium ions to enter to balance the charge, and the increased
concentration of the both these ions inside the epithelial cells decreases the osmotic potential. Water is therefore
retained inside the cells, which means that the mucus secreted by these cells is drier and more sticky than normal.
This sticky mucus block the tubes into which it is secreted, such as the small intestine, pancreatic duct, bile duct,
sperm duct, bronchioles and alveoli.

These blockages lead to the symptoms of CF: breathlessness, lung infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia, poor
digestion and absorption, and infertility. Of these symptoms the lung effects are the most serious causing 95% of
deaths. CF is always fatal, though life expectancy has increased from 1 year to about 20 years due to modern
treatments. These treatments include physiotherapy many times each day to dislodge mucus from the lungs,
antibiotics to fight infections, DNAse drugs to loosen the mucus, enzymes to help food digestion and even a heart-lung
transplant.

Given these complicated (and ultimately unsuccessful) treatments, CF is a good candidate for gene therapy, and was
one of the first diseases to be tackled this way. The gene for CFTR was identified in 1989 and a cDNA clone was made
soon after. The idea is to deliver copies of this good gene to the epithelial cells of the lung, where they can be
incorporated into the nuclear DNA and make functional CFTR chloride channels. If about 10% of the cells could be
corrected, this would cure the disease.

Two methods of delivery are being tried: liposomes and adenoviruses, both delivered with an aerosol inhaler, like
those used by asthmatics. Clinical trials are currently underway, but as yet no therapy has been shown to be
successful.

SCID [back to top]

Severe Combined Immunodefficiency Disease (SCID) is a rare genetic disease that affects the immune system. It is
caused by a mutation in the gene for the enzyme adenosine deaminase (ADA). Without this enzyme white blood cells
cannot be made, so sufferers have almost no effective immune system and would quickly contract a fatal infection
unless they spend their lives in sterile isolation (SCID is also known as “baby in a bubble syndrome”). Gene therapy
has been attempted with a few children in the USA and UK by surgically removing bone marrow cells (which
manufacture white blood cells in the body) from the patient, transfecting them with a genetically-engineered virus
containing the ADA gene, and then returning the transformed cells to the patient. The hope is that these transformed
cells will multiply in the bone marrow and make white blood cells. The trials are still underway, so the success is
unknown.

147
 148

The Future of Gene Therapy [back to top]

Gene therapy is in its infancy, and is still very much an area of research rather than application. No one has yet been
cured by gene therapy, but the potential remains enticing. Gene therapy need not even be limited to treating genetic
diseases, but could also help in treating infections and environmental diseases:

• White blood cells have be genetically modified to produce tumour necrosis factor (TNF), a protein
that kills cancer cells, making these cells more effecting against tumours.
• Genes could be targeted directly at cancer cells, causing them to die, or to revert to normal cell
division.
• White blood cells could be given antisense genes for HIV proteins, so that if the virus infected these
cells it couldn’t reproduce.
• It is important to appreciate the different between somatic cell therapy and germ-line therapy.
• Somatic cell therapy means genetically altering specific body (or somatic) cells, such as bone marrow
cells, pancreas cells, or whatever, in order to treat the disease. This therapy may treat or cure the disease, but
any genetic changes will not be passed on their offspring.
• Germ-line therapy means genetically altering those cells (sperm cells, sperm precursor cell, ova, ova
precursor cells, zygotes or early embryos) that will pass their genes down the “germ-line” to future
generations. Alterations to any of these cells will affect every cell in the resulting human, and in all his or her
descendants.

Germ-line therapy would be highly effective, but is also potentially dangerous (since the long-term effects of genetic
alterations are not known), unethical (since it could easily lead to eugenics) and immoral (since it could involve
altering and destroying human embryos). It is currently illegal in the UK and most other countries, and current
research is focusing on somatic cell therapy only. All gene therapy trials in the UK must be approved by the Gene
Therapy Advisory Committee (GTAC), a government body that reviews the medical and ethical grounds for a trial.
Germ-line modification is allowed with animals, and indeed is the basis for producing GMOs.

advantages :

1. Disease could be prevented by detecting people/plants/animals that are genetically prone to certain hereditary
diseases, and preparing for the inevitable. Also, infectious diseases can be treated by implanting genes that code for
antiviral proteins specific to each antigen.
2. Another of genetic engineering is that diseases could be prevented by detecting people that are genetically prone to
certain hereditary diseases, and preparing for the inevitable. As well as preventing disease, with genetic engineering
infectious diseases can be treated by implanting genes that code for antiviral proteins specific to each antigen
3. Animals and plants can be 'tailor made' to show desirable characteristics. Genes could also be manipulated in trees
for example, to absorb more CO2 and reduce the threat of global warming.

148
 149

4. Genetic Engineering could increase genetic diversity, and produce more variant alleles which could also be crossed
over and implanted into other species. It is possible to alter the genetics of wheat plants to grow insulin for example.
5. Another advantage of genetic engineering is that animals and plants can be made to have desirable characteristics
which could help solve some of the world's problems. For example in trees, genes could be manipulated to absorb
more carbon dioxide. This would help reduce global warming, and thus solve one of the biggest problems earth faces.

disadvantages.

1. Nature is an extremely complex inter-related chain consisting of many species linked in the food chain. Some
scientists believe that introducing genetically modified genes may have an irreversible effect with consequences yet
unknown.
2. Genetic engineering borderlines on many moral issues, particularly involving religion, which questions whether
man has the right to manipulate the laws and course of nature.
3. Another reason why people think that using genetically modified crops and plants is a disadvantage is that they
think it will increase our reliance on pesticides, which have a harmful effect on the environment.
4. Another disadvantage of Genetic Engineering is Genetic engineering borderlines on many moral issues, particularly
involving religion, which questions whether man has the right to manipulate the laws and course of nature. Also it
brings into question Darwin's theory of "the survival of the fittest", if this theory has worked over the last 20 centuries
, why change it? ...

experimental 'breakthroughs' made possible by genetic engineering.

1. At the Roslin Institute in Scotland, scientists successfully cloned an exact copy of a sheep, named 'Dolly'. This was
the first successful cloning of an animal, and most likely the first occurrence of two organisms being genetically
identical. Note : Recently the sheep's health has deteriorated detrimentally
2. Scientists successfully manipulated the genetic sequence of a rat to grow a human ear on its back. (Unusual, but for
the purpose of reproducing human organs for medical purposes)
Most controversially, and maybe due to more liberal laws, an American scientist is currently conducting tests to clone
himself.

What is gene therapy?

Gene therapy is a technique for correcting defective genes responsible for disease development. Researchers may use
one of several approaches for correcting faulty genes:

• A normal gene may be inserted into a nonspecific location within the genome to replace a nonfunctional gene.
This approach is most common.

• An abnormal gene could be swapped for a normal gene through homologous recombination.

• The abnormal gene could be repaired through selective reverse mutation, which returns the gene to its
normal function.

• The regulation (the degree to which a gene is turned on or off) of a particular gene could be altered.

How does gene therapy work?

149
 150

In most gene therapy studies, a "normal" gene is inserted into the genome to replace an "abnormal," disease-causing
gene.

• A carrier molecule called a vector must be used to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient's target cells.
Currently, the most common vector is a virus that has been genetically altered to carry normal human DNA.
Viruses have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic
manner. Scientists have tried to take advantage of this capability and manipulate the virus genome to remove
disease-causing genes and insert therapeutic genes.

• Target cells such as the patient's liver or lung cells are infected with the viral vector.

• The vector then unloads its genetic material containing the therapeutic human gene into the target cell.

• The generation of a functional protein product from the therapeutic gene restores the target cell to a normal
state.

See a diagram depicting this process.

Some of the different types of viruses used as gene therapy vectors:

• Retroviruses - A class of viruses that can create double-stranded DNA copies of their RNA genomes. These
copies of its genome can be integrated into the chromosomes of host cells. Human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) is a retrovirus.

• Herpes simplex viruses - A class of double-stranded DNA viruses that infect a particular cell type, neurons.
Herpes simplex virus type 1 is a common human pathogen that causes cold sores.

Besides virus-mediated gene-delivery systems, there are several nonviral options for gene delivery.

• The simplest method is the direct introduction of therapeutic DNA into target cells. This approach is limited
in its application because it can be used only with certain tissues and requires large amounts of DNA.

• Creation of an artificial lipid sphere with an aqueous core. This liposome, which carries the therapeutic DNA,
is capable of passing the DNA through the target cell's membrane.

• Chemically linking the DNA to a molecule that will bind to special cell receptors. Once bound to these
receptors, the therapeutic DNA constructs are engulfed by the cell membrane and passed into the interior of
the target cell. This delivery system tends to be less effective than other options.

What factors have kept gene therapy from becoming an effective treatment for genetic disease?

• Short-lived nature of gene therapy - Before gene therapy can become a permanent cure for any condition,
the therapeutic DNA introduced into target cells must remain functional and the cells containing the
therapeutic DNA must be long-lived and stable. Problems with integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome
and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells prevent gene therapy from achieving any long-term benefits.
Patients will have to undergo multiple rounds of gene therapy.

• Immune response - Anytime a foreign object is introduced into human tissues, the immune system is
designed to attack the invader. The risk of stimulating the immune system in a way that reduces gene therapy

150
 151

effectiveness is always a potential risk. Furthermore, the immune system's enhanced response to invaders it
has seen before makes it difficult for gene therapy to be repeated in patients.

• Problems with viral vectors - Viruses, while the carrier of choice in most gene therapy studies, present a
variety of potential problems to the patient --toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control
and targeting issues. In addition, there is always the fear that the viral vector, once inside the patient, may
recover its ability to cause disease.

• Multigene disorders - Conditions or disorders that arise from mutations in a single gene are the best
candidates for gene therapy. Unfortunately, some the most commonly occurring disorders, such as heart
disease, high blood pressure, Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, and diabetes, are caused by the combined effects
of variations in many genes. Multigene or multifactorial disorders such as these would be especially difficult
to treat effectively using gene therapy.

What are some of the ethical considerations for using gene therapy?

--Some Questions to Consider...

• What is normal and what is a disability or disorder, and who decides?

• Are disabilities diseases? Do they need to be cured or prevented?

• Does searching for a cure demean the lives of individuals presently affected by disabilities?

• Is somatic gene therapy (which is done in the adult cells of persons known to have the disease) more or less
ethical than germline gene therapy (which is done in egg and sperm cells and prevents the trait from being
passed on to further generations)? In cases of somatic gene therapy, the procedure may have to be repeated
in future generations.

• Preliminary attempts at gene therapy are exorbitantly expensive. Who will have access to these therapies?
Who will pay for their use?

BIOTECHNOLGY

It is the application of biological organisms, systems or processes to manufacturing & service industries. Microbes,
plant & animal cells are used to make substances that are useful to human beings.

Why Micro-organisms are used in Biotechnology

1. They reproduce quickly

2. They are easy to culture
3. Savings on fuel because they carry out reactions at moderate temperatures.
4. They are very efficient because they produce purer products & less waste.
5. They can be genetically engineered to produce compounds needed for humans.

The Role of Micro-organisms in Food Production

Making Bread.
The enzymes in yeast cells act on the sugar added to the flour & ferment it to alcohol & carbon dioxide which
makes the dough to rise.

151
 152

Sour Milk (madila)

The milk is put into a large container & bacteria (lacto bacillus) are added to ferment the milk. The bacteria
converts the milk sugar (lactose) to lactic acid. The lactic acid will coagulate (solidify) the milk protein. Water will
then remain at the bottom of the container & coagulated protein floats on top. The mixture is sieved to remove
the waste water from the curd or sour milk. At this stage the milk is sometimes stirred to obtain evenly thick &
smooth sour milk. Then the sour milk will be ready for packaging & distribution.

Chibuku ( traditional brew)

Mealie meal, water & malt are mixed & left to ferment & this mixture is called wort. This is the first fermentation
process, the enzymes found in the malt brake down starch (mealie meal) to maltose & glucose & then ferment
these sugars to alcohol. After this fermentation, the mixture is cooked at 970C for about one hour. Yeast & lactic
acid are added. Lactic acid gives chibuku its sour taste. The second fermentation process will then occur. The
yeast cells will then ferment maltose & glucose. (sugars from the first fermentation) to produce alcohol. After the
second fermentation process, the mixture is then served. Chibuku is pasteurized, before packaging to kill both
yeast cells & any other micro-organisms

Single Cell Protein

The aim here is to produce food in bulk using micro-organisms or the organism being the food itself. It can be
used to feed humans & animals. Filamentous fungus which is very rich in proteins can be produced in large
amounts & be used as a meat substitute. It contains a lot of dietary fibre & very little amount of fat. Unicellular
algae, fungi & bacteria have been used.

Wine
It is made from grapes & these are crushed to release sugar. The yeast found on the grape skin ferments the sugar
to make wine.

Yoghurt & cheese

Bacteria are used to ferment milk to form yoghurt & cheese. The bacteria act on the milk sugar (lactose) &
convert it to lactic acid, which in turn coagulates the milk protein, casein to produce a thick creamy substance
(yoghurt). The lactic acid gives the yoghurt its slightly sour taste. In cheese making, the mould can also be
involved e.g. adding spores of penicillium at the fermentation stage to give varieties of cheese.

The Role of Micro-organisms in Fuels & Other Chemicals

Fuel
In some countries e.g. Brazil, yeast is used to ferment sugar from sugar cane to alcohol (ethanol). The ethanol
is distilled & then concentrated to about 96% alcohol. Pure alcohol will burn in the same way as petrol. It is
used in car engines that are specially adapted. Unlike petrol, it does not pollute the atmosphere.

Micro-organism can be used for production of bio-gas, e.g. methane gas. This gas can be produced from
decomposing cow dung using bacteria. This gas can be used as a substitute fro the gas used fro cooking,
which is fossil fuel.

Biological Enzyme Washing Powders

When washing powders are prepared, some biological enzymes are added to help in removing stains from
clothes, e.g. - The enzyme lipase will act on fat stains & make easy to wash the clothes.

- The proteases would act on protein stains & remove the much faster & easier, e.t.c
-

152
 153

The Role of Micro-organism in the Production of Medicine (Antibiotics & Vaccines)

Vaccines

They are prepared from dead or inactivated (harmless) micro-organisms {germs} and given to people to immunize
them against diseases, e.g. measles, polio, small pox etc. these germs still have antigens which will provoke the human
body to produce antibodies just like active germs do. These antibodies will be ready to fight germs the moment they
invade the body.

Antibiotics

These are chemicals that are used to kill germs. E.g. penicillin which is produced by a mould fungus, Penicillium.
Penicillin is used to cure bacterial diseases e.g. syphilis & gonorrhea.

This was discovered by a scientist named Alexander Fleming, who was growing bacteria on agar plates, but he left one
of the plates open by accident & a mould started to grow on the surface. He noticed that the mould was stopping the
bacteria from spreading; it seemed to be making a substance that killed the bacteria. Eventually the substance was
extracted & used to cure bacterial diseases. The antibiotic, streptomycin is produced by bacteria called streptomyces.

ECOLOGY

Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with each other & their environment.

TERMS USED IN ECOLOGY

Community – all organisms of all species living in the same habitat

Habitat – the area where an organism lives
Population – a group of organisms of the same species
Species – a group of organisms of the same kind which mate & produce a fertile offspring
Environment – the surroundings where an organisms lives
Ecosystem – consists of a community & its environment
Food chain – a linear feeding relationship between organisms
Food web – a set of linked food chains showing a more complex but realistic feeding relationship
Producer – an organism which makes its own food e.g. plants. (also known as autotrophs)
Primary consumer – an organism that feeds directly on producers; a.k.a. herbivores
Secondary consumers – an animal that feeds on primary consumers a.k.a. meat eaters/ carnivores
Omnivores – an animal that feeds on both meat & plants e.g. man
Tertiary consumers – organisms that normally feed secondary consumers
Decomposers – organisms that normally feed on dead animal or plant matter
Scavengers – animals that feed on the remains of dead animals e.g. vultures & hyenas
Trophic / feeding level – stage in a food chain or food web
Pyramid of numbers – a diagram showing the number of organisms at each trophic level, the length of the
bar is proportional to the number of organisms.

153
 154

Ecosystems

An Ecosystem is made of two factors;

- biotic factors ( living factors) which include plants and animals

- abiotic factors ( non-living factors) which include the habitat (a place where an organism lives) and the
physical factors that influence it e.g. temperature, soil type, rainfall; (or a community of organisms interacting
with their environment)

Energy flow in ecosystems

Energy flow refers to the movement of energy from one trophic level to another.

All energy for an ecosystem which flows through an ecosystem comes from the sun, i.e. the sun the principal source of
energy.

Energy is transferred through an ecosystem by feeding, when one organism eats another organism some energy is
passed on.

The Sun (principal source of energy)

Green Plants (photosynthesis)

Herbivores (starch eaters)

Carnivores (meat eaters)

Decomposers (carcass eaters)

The feeding relationships are shown using food chains, food webs &. Food pyramids.

Food chain

Should always begin with a producer

Should have arrows to indicate the direction of energy flow

A food chain is a linear representation of how energy is passed between organisms, & has one type of organism at
each feeding (trophic) level. There are usually 4 to 5 feeding levels in a food chain, and these levels are called
trophic/feeding levels.

154
 155

The first trophic level is Producers. These are always green plants / green algae which are photosynthetic. Producers
produce food for the next trophic level, which are primary consumers. These are always plant eaters so they are
called Herbivores. The primary consumers are eaten by secondary consumers, also referred to as carnivores
because they eat other animals. The tertiary consumers feed largely on secondary consumers.

Producers Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers

e.g.

1. grass zebra lion vulture

2. algae tadpole water scorpion perch

Food webs

A food web is a complex but more realistic way of presenting energy flow – made of several food chains interlinked.
Producers & all the consumers stated above are fed on by Decomposers.

Producers Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers Tertiary Consumers

Decomposers

e.g.

Owl Flea Tick

Shrew Fox Weasel Badger

Caterpillars Rabbit Grasshopper

Oak tree Grass

The arrows show the direction of flow of energy. Energy is not cyclical meaning that it does not return to its source &
it can be used over & over.

155
 156

Energy is either lost or used up along the food chain.

9KJ lost

If Produce 90KJ lost Primary Consumers Secondary Consumers

Has 100KJ keeps 10KJ for growth keeps 1KJ

0.9KJ lost

Tertiary Consumers

Keeps 0.1KJ

Most energy is passed on between producers & tertiary consumers, but also most of it is lost i.e. only 10% of the
energy is passed on from one trophic level to the next as shown above. A very small amount of energy reaches the
tertiary level. After that there is not enough energy to support life at fourth consumer level. More energy is found at
the beginning of the food chain & it decreases up the trophic levels. Some of the energy is lost through,

- Respiration to provide body heat

- Ineffective digestion and absorption in the guts of consumers as faeces
-
This means that there are more producers & a few consumers. This can be illustrated using a pyramid of numbers as
shown below

Food pyramids

These are of two types;

- Pyramid of numbers
- Pyramid of biomass

Pyramid of numbers

They can look like true pyramids

Tertiary consumers

Secondary consumers

Primary consumers

Producers

156
 157

They can also be inverted as in the case of parasitic feeding relationships where there are a large number of parasites
feeding on a host.

Tertiary consumer

Secondary consumer

Primary consumer ( parasite e.g. aphid)

Prpducer ( cabbage)

Pyramids of Biomass

These are diagrams that show the mass of organisms at each trophic level. The length of the bar is proportional to the
mass of organisms

Perch

Water scorpion

Tadpole

Algae

Non – Cyclical flow of Energy

157
 158

Energy cannot be recycled in an ecosystem but nutrients can be recycled, carbon & nitrogen for example, can be used
again & again in different forms in an ecosystem.

Energy does not flow backwards & return to the sun therefore we say that the energy flow through the ecosystem is
non-cyclical

producer Primary consumer Secondary consumer Tertiary consumer

The Carbon Cycle

• Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere which is used by plants to make carbohydrates through photosynthesis.
Therefore green plants remove carbon from the atmosphere.
• Plants are eaten by animals, so the process of feeding passes carbon from plants to animals.
• Plants and animals respire all the time when there are alive, and respiration releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.
• When plants & animals die, they are decomposed by bacteria & this causes decay. This process also releases
CO2 to the atmosphere. Through these processes the carbon cycle is balanced
Photosynthesis is balanced naturally by Respiration & Decay

• However, human beings have upset the cycle by adding more CO2 to the air. This is caused by combustion of
fossil fuels like; natural gas, crude oil, coal.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS Plants use the atmospheric

CO2 in the atmosphere CO2 to make carbohydrates

RESPIRATION

DECAY

Animal tissue formed from

DECAY EATEN
eating plant tissue
RESPIRATION

COMBUSTION FOSSILISATION
Fossil fuels; e.g.
natural gas, Coal,

158
 159

THE NITROGEN CYCLE

Processes which add nitrates to the soil

1. Nitrogen fixation

In this process nitrogen gas from the atmosphere is incorporated into nitrogen compounds such as nitrites, nitrates or
ammonia.

a) Nitrogen fixing bacteria,

Some group of these bacteria lives in root nodules of leguminous plants like peas and beans and can absorb nitrogen
in the air and convert it to compounds of ammonia in the soil. The compounds of ammonia can then be converted to
nitrates by other nitrifying bacteria, e.g rhizhobium

Other nitrogen fixing bacteria live freely in the soil, e.g. azotobacter and chlostridium.

2) Nitrification

This process involves oxidation of nitrogen compounds to produce nitrates in the soil

a) Nitrifying bacteria

These bacteria living in the soil use ammonia from excretory products of animals urea and uric acid and decaying
organisms as energy source and in the process they produce nitrates. Nitrates are readily absorbed y plants as they
are water soluble compared to nitrites which are water insoluble and not readily absorbed by plants.

3. Adding nitrogenous fertilizers to the soil

159
 160

Processes which remove nitrates from the soil

1. Denitrification

In this process nitrogen in nitrates is lost to the atmosphere as nitrogen gas. Denitrifying bacteria break down
nitrates and return nitrogen contained in nitrates to the atmosphere.

2. Uptake by plants

Plants absorb nitrates from the soil and use nitrogen in the nitrates to make plant protein. This protein can be
consumed by animals and converted to animal protein..

3. Leaching

When the plants and animals die and decay as a result of action of saprophytic bacteria , ammonia is produced and is
washed into the soil. Nitrates can also be washed deep into the soil.

EFFECTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON THE ENVIRONMENT

There is a natural balance between plants & animals, as shown by food webs & food chains. However human activities
upset the balance, harming the environment & posing many problems to human beings themselves. Examples are
given below

How Poor Agricultural Practices Result in the Destruction of Ecosystems

1) Monoculture
This means growing one type of crop on the same piece of land year after year. Such crops cannot support a mixed
population of organisms. It also leads to the displacement of the natural plants & animals, as the land will be cleared
for growing that particular crop. Monoculture also results on the use of pesticides to control pests affecting that crop,
but this often kills not only the pests but also other beneficial organisms.

2) Overstocking
This means keeping a large number of livestock with a small area. This leads to overgrazing which might lead to soil
erosion. Overgrazing leads to the destruction of habitats for small organisms.

3) Deforestation
This refers to the cutting down of too many trees (for the purposes of building industries, residential houses,
construction of roads & other things) without replacing them. As a result most habitats are destroyed & also certain
plant species are destroyed. The noise caused during the construction drive away some animals & hence disturbing
the ecosystem.

4) Pesticides
Some insecticides such as DDT are non-biodegradable, i.e. cannot be decomposed by biological organisms. Therefore
they enter the smaller organisms in the food chain. The concentration of this insecticide increases up the trophic
levels hence the tertiary consumer may die due to higher concentrations of the insecticides. This is called
Bioaccumulation.

160
 Vulture 161

Cat Consumes many organisms which had consumed more organisms with high
concentrations of the pesticides

Lizard

Mosquito
Treated with pesticides & therefore more small organisms will be affected by the
pesticide

5) The use of Fertilizers

Fertilizers rich in nitrates & phosphates are normally used to enrich the soil for better crop yields. If these nitrates &
phosphates are drained into rivers due to running water, they promote the growth of aquatic plants. These plants will
flourish and become overpopulated. This process is called EUTROPHICATION.

As a result of overpopulation, these plants compete for nutrients and they eventually die. When they die, they get
decomposed by the bacteria & this process uses the oxygen in the water. As a result there will be insufficient oxygen
supply to the aquatic animals and plants, e.g. algae and fish. These animals will then suffocate & die.

PROBLEMS LEADING TO FAMINE

♣ Unequal Distribution of Food

The country may have enough food but not equally distributed among the whole population. There are certain areas
where people are extremely poor due to lack of food while in other areas in the same country people have more than
enough.

♣ Natural Disasters
Certain areas may experience heavy rainfall resulting in floods, which may destroy many houses & vegetation. People
will remain poor without shelter & food. In certain areas it may be very hot & dry without any rain which will make
farming impossible. Since many people rely on farming, they will starve because livestock will be destroyed & no
crops will be grown.

♣ Increase in Population
If there are too many people in a given area & less resources, there will be a serious problem because there will be
acute shortage of food supply.

POLLUTION

It is the presence of harmful substances in an environment

OR

It refers to bringing about changes that are destructive to both living & non-living things in an environment.

These harmful substances are called POLLUTANTS

161
 162

Types of Pollution

Air Pollution

The presence of pollutants in the atmosphere causes air pollution. E.g. poisonous gases from industries results in the
pollution of air. One of the most common gases released from industries is Sulphur dioxide. When this gas combines
with the moisture in the atmosphere, it fall down as acid, which corrodes buildings & destroys vegetation.

Excess CO2 in the atmosphere can also bring about some problems. An increase in CO2 may be due to burning fuels;
e.g. fire wood, fossil fuels etc. at a higher rate & also due to the cutting down of trees which could otherwise help in
reducing the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere when they use the CO2 for photosynthesis.

CO2 from combustion accumulates in the atmosphere to form a layer. This layer prevents heat reflected from the
earth’s surface from escaping out of the atmosphere, a condition referred to as the green house effect. If the
concentration of CO2 is very high it means more heat will be trapped leading to a rise in the earth’s temperature. This
is known as Global Warming.

Effects of global warming

- Melting of polar ice

- Rise in sea levels
- Change in weather patterns
- Rapid spread of pests and diseases

Some oxides such as lead oxide released from car exhausts may also pollute the air & are harmful to people when
inhaled.

Water Pollution
• Sewage Disposal
Some waste materials from toilets and kitchens when drained into rivers will cause water pollution. This waste
contains disease causing micro-organisms which may result in people catching diseases if they use this untreated
water, e.g. cholera, bilharzia etc.

• Inorganic wastes
These are usually the waste materials from industries which when discharged into rivers, pollute the water. This
waste may contain poisonous chemical substances such as mercury, lead etc. If they enter the food chain e.g. e.g.
from small fish up to human beings, they may cause serious health problems such as cancers or even death.

Land Pollution
The land may be polluted by litter e.g. tins, papers, glasses etc, which may end up acting as breeding places for disease
causing micro-organisms. The land may also be polluted by disposed chemicals, which may destroy beneficial
organisms.

162
 163

CONSERVATION

This involves preserving habitats & protecting individual species of plants & animals.

Advantages

1. it ensures biodiversity
2. it ensures the protection & keeping of species with survival value

Reasons for Conserving Organisms

1. they are a source of food e.g. Mowana & Mosukujane

2. For medicinal purposes e.g. sengaparile (devil’s claw) & monepenepe
3. For tourist attraction e.g. rhinos, cheetahs, lions etc.

Material Recycling

This is one way of conserving materials & it involves the use & reuse of materials (i.e. reprocessing of used materials
to be used again).

Reasons For Recycling

1. Reduces littering & pollution

2. reduces pressure on natural resources
3. Saves money because there is no need to new materials

Examples of Recycling

♣ Sewage water can be recycled by watering gardens and road construction

♣ Organic waste can be fermented to produce methane gas, which is used in cooking and other things.
♣ Empty bottles can be cleansed and reused in the packaging of drinks, like at kgalagadi breweries
♣ Scrap metals, plastic & tins can be heated up & molded to make new items.

163
 164

HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis means the maintenance of a constantinternal environment.

In mammals a variety of organs play specific roles in homeostasis.

Organs Concerned Factors controlled

Kidneys Water (osmo-regulation), pH &

urea

Lungs CO2 & O2

Skin & Liver Temperature

Liver & islets of Langerhans Blood sugar / glucose

TEMPERATURE REGULATION / HEAT BALANCE

164
 165

1. For mammals to maintain a constant body temperature, there must be a balance between heat gain and
heat loss.
2.
3. Some activities in the body may cause body to gain some heat (and hence cause a rise in body temperature);
these include;
1. Contraction of body muscles – high rate of respiration which produce more heat
2. Respiration in cells release heat energy
3. Direct sunlight/fire
4. hot food/drinks
4.
Environmental temperature may drop to sub-zero degrees resulting in heat loss.

Failure to adjust to these temperature changes may lead to excessive heal loss (hypothermia) or overheating of the
body (hyperthermia), both of which may lead to death

The Skin

Functions of the skin

a) Protection – the outermost layer of the dead cells of the epidermis helps to reduce water loss & provides a barrier.
The melanin pigment produced by the mulphigian layer protects the skin from damage by ultra-violet light rays.

b) Sensitivity – scattered throughout the skin are a large number of tiny receptors which give rise to sensations of
pain, pressure, heat & cold. These make us aware of changes in our surroundings & enable us to avoid danger.

c) Temperature Regulation - Keeping the human body temperature constant is an example of a homeostatic
mechanism. The skin plays an important role in maintaining a constant body temperature by adjusting blood flow
near the skin surface & by sweating.

The skin has two layers;

1. Epidermis
2. Dermis

Epidermis

This is the outermost layer of the skin. It protects the body from pathogens by forming a barrier on top of one’s body.

165
 166

Dermis

This tissue has several structures such as hair follicle, sebaceous gland, nerve endings, adipose tissue, blood vessels
etc.

166
 167

Hair Follicle – This gives rise to hair found on the surface

Sebaceous gland – Secretes an oily substance called sebum. This goes onto the skin surface to keep it soft &
supple
Sweat glands – Absorb excess water and salts to make sweat
Blood vessels – These supply the skin with useful substances such as food & take away excess heat and waste
such as CO2 from the skin.
Nerve endings – These are receptors to touch, pressure, heat etc; they pick up stimuli in the skin & also bring
motor impulses to the skin.
Adipose tissue – (sub – cutaneous fats found below the skin), it is food store and also insulates the internal
organs & prevents excessive heat loss.

THE SKIN AND TEMPERATURE REGULATION

Maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans;

Overcooling;

If the temperature of blood falls below normal, the Hypothalamus in the brain detects this, impulses are sent to the
skin for the blood’s temperature to be increased. The skin will respond by;

i. Hair erector muscles contract

ii. Hair on the skin surface stands erect. This helps to
a. trap air that insulates the body
b. Less heat is lost from the skin by conduction

iii. Vaso-Constriction – this is the reduction on diameter of the blood vessels running near the skin surface. This
a. reduces blood flow near the skin surface & thus
b. heat loss (by conduction, radiation) is greatly reduced.
c.
iv. Sweat production stops – heat is conserved when there is no evaporation of sweat from the skin.
.

v. Shivering – shivering is an involuntary muscular contraction in response to a drop in body temperature.

During these muscular contractions a lot of heat energy is released.
vi. Sweat production is highly reduced

167
 168

a. Less heat is lost through evaporation

Overheating

If the blood’s temperature rises above normal, the thermoregulatory centre of the hypothalamus detects this,
impulses are sent to the skin to cool the blood. The skin responds by;

i. Erector muscles relax

ii. Hair on the skin lies flat on the skin surface – these makes

a. Air currents to easily flow close to the skin surface, collecting sweat & heat energy away from the
body.
b. Layer of air trapped by hair reduces therefore insulation reduces
c. More heat is lost through radiation from the skin

iii. Vaso-dilation – blood vessels in the skin increase in diameter. As a result

a. more blood flows near the skin surface.
b. More heat is lost (by conduction, convection & radiation)

iv. Producing sweat – Sweat glands absorb water, excess salts & urea from the blood to make sweat. This is
transported to the skin surface through the sweat duct to the sweat pore. As the sweat evaporates, it draws
excess heat from the blood capillaries and one feels cooler.

All these actions increase heat loss thus bringing body temperature back to normal.

The role of the brain in temperature regulation

The hypothalamus located in the brain, detects the temperature of the blood. The thermoregulatory centre (in the
hypothalamus) receives sensory impulses from the skin. If the blood is too hot, the hypothalamus sends an impulse to
skin. The effect of this motor impulse will cause the skin to respond through the activities that cool the blood as
outlined above. This mechanism of coordination is known as “Negative Feedback Mechanism”.

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

This is a pattern of regulation in which a change in a sensed variable results in a correction that opposes the change,
e.g.

168
 169

When the blood sugar level rises above normal, the hypothalamus will detect this increase and engage processes
which decrease the blood sugar level, i.e. release of insulin resulting in conversion of glucose to glycogen. This process
will continue until glucose level goes below normal, then the hypothalamus engages another process, insulin
production stop and glucagon is released to counteract this decrease.

Osmo-regulation (water balance)

Water balance in the body is achieved by regulating the amount of water in the urine. This is made possible by the
action of ADH – Anti-Diuretic Hormone produced in the pituitary gland.

Importance of water balance

Water is gained by the body from drinks & food and also produced within through respiration.

It is lost through urine, sweat, faeces & as vapour in the exhaled air. It is imperative that there is balance between
water gained & lost. If this balance breaks down then the body cells will either gain or loss water through osmosis
resulting in malfunctioning.

Generally kidneys regulate the amount of water present in the body by variation of the urine produced as depicted in
the flow diagram below.

169
 170

Stimulates pituitary gland

to reduce the production
of ADH.

Brain detects high levels of Kidney reabsorbs less water

water in the blood therefore more is lost as urine.

NORMAL WATER LEVEL

Kidney reabsorbs more water

therefore less is lost as urine
Brain detects low levels
of water in the blood

170
 171

Stimulates the pituitary to

release more ADH

Regulation of glucose level

The recommended sugar level must be around 160mg/100cm3. When the concentration of blood sugar increases,
insulin is released by the islets of Langerhans cells in the pancreas into the blood stream. Upon reaching the liver, it
stimulates the liver cells to take up excess glucose & convert it to glycogen for storage. When the glucose levels in the
blood drop another hormone called glucagon is released to stimulate the liver cells to convert glycogen back to
glucose.

Pancreas stimulated to release insulin

Brain detects high levels Liver converts excess glucose

of blood sugar to glycogen

NORMAL BLOOD SUGAR LEVEL

Low levels of blood

sugar detected
171
 172

Liver converts stored

glycogen to glucose

Pancreas stimulated to
release glucagon

EXCRETION

This refers to the removal of toxic metabolic waste from the body. There are several organs which play an important
role in this process.

EXCRETORY ORGAN EXCRETORY PRODUCT

Lungs Carbon dioxide

Kidneys Nitrogenous waste, water, toxins, used

drugs, hormones & excess salts.

Liver Bile pigments

THE URINARY SYSTEM

172
 173

Functions of parts

i) Blood vessels

Renal artery; brings oxygenated blood to the kidneys from the aorta. This blood is rich in food materials,
oxygen & waste substances such as urea.

Renal vein; carries deoxygenated blood from the kidneys to the vena cava.

ii) Kidneys

These are bean shaped organs found in the abdomen towards the back. They filter the blood and remove any waste to
form a substance called urine.

iii) Ureter

173
 174

This is a tube that emerges from of the two kidneys and serves to transport urine from kidneys to the bladder.

iv) Bladder

It is a muscular organ that stores urine. It is kept closed by a ring of muscles called sphincter muscles, which relax at
certain times to let urine out of the bladder. An adult’s bladder can hold between 450-500ml of urine.

v) Urethra

It is a tube that carries urine to the outside of the body. In females it carries urine only, whilst in males it transports
both urine & semen but at different times.

Structure of Kidney

174
 175

The functions of the kidneys are to

• remove urea & excess salts from the blood.

• Remove excess water from blood

The kidney has two regions; the cortex & the medulla. The cortex appears dark red since the glomerulus is located in
this region. The medulla is lighter than cortex this is where the rest of renal tubule lies, towards the ureter.

Nephron

A nephron is the smallest unit that makes urine. It consists of a cup-shaped structure called the Bowman’s capsule,
which encloses highly coiled capillaries called the Glomerulus. Extending form the Bowman’s capsule is along coiled
tube called the renal tubule. Approximately one million nephrons compose each bean-shaped kidney.

175
 176

The nephron makes urine through these main processes;

Ultra filtration
Selective reabsorption

176
 177

Ultra filtration

An arteriole branching from aorta brings blood at high pressure into the glomerulus. The rapid coiling of afferent
artery in the glomerulus further raises this pressure. The high pressure of the blood forces the liquid part of the blood
into the Bowman’s capsule (renal capsule) and this is called ultra filtration. This fluid is now called the glomerular
filtrate.

The glomerular filtrate trickles down the renal tubule extending from the glomerulus coiled around the capillaries.
The glomerular filtrate has both useful & waste substances dissolved in it. As the glomerular filtrate moves down the
renal tubule some water, glucose & other useful salts are reabsorbed back into the blood by the capillaries coiled
around the renal tubule. The process of choosing which substances are taken back into the blood is called Selective-
Reabsorption.

The waste materials will be left behind to exit the renal tubule through the collecting ducts. The substance is now
called urine.

If the blood becomes too concentrated (has less water) a hormone called Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH) is released.
This will stimulate the nephron to reabsorb most of the water. If the blood is dilute (has more water) the production
of ADH stops. The nephron will then leave most of the water in the glomerular filtrates therefore more urine is made.

KIDNEY FAILURE

Kidneys may not perform their function if they have been affected by diseases or as a result of sudden drop in blood
pressure, maybe due to road accidents. If the kidney fails one can have a kidney transplant or use an “artificial” kidney
or dialysis machine. During a kidney transplant a close relative is usually the best candidate. Sometimes the patient’s
immune system can resist the transplanted kidney, therefore immunosuppressant drugs are used to minimize
rejection.

Dialysis machine

177
 178

Blood from a patient suffering from kidney failure is led from the patient’s vein into the dialysis tubing which is made
of cellulose material. The tubing is partially permeable allowing small molecules such as those of salts, glucose & urea
to diffuse out into the dialysis fluid from their high concentration in blood to their low concentration in dialysis fluid.
Larger substances such as proteins are not allowed into or out of the dialysis tubing.

The continuous coiling of the tubing enables a large surface area for a lot of diffusion to take place. The dialysis fluid is
constantly changed to maintain the diffusion gradient from blood to the dialysis fluid.

178
 179

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system is made up of the Central Nervous System (Brain and Spinal cord) and the Peripheral Nervous System
(Nerves around the rest of the body).

This system enables organisms to;

i) detect changes in the environment and

ii) responds to these changes.

A Stimulus is a change in the environment (inside or outside the body) that must be detected. Egs; sound, smell, touch,
light etc.

A receptor is a tissue or organ made up of sensory cells that can detect a stimulus. Eg;

• receptor cells in skin to detect change in temperature (thermoreceptors

• receptor cells on the retina (rod and cone cells) to detect light (--photoreceptors)

An effector is a tissue/ organ which responds to stimulus. Egs; a) muscles, b) glands (especially endocrine glands)

After receiving the stimulus, the receptor cell initiates an electric impulse which travels through the sensory neuron
to the CNS. The CNS which is made up of relay or multi-polar neurons then interprets the impulses and sends
feedback through the motor neurons. The feedback is received by effector organs which are mainly muscles and
glands, which carry out a response action.

Sense, sense organs and their stimuli

Sense Stimulus Sensory organ

Sight light eye

Smell chemical molecules nose

Taste chemical molecules tongue

Hearing sound ear

Touch /feel pressure skin

Components of Nervous system

1. Peripheral nervous system

2. Central nervous system

179
 180

The Peripheral nervous system

It is made of nerves connecting the body to the CNS.

Nerves are made of bundles of nerve cells called neurones. There are three types of neurones

1.Sensory Neurone; Transmits nerve impulses from receptor organs to the CNS.

2. Motor Neurone; Transmits nerve impulses from CNS to the effectors. Cell bodies of these neurones are located in
the CNS. The axons are long.

3. Relay (Multi-polar) Neurone

180
 181

Transmits electrical impulse;

• within Central Nervous System

• from sensory neurone to relay neurone

Synapse

A junction between the end plate of one neurone the dendrone of the next.

An impulse arrives at the synapse

1. at the end plate are the sacs containing a chemical called neurotransmitter

2. the chemical is released into the gap

181
 182

3. the chemical diffuses into the gap and the impulse restarts at the other side

An electrical impulse change into a chemical called neurotransmitter which travels through the synapse to
generate a nerve impulse in the next neurone.

Voluntary and Involuntary actions

All the actions that we perform during responses may be classified under two groups; voluntary and involuntary
actions.

Voluntary actions are those that involve the thinking action of the brain. A person is fully aware that he is doing
something, e.g. eating, playing soccer, etc. These impulses are interpreted by the brain which then sends feedback to
the effector organs.

Involuntary actions on the other hand do not involve thinking and they happen subconsciously, i.e. a person does not
have full control of such actions. Some of these involuntary actions take place as basic operation of our body
processes, e.g. excretion, heartbeat, sweating, shivering, etc. Others occur automatically in order to adjust to an
environmental change which might endanger the body. These are known as reflex actions. Some reflex actions are
relayed in the spinal cord. This means that the motor impulses are sent by the spinal cord the moment it receives the
sensory impulse. They are known as spinal reflex actions. Examples include the Hand withdrawal reflex and knee jerk
reflex. The pathway carried by impulses during a reflex action is called a reflex arc.

REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC

A reflex action is a quick, rapid and automatic response to a stimulus.A reflex arc is the path taken by an impulse in a
reflex action.

182
 183

Other reflexes may be relayed by the brain, but still these do not involve thinking. Pupil reflex is an example of brain
reflexes. As light entering the eye increases, the pupil reduces to reduce light entering the eye.

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

This is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. It consists mostly of relay neurons.

The Brain

Part Function
Medulla oblongata automatic adjustments of bodily functions e.g. heart and breathing rates, blood pressure,
temperature regulation etc.

Cerebellum controls posture, balance and coordinated movements

Mid brain deals with reflexes involving the eye

Cerebrum largest part consists of two cerebral hemispheres, concerned with intelligence, memory,
reasoning ability and acquired skills.

Hypothalamus influences great variety of bodily activities, concerned with maintaining a constant internal
environment. Much of its motor activity is brought about by secretions of hormones from the
pituitary gland. Also produces some pituitary hormones.

The Spinal Cord

This runs the whole length inside the backbone from the neck to the pelvic girdle in mammals. The white matter is
made up of the axons of nerve cells connecting the spinal cord and the brain. The grey matter is made up of cell bodies
of relay neurons.

Function of the Pituitary body

183
 184

This is attached to the base of the hypothalamus and is in communication with the brain. It links the nervous system
and the hormonal coordination. E.g. when the external temperature is high, the sensory cells in the skin detect the
temperature and impulses are carried to the brain. The brain decides to channel most of water loss through sweating
rather than urine, so it triggers the pituitary body though the hypothalamus, to release more ADH resulting in more
water being reabsorbed by the kidney.

The Eye

This is the receptor organ for the sense of sight. It picks up stimulus in the form of light energy.

Parts Functions

Eye lids cover and protect the eye. Regular blinking serves to distribute fluid over the eyeball to prevent
drying.

Eye muscles attached at one end to the sclera and the wall of the orbit at the other.
Their coordinated contractions make the eye move up and down or side to side.

Sclera tough, non elastic fibrous coating on the outside of the eye ball. Maintains the
the shape of the eye.

Cornea a transparent disc in the front of part of the sclera. The curved surface of the
cornea does most of the refraction of light rays so that hey converge to focus
the image.

Choroid contains network of blood vessels supplying food and oxygen to the eye,
particularly the retina cells. It black pigmentation reduces reflection of light
within the eye.

Aqueous humor exerts outward pressure on the cornea keeping it stretched and curved in shape refraction of
light. Also supplies the lens and the cornea with oxygen and glucose

184
 185

Vitreous humor its pressure helps to maintain the shape of the eye. It also plays a part during refraction of
light

Lens makes fine adjustments by refracting light to focus it on the retina for formation
of a clear image on the retina. Fibres of the suspensory ligaments radiate from
edge of the lens and attach it to the ciliary body. The shape of the lens can be
altered by contraction and relaxation of the muscles in the ciliary body.

Iris sets of radial and circular muscles. Opposing contraction and relaxation of these increase or decrease the
size of the pupil controlling the amount of light entering the eye.

Retina made up of layer of cells which respond to light; rods and cones according to their shape. Cones can
discriminate coloured light but need stronger stimulus than rods. Rods are extremely sensitive and
help to see in the dark

Fovea small depression on the center of the retina. Contains no rods but has higher density of cones. When
an observer concentrates on an object or part of the object, its image is thrown on the fovea

Blind sport at the point where the optic nerve passes through the retina, there are no light receptors so leaving a
non sensitive disc. If part of the image falls on this part, no impression is registered in the brain that
part hence it is not visualized.

ACCOMODATION

The eye can produce a focused image of either a near or distant object. To do this, the lens changes its shape becoming
thinner for distant objects and thicker for near objects. This change in shape is caused by contractions and relaxations
of the ciliary muscles which form a circular band of muscle in the ciliary body.

When the ciliary muscle relaxes, the pressure of the humors pulls on the suspensory ligaments and stretches the lens
to its thin shape. The eye is now accommodated for distant objects.

To focus on near objects, the ciliary muscle contracts to a smaller circle, reducing tension on the suspensory
ligaments. Pressure inside the lens pushes outwards hens the lens becomes thicker and accommodates near objects.

185
 186

Focusing Defects

Long sight

Caused by small or short eyeball. Light from a near object would be focused behind the retina, so the image is blurred.
It can be corrected by wearing converging lenses

Short sight
Caused by large or thick eyeball. The image falls before the retina and it can be corrected by wearing diverging
glasses.

HORMONAL COORDINATION

The Hormonal or Endocrine system is the other of the two systems involved with coordination of body activities. The
endocrine glands secrete hormones which are then transported in the circulatory system.

A hormone is a chemical substance secreted by endocrine gland and transported in blood to the target organ where it
alters its activities.
or
A hormone is a chemical substance secreted by endocrine gland, transported in blood to the target organ where it
alters it effects a change.

186
 187

The endocrine glands are also known as ductless glands, e.g. ovary. This implies that they do not release or transport
their products through ducts. Exocrine glands have ducts and they form a sac where the product accumulates before
being released, e.g. salivary gland. However, some glands have both the endocrine and exocrine functions, i.e. they
release some products through ducts and at the same time they can secrete hormones into the blood, e.g. pancreas

Location of endocrine glands in the body.

GLAND HORMONE FUNCTIONS

Pituitary 1.Thyroid stimulating hormone stimulate thyroid to release thyroxine

(TSH)
2.Follicle stimulating hormone in male, stimulate spermatogenesis
(FSH) in female, development of ovarian follicles
3.Luteinising hormone in male, testosterone secretion
(LH) in female, secretion of oestrogen and progesterone,
ovulation and maintenance of corpus luteum
4.Growth hormone protein synthesis, growth, especially of bones of limbs
(GH)

Thyroid 1.thyroxine regulation of basal metabolic rate, growth and

development

187
 188

Pancreas 1.Insulin decreases blood glucose level, stimulates conversion of

(Islets of glucose to glycogen in the liver
Langerhans) 2.Glucagon increases blood glucose level, break down of glycogen
to glucose in the liver

Adrenal 1.Adrenalin increases rate and force of heartbeat, constriction of

skin and visceral, dilation of arterioles of heart and
skeletal muscles, raise blood glucose level
all these prepare the body for action thus considered a
flight, fright, fight hormone

Ovary 1.Oestrogen female secondary sex characteristics, oestrous cycle

2.Progesterone gestation, inhibition of ovulation

Testis 1.Testosterone male secondary sexual characteristics, sex drive, sperm

production

Endocrine System Vs Nervous System

Message sent in the form of chemicals sent as electrical impulse

Transported in blood transported in nerve fibres

Response is slow quick response

Wide spread (dispersed throughout the body) localized (confined to the targeted part)

Long term effects e.g. growth short term effects

PLANT GROWTH SUBSTANCES

Plants also produce substances which are equivalent to hormones in animals. However these are not produced by
glands as in animals, but by certain cells and they may not be necessarily transported from their site of synthesis.
These substances are known to regulate plant growth, control reproduction, induce flowering, leaf shedding, fruit
formation, response to stimuli, etc.

Five major types of growth substances have been recognized: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and
ethylene.

188
 189

AUXINS

Experiments carried out on auxins

EXPERIMENT 1: This is an experiment by Charles Darwin.

(a) Shows that a coleoptile grows by bending towards the source of light. This is known as phototropism. If there
is no light, the coleoptile grows up straight.
(b) Shows that decapitated (tip removed) coleoptiles do not respond to light, they grow up straight.
(c) When an opaque cap is placed on the tip of the coleoptile, it does not respond to light
(d) Even when the rest of the coleoptile is covered and only the tip is exposed, it still grows by bending towards
light.

CONCLUSIONS

From the experiment we can conclude that the substance responsible for this behavior is produced by cells in the tip
of the coleoptile.

EXPERIMENT 2: An experiment by Boysen-Jensen.

(a) An untreated coleoptile grows by bending towards the source of light.

189
 190

(b) If an impermeable barrier is inserted in the side away from the source of light, the coleoptile does not
respond to light.
(c) If the barrier is inserted on the same side as the light source, the coleoptile bends.

CONCLUSIONS
The growth substance produced by the cells in the tip moves downwards along the side which is not exposed to light.
The high concentration of this substance stimulates faster growth on the side without light thus the coleoptile bends.

EXPERIMENT 3: An experiment by Went.

(a) The coleoptile grows if the treated agar block is placed on the decapitated coleoptile.
(b) Untreated block results in very little growth.
(c) Treated block placed on one side results in bending away from the side with the block
(d) Untreated block placed on the side has no significant effect; no bending.

CONCLUSION
The growth substance can be transferred from the tip into the agar block and stimulates growth if the agar is placed
on the decapitated coleoptile. If placed on one side, the side receives high concentration of the growth substance
therefore grows faster than the other side resulting in bending. This confirms that higher concentration of this growth
substance results in faster growth.

EXPERIMENT 4: By Went.

190
 191

From this experiment, block A results in bending while block B does not.

CONCLUSION
The growth substance moves away from the source of light thus a higher concentration of this substance is received
by block A which is on the shadow side while block B receives less.

These experiments helped to isolate this growth substance which was named Auxin and specifically identified as
Indoleacetic acid (IAA). IAA was soon found to be widely distributed in plants and to be intimately concerned with cell
enlargement. The diagram below summerises the preset beliefs concerning the unilateral illumination of coleoptiles.

Shoots grow towards light. This is essential for exposing leaves to light for photosynthesis. Growth towards light is
known as positive phototropism, while growing away is called negative phototropism.
Another form of tropism is affected by the force of gravity and is called geotropism. Because roots grow downwards,
i.e. along the pull of gravity, they are said to exhibit positive geotropism while shoots show negative geotropism by
growing against the pull of gravity.
Other forms of tropisms are shown in the table below.

191
 192

AUXINS AND GEOTROPISM

The involvement of auxins in geotropism is demonstrated by the experiment by Went. Auxin moves out of the
horizontally placed coleoptile tip but moves downwards as it does so. The greater concentration on the lower surface
of the intact coleoptile would stimulate greater cell elongation here, and hence upward growth.

In shoots, high concentrations of auxin are known to stimulate growth. In roots Auxin is found to exhibit an opposite
effect to this. Low levels of auxins are found in rapidly growing parts while high concentrations seem to inhibit
growth. As a result, when a root is placed horizontally, more Auxin moves to the lower side due to gravity. This
inhibits growth on this side and the upper side grows faster resulting in bending downwards.

192
 193

THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS

Drug; Any substance taken in from an external source to affect or modify chemical reactions in the body.

Drugs can be classified as medicinal and non-medicinal

MEDICINAL DRUGS;

These drugs are used in medicine because of their healing properties. All medicines contain drugs.

Medicinal drugs can be used as;

a) Painkillers (Analgesics) which relief pain but do not cure the disease.
Eg; aspirin, panado, paracetamol, morphine ect.

b) Antibotics Cure disease by killing the organism causing the disease. (treat bacterial infections) Eg; penicillin,
streptomycin (TB drug)

c) Antacids are used to neutralise excessive acids in the body esp stomach acids
Eg; indigestion remedies like Sodium Bicarbonate

d) Anti-retroviral drugs are used to halt multiplication of viruses

193
 194

ALLERGY
This is the hypersensitivity or the over-reaction of the body (‘s immune system) to some specific substances which are
generally harmless.

Allergens {antigens detected by the body’s lymphocytes (?)} may come from (as) the following;

1. Pollen grains
2. animal fur
3. hair
4. dust
5. penicillin and other drugs
6. Named food substances, eg; sea food,

In response to these substances the body releases chemical substances called histamines which produce the
following symptoms (allergic reactions);

1. rash
2. breathlessness (asthma)
3. swollen eyes
4. sweating
5. excessive production of mucus
6. cramps
7. sneezing
8. itching
9. vomiting/nausea

Antihistamine creams can be used to relieve symptoms of an allergy.

NON-MEDICINAL DRUGS ( also Called ABUSIVE DRUGS)

These drugs may not be used as medicines (may not be prescribed by doctors) due to their adverse effects on the
body; some may damage body tissues like liver and brain, most of these drugs cause tolerance, addiction and
dependence.

Tolerance

This is when the body needs an increasing dose to give the same effects as before i.e the body requires a larger dose
to give the same effects as time goes on.

Addiction/ Dependence (emotional and physical)

This is the state of reliance on a drug for normal functioning of the body.

194
 195

Types of dependence

Emotional dependence

The abuser believes he feels normal or can operate better under the influence of the drug

Physical dependence

The body of the abuser works normally only under the influence of the drug

Non-medicinal drugs are classified due to their effect on the Central Nervous System (CNS) which are;

a) Depressants (sedatives). These slow down the action of the CNS, making the user to feel relaxed, sleepy, less
anxious, less shy etc. eg; alcohol, heroin, anaesthetics.

b) Stimulants speed up action of CNS making user to feel more confident, alert, exited. Eg; caffeine (in tea and
coffee), cocaine, nicotine (in tobacco).

c) Hallucinogens alter the passage of nerve impulses thru the brain causing the user to experience
hallucinations(false perceptions of the real world affecting senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch and taste), eg.
Dagga, Heroin, glue, solvents, LSD etc.

DRUG ABUSE
This means using drug beyond its original purpose which may result in personal, psychological, social and physical
problems.

Reasons for abusing drugs

1. Most people abuse drugs which make the user to feel; relaxed, calm, pleasure.
2. Relief stress (forget problems)
3. Peer pressure
4. Curiosity, to experiment
5. Escape from boredom
6. Rebel against authority
7.
Dangers of abusing drugs

1. Tolerance; Development of a resistance to the effects of a drug, where the user takes increasingly larger
doses of the drug in order to experience the same effect.
2. Addiction; User develops a dependence on the drug. He can not do without it.

EXAMPLES OF ABUSED DRUGS

1. Heroin

195
 196

2. Dagga/ marijuana

3. Glue/solvents

4. Spirits

HEROIN

It is inhaled, injected or smoked

Effects;

a) Hallucinating
b) Stupor
c) Nausea
d) Vomiting
e) Temporary Sterility and impotence
f) Unconscious
g) Addiction
Reasons for abusing Heroin

a) Euphoria seeking
b) Avoid withdrawal symptoms

Withdrawal Symptoms of Heroin

If an addict stops to take Heroin, he will become sick and develop the following withdrawal Symptoms;

a) Nervousness
b) Chills
c) Sweating
d) Hot and cold flushes
e) Nausea
f) Diarrhoea
g) Stomach cramps

DANGERS OF CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL

(Alcoholism -excessive alcohol consumption)

Alcohol does not need to be digested so it gets absorbed straight into the blood immediately.

Effects of alcohol

-alcohol is a depressant so;

1. It increases reaction time of the user and this is a main cause of road accidents
2. It leads to slurred speech, loss of muscle control, double vision (may cause road accidents too)
3. Memory loss and lowered judgement
4. Damages the liver ( Causes Liver cirrhosis)
5. Damages the Brain (damages brain cells)
6. Drinking mothers may pass it to foetus thru placenta resulting in babies born smaller, less intelligent,
disfigured. Or even miscarriages.

196
 197

7. Social Effects include; reduced self-control (Always in debts), reduced sense of responsibility (some pple end
up losing jobs), unreliable, aggressive behaviour (even to family). Increased HIV/AIDS exposure due to
careless behaviour. Increased crime (Burglary, prostitution etc to get money to buy drug).
SUPPORT AND LOCOMOTION

Skeletal tissues are formed from hard substances deposited by living cells. Frequently, they contain non living mineral
matter such as calcium salts. The substances made of such non living can nevertheless grow and change as a result of
the activities of the living cells which dissolve away and replace the hard material.

Exoskeleton
This is where the hard material is formed mainly on the outside of the body. Insects and crustaceans such as crabs
have exoskeletons made of chitin.

Endoskeleton
Vertebrates have bony skeletons within their bodies covered with flesh.

197
 198

Functions of the skeleton

1. Support
It gives an animal a rigid support and raises the body from the ground. It allows rapid movement and suspends vital
organs preventing them from crushing each other. It maintains shape.

2. Protection
Certain delicate and important organs are protected by casing of the bone. Te brain is enclosed in the skull, the spinal
cord in the back bone, while the heart and the lungs are surrounded by a cage of ribs between the sternum and the
spine.

3. Movement

Many bones act as levers. When muscles contract, they pull on these levers producing movement such as chewing
action of jaws, the breathing movement of the ribs and the flexing of the arms.

198
 199

Muscle attachment
The muscles must attach to the limb bones at one end in order to produce movement but in addition, they must be
attached rigidly at the other end so that only one part of the limb moves when the muscle contract. The muscle is
attached to the bone by a tendon.

To enable reversible movements, each part of the limb requires at least one pair of muscles with opposite effects. This
means when one muscle contracts, the other one relaxes and to reverse the movement, the previously contracted
muscle must relax while the other one contracts. Such muscles are known as antagonistic muscles. E.g. the lower arm
is moved upwards by contracting biceps (flexor) and relaxing triceps (extensor).

Joints

A joint is formed where to bones meet. Some joints do not permit movement e.g. between bones of the skull. Some
permit very limited movement e.g. vertebrae of the spine, while others allow considerable degree of movement, e.g.
synovial joints.

The two common synovial joints are the ball and socket and the hinge joints. The ball and socket allows
multidirectional movement, e.g. between the humerus and the scapula (shoulder), and also between the femur and
pelvis (hip).

The hinge joint only allows movement in one plane (unidirectional) e.g. the knee and elbow joints.

The joints are protected from friction by synovial fluid. The cartilage also ensures smooth contact between bones.

199
200

200