FPA Fire Warden Handbook

All Intellectual Property Rights in this document are owned by the FPA.
It is reproduced and distributed with the permission of the FPA
Fire Warden Handbook
THE UK’S NATIONAL FIRE SAFETY ORGANISATION

Protecting people, property, business and the environment
All Intellectual Property Rights in this document are owned by the FPA. It is reproduced and distributed with the permission of the FPA

Author
Thanks to Russell Pratt

for his contribution to this book.
Author: Name
Fire Protection Association

London Road, Moreton in Marsh, Gloucestershire GL56 0RH
Tel: +44 (0)1608 812 500 Fax: +44 (0)1608 812 501
Email: sales@thefpa.co.uk Web: www.thefpa.co.uk
© Fire Protection Association 2019
Published by Fire Protection Association
ISBN 978-1-9162094-0-4
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in
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Printed by In2Print Limited 10.19

CONTENTS
Contents
FOREWORD6
1 INTRODUCTION 7
1.1 Legislation 8
1.2. Statistics on fire deaths and injuries 8
1.2.1 Number of deaths and injuries in fire 9
1.2.2 Causes of fire deaths 9
1.2.3 Where fire deaths commonly occur 9
1.2.4 What causes them and how to combat those fire risks 10
1.3 Who is responsible? 10
1.4 Who are competent persons? 10
1.5 Who are relevant persons? 11
1.6 The risk assessment process 11
1.7 Responsible person and how fire wardens help 12
2 WHAT IS FIRE? 14
2.1 The Fire Triangle 14
2.2 Heating and ignition 15
2.3 Flammable mixtures 16
2.4 How fire moves 16
2.5 Speed of fire 17
2.6 Smoke 18
3 DAILY VIGILANCE – HAZARD SPOTTING 19

3.1 Kitchens and cooking equipment 19
3.2 Electrical hazards 20
3.3 Lighting 21
3.4 Smoking 21
3.5 External security 22
3.6 Waste storage 22
3.7 Self-closing fire doors and hold-open devices 22
3.8 Blocked escape routes 23
3.9 Portable and fixed heaters 23
3.10 Flammable materials 24
3.11 Hot work 24
3
4 PEOPLE AT RISK 26
CONTENTS
4.1 People with disabilities 26

4.2 Others at risk 27
4.3 Strategies to help people at risk 27
4.4 Other help for people at risk 28
5 EVACUATION TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES 29

5.1 Single stage evacuation 30
5.2 Two-stage or phased evacuation 30
5.3 Delayed evacuation 31
5.4 Progressive horizontal evacuation 31
6 PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE 32

6.1 Staff training 32
6.2 Fire escape routes 33
6.3 Signage 33
6.4 Detection and alarm systems 34
6.4.1 Detectors 34
6.4.2 Alarms 35
6.5 Extinguishers, sprinklers and fixed systems 35
6.6 Emergency procedures 36
6.7 Fire doors 36
7 FIRE WARDENS’ ROUTINE CHECKS38

7.1 Detectors 38
7.1.1 Heat detectors 39
7.1.2 Smoke detectors 39
7.2 Alarm systems 39
7.3 Extinguishers 40
7.4 Emergency lighting 40
7.5 Compartmentation 40
7.6 Escape routes 41
7.7 Housekeeping 41
7.8 Signage 41
7.9 Recording and reporting 42
8 ACTION IN THE EVENT OF FIRE43

8.1 Actions for everyone 43
8.2 Actions for fire wardens 44
8.2.1 Investigating the fire 44
8.2.2 Sweeping zones/floors 44
8.2.3 Switching off gas/electricity 46
8.2.4 Roll calls 46
8.2.5 Meeting the fire and rescue service 46
8.2.6 Preventing re-entry 46
8.2.7 Looking after people 46
4
9 FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT 47
CONTENTS
9.1 Classes of fire 48
9.2 Types of extinguisher 48
9.3 Fire blankets 49
9.4 Siting of equipment 49
9.5 Precautions when using an extinguisher 50
9.6 Which extinguisher? 50
9.6.1 Fires involving solids 51
9.6.2 Fires involving liquids 51
9.6.3 Fires involving gas 52
9.6.4 Fires involving cooking oils 52
9.6.5 Fires involving electrical equipment 52
10 HOME FIRE SAFETY 53

10.1 Domestic checks and everyday safety considerations 54
10.2 Domestic alarms and extinguishers 55
10.3 Home evacuation plans 56
FURTHER INFORMATION 57
INDEX58
5
FOREWORD
Foreword
A
lthough the role of the fire warden may differ from organisation to organisation,
there are a number of key activities and actions that generally make up their
responsibilities. In fact, as you will find outlined in other parts of this handbook,
fire wardens (or ‘fire marshals’ as they are also often called) play a significant and key
role in ensuring the safety from fire of building occupants as well as the building itself,
and assist in meeting key requirements of current fire safety legislation. Whilst fire
wardens play a pro-active role in a building’s fire safety in addition to helping to evacuate
occupants in the event of a fire, it should be remembered that fire wardens must never
put their own safety at risk in carrying out their duties. This handbook aims to outline
the key areas of knowledge and influence required by a fire warden and describes the
responsibilities and principal activities of those undertaking this important role.
Liz Barnwell
Publications Manager, FPA
6
1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
T
he most important purpose of fire safety legislation is the protection of life. Its
various provisions are designed to decrease the threat to life safety posed by
fire. Fire safety legislation is not there to protect property, although the measures
adopted to protect life will provide a degree of protection to the building structure
and contents.
1.1 Legislation
The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005 was introduced in October 2006
in England and Wales. In Scotland, the Fire (Scotland) Act 2005 and the Fire Safety
(Scotland) Regulations 2006 came into force in October 2006. Similar changes were
implemented in Northern Ireland in 2010. These pieces of legislation simplified the law
and strengthened the well-understood process of fire risk assessment.
Previously, under the Fire Precautions Act 1971, there had been a need for premises to
have a fire certificate, issued normally by the local fire and rescue service. Once issued,
the fire certificate, which prescribed all necessary fire safety measures for the premises,
was often filed away and forgotten about. The introduction of the Fire Precautions
(Workplace) Regulations 1997 (and then amended in 1999) placed the responsibility for
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1
maintaining a fire safe workplace on the employer, with the requirement to carry out a fire
INTRODUCTION
risk assessment central to the Regulations.
Effective fire safety has always relied upon responsible and competent people and that
has not changed. However, it is now crucially important that those deemed responsible
self impose risk assessment techniques and employ competent staff to achieve safety
from fire, rather than await direction from those enforcing the law. In every case, it
is the ‘responsible person’ (also referred to as the ‘duty holder’ in Scotland, and
the ‘appropriate person’ in Northern Ireland) who must identify all the legal controls
affecting their business. Useful sources of clarification and advice are the Fire Protection
Association, trade associations, local authorities, fire and rescue authorities, and the
organisation’s insurers. It should be remembered that ignorance is no defence in law.
The duty is on the person responsible for the premises to ensure that a fire risk
assessment is undertaken and to maintain fire precautions. This requirement applies to
virtually all non-domestic premises and if five or more people are employed, a licence is in
force or an alterations notice is issued on the premises, the assessment must be recorded.
The person responsible for the premises need not undertake the fire risk assessment
themselves – they are only required to ensure that a suitable and sufficient assessment
of the risk is undertaken and they can, if necessary, appoint someone to carry this out
for them. Nevertheless, it remains the duty of the responsible person to ensure that a
suitable and sufficient fire risk assessment is undertaken and implemented.
1.2 Statistics on fire deaths and injuries

Although they may appear dated, the statistics in this chapter are in fact the most up
to date available. It takes some time for the Home Office to collate, verify and publish
the information.
In addition, it would be fair to say that although we are seeing a decrease in fire deaths
and injuries generally, the causes of deaths and sources of ignition described here
change proportionally little from year to year.
Other and Smoke or gas

unknown inhalation
31% 30%
Burns and smoke

or gas inhalation Burns
15% 24%
Figure 1: Causes of fire deaths 2017-2018 (source: Home Office statistics for
Great Britain)
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1
1.2.1 Number of deaths and injuries in fire
INTRODUCTION
In 2018-19 there were 253 fire-related fatalities and 7,160 non-fatal casualties, of which
3,145 required hospital treatment. Losses due to fire exceed £1.3 billion annually. In
addition, our rivers and air are damaged by pollution, businesses fail, and our heritage
is destroyed.
1.2.2 Causes of fire deaths

The largest single cause of fire deaths is the inhalation of the smoke or gas given off
when materials burn. For many years, the percentage of fire deaths caused by smoke
and/or gas inhalation has remained at approximately 50%. Fatalities that are classified
‘unknown’ are most likely to be caused by smoke and or gas inhalation. The toxic
substances produced by smoke and gas include carbon monoxide, hydrogen chloride,
hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen sulphide.
1.2.3 Where fire deaths commonly occur

In 2017-18, the fire and rescue service attended more than 800,000 fires and false
alarms each year, the majority at people’s homes. Around 79% of fire deaths occur in
the home. This is because workplaces and other places where people shop, socialise
or congregate are governed by legislation and, as such, have certain measures in
place to protect against the effects of fire. These measures are covered in detail later
in this handbook. At home, there is often only one escape route. Homes are where
people sleep and cook, yet electrical items are often not checked and smoke detectors
infrequently tested. In most instances, there are no fire extinguishers either.
Other accidental Faulty fuel supplies

12% 9%
Placing articles Faulty appliances
too close to heat and leads
12% 16%
Careless
handling of
fire or hot
substances
9%
Playing with fire

Misuse of
1%
equipment or
Chip/fat pan fires appliances
6% 35%
Figure 2: Causes of fires in dwellings and other buildings 2017-18

(source: Home Office statistics for Great Britain)
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1
1.2.4 What causes them and how to combat those fire risks
INTRODUCTION
Looking at fires in both domestic and commercial premises, the Department for
Communities and Local Government statistics for 2010-2011 show that the biggest
cause of fires is wilful fire raising, or arson, at 19%. Cooking appliances cause 41% of
non-deliberate fires, followed by electrical equipment at 27%. Also of note, the careless
handling of smoking materials still accounts for nearly 9% of all accidental fires.
An unpleasant characteristic of deliberately started fires is that they may develop much
faster than an accidental fire, leading to a marked reduction in the time available for
escape. This may be because of accelerants used by the arsonist – more than one
fire may be set, and the arsonist may even tamper with fire safety equipment, such as
detectors, fire doors or extinguishers.
When we think about arson, we often consider groups of bored children hanging around
with a box of matches or a lighter. There are in fact many other motives for arson, some
of which are revenge, to conceal another crime, mental illness, to further political ends,
terrorism, financial gain, and vandalism.
1.3 Who is responsible?

Fire safety legislation is constructed in a way that places great emphasis upon the
person responsible for a premises. This is the person who must undertake a number of
duties related to general fire precautions and required tasks such as risk assessment,
implementing preventative measures, and maintaining fire safety arrangements.
Because it is this ‘responsible person’ who must in most circumstances undertake
these duties, a clear meaning is given to this individual in fire safety legislation: if you
have any degree of control over premises covered by the legislation, you are likely to
have some responsibility for fire safety but this responsibility will be in direct proportion
to your level of control, ie the more control you have, the greater your responsibility.
Additionally, however, an employer will always retain responsibility for the safety of his or
her employees.
More than one person can have fire safety responsibilities for the premises. For example,
an employer, owner, landlord, tenant, or contractor carrying out repair work may each
have fire safety responsibilities for the premises and are required to co-operate with each
other and co-ordinate their fire safety measures.
1.4 Who are competent persons?

Another general provision is the duty of employers to obtain assistance in meeting
their responsibilities by having to appoint a sufficient number of ‘competent persons’.
A competent person is someone with enough training and experience or knowledge
and other qualities. People with different roles will need to have different competencies
but it is a key requirement of the legislation that individuals are appointed to ensure that
the fire safety measures specifically required as a result of the fire risk assessment are
implemented and maintained. Such individuals will therefore require a broad knowledge
of fire and fire processes, as well as the premises. Their knowledge should include:
10
1
• combustibility of typical materials
INTRODUCTION
• how fires start
• what is needed to sustain a fire
• how fires spread
• how fire can be contained
• how fire can be suppressed
• fire detection and warning systems
• means of escape
1.5 Who are relevant persons?

The fire risk assessment must consider the safety of all ‘relevant persons’ in case of
fire. A relevant person is any person who is, or may be, lawfully on the premises or any
person in the immediate vicinity who is at risk from a fire on the premises. Particular
attention should be paid to those at special risk, such as people with disabilities and
those with special needs.
1.6 The risk assessment process

A fire risk assessment will help to identify hazards that can be removed or reduced and
to then decide the nature and extent of the fire precautions required to protect people
against the fire hazards that remain. In addition to those findings, the measures that are,
or will be, implemented to reduce the risk of fire must be included, as well as details of
any people identified as being particularly at risk. In every situation it is good practice to
record findings and actions. There may be a need to demonstrate to insurers and others
that a risk assessment has been conducted and outcomes seriously considered with
appropriate actions.
The assessment must cover the entire workplace. This means any part of the premises
that an employee has access to, or any area that is available as a workspace. This
includes the obvious common rooms, corridors and staircases, as well as the less
obvious access roadway, seldom-used stores and isolated buildings or spaces housing
facilities such as electrical intakes and power plant. As described earlier, the assessment
must also take into account any person in the immediate vicinity who may be at risk
from a fire on the premises.
Having conducted a risk assessment, the identified hazards should be removed or

reduced as far as is reasonably practicable and people protected from any remaining
hazards. Preventing fires and mitigating their effect is just as important as securing safe
escape. Special consideration should be given to the risks posed by the presence of
dangerous chemicals or substances, and the risks that these pose in the event of fire.
There are a number of steps that may be followed in undertaking a fire risk assessment.
Small premises could be assessed as a whole, but larger or complex premises may
need to be divided up into zones or functional areas.
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A typical approach is as follows:
INTRODUCTION
• Step 1: Identify fire hazards including combustible materials, sources of ignition,

and work processes. Examples include electrical items such as photocopiers,
computers, portable heaters and extension leads; stored combustible materials,
such as bed sheets or cardboard; and work processes, such as hot work. The
risks from cooking needs to be considered, as do the potential risks from the use of
oxygen cylinders in health and residential care facilities.
• Step 2: Identify people at significant risk. Staff and visitors should be included, as
should contractors and guests who may be unfamiliar with the premises, and staff
working alone or in remote parts of the building. When considering people at risk,
age and disabilities are important factors, along with how easily they can be alerted
to the fire, and how quickly they can evacuate to a place of safety.
• Step 3: Evaluate the risks. For example, the adequacy of existing fire safety
measures, control of ignition sources/sources of fuel, fire detection/warning, means
of escape, means of fighting fire, maintenance and testing of fire precautions, fire
safety training, escape routes. Safety measures include fire doors, extinguishers, an
alarm system, staff training, a no smoking policy, good housekeeping policy, security
and, of course, fire wardens. Any improvements identified as a result of the review
should be implemented.
• Step 4: Record findings and actions taken, and prepare a fire management plan.
• Step 5: Keep risk assessments under review, and revise as and when necessary.
The risk assessment is a working document that must be reviewed if, for example, any
changes are made to the building, or to what is stored in the building or part of it, or to
the type of work carried out in the building. In premises providing accommodation, if the
number of residents or the dependency of the residents changes, the risk assessment
will also need to be reviewed.
1.7 Responsible person and how fire wardens help

The responsible person as defined in Part 1, Article 3 of the Regulatory Reform (Fire
Safety) Order 2005 (RRO) is a) the employer, b) the person in charge of the premises, or
c) the owner.
In brief, the person responsible for the premises must:

1. ensure that the premises are equipped with appropriate firefighting equipment and
take measures for firefighting on the premises.
2. establish appropriate procedures, including safety and fire evacuation drills, to be
followed in the event of fire.
3. appoint a competent person(s) to aid in preventative and protective measures.
It is important that a sufficient number of competent persons are nominated to

implement the evacuation procedures and whatever steps are required for the effective
use of firefighting equipment on the premises. Many organisations fulfil this requirement
by the appointment and training of fire wardens to assist during an evacuation of the
premises, and in the use of the fire extinguishers provided.
Fire wardens can act as the eyes and ears of the person appointed to manage fire safety
in the premises by constantly being alert to the hazards and associated risks of fire in
their workplace and reporting any problems before they are allowed to develop.
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However, this does not detract from the fact that every employee has a duty to their
INTRODUCTION
employer and colleagues to follow policies and procedures, and notify activities,
hazards or failure in procedures that may affect the safety of anyone on the premises –
RRO Pt2 (a23).
Let’s revisit the fire risk assessment and see how the fire wardens have a role to play in
this too:
Step 1: Identify fire hazards
The person carrying out the fire risk assessment itself may not be in the building on a
daily basis. This is where fire wardens come in, by constantly being alert to hazards
and reporting them to the responsible or competent person.
Step 2: Identify people at risk
The types of people in a building can change after the risk assessment has been
completed. Fire wardens should be alert to anyone who may require help to
evacuate and report this to the responsible or competent person.
Step 3: Evaluate the risks
Fire wardens may be used to identify and report any deficiencies or damage to fire
safety equipment.
This handbook has been developed to ensure that fire wardens are equipped to
recognise potential fire risks in the workplace and the actions to take in the event of
a fire.
Key learning points

• Legislation requires all organisations to have a responsible person
to ensure that a fire risk assessment is undertaken, and to maintain
fire precautions.
• It is important that a sufficient number of competent persons are
nominated to help the responsible person implement evacuation
procedures. Fire wardens are often appointed and trained to fulfil
these roles.
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2
2
WHAT IS FIRE?
What is fire?
PA
T
o appreciate the role of a fire warden, it is important first to understand what
combustion is and what factors must be present for a fire to occur. This
chapter introduces the basic concepts of fire science, describing how fires
start and spread.
2.1 The Fire Triangle

Combustion can be defined as ‘a chemical reaction evolving both heat and light energy’.
However, three factors must be present in order to achieve combustion. These are: fuel,
heat and oxygen. When all three factors are present in the correct proportions, fire will
occur. This is often known as the ‘Fire Triangle’.
Fire almost always involves the burning of a gas or a mixture of gases. Solids and liquids
do not themselves burn. When heated to a sufficient temperature by the applied heat,
solids give off gaseous substances, which then burn. For example, when heated, coal
gives off methane, benzene and many other flammable hydrocarbon gases. Above any
liquid there is a layer of that substance in its gaseous state, and it is this that burns.
14
2
Fuel – All matter exists in one of three states: solid, Figure 3: The
WHAT IS FIRE?
liquid or gas. Under normal conditions, almost Fire Triangle
anything will burn. The burning rate of a fuel
depends on its configuration or state of division.
Finely divided fuels, such as dust, powders or
shavings, will absorb heat more rapidly than
bulky materials because of the greater area
that is exposed to heat. As a result, such
fuels will burn more readily.
Flammable liquids release vapour

in much the same way as solid
fuels. The rate of release is
greater for liquids than solids,
since liquids have less closely
packed molecules and will
vaporise more readily.
The ease or degree of vaporisation will depend on the product – for instance, petrol will
vaporise more rapidly than fuel oils, which in turn will release vapours more readily than
lubricating oil.
Virtually everything is a source of fuel. Some examples of fuel sources are bed linen,
towels, paper, clothing, furniture, waste, aerosol cans, cooking oils, plastics, solvents,
tables, chairs, gas in cylinders and liquid fuels.
Heat is required to act on a fuel in order to begin the chemical reaction that will
produce the flammable vapours required for combustion. The amount of heat
required to raise a substance to its ignition temperature will vary depending on the
substance involved.
Heat sources include heat from kitchen equipment, central heating boilers, smoking
materials, electrical plugs and leads, portable heaters, lighting units and hot work such
as welding, grinding or cutting.
Oxygen supports combustion and must be present before combustion can be

achieved. Normally, a 16-20% concentration of oxygen is required to support
combustion, but there are products which will liberate their own oxygen supply when
subject to heat and the subsequent chemical decomposition.
As oxygen is always around us in the air, the most important thing we can do to prevent
a fire starting is to keep sources of heat or ignition away from combustible materials.
All three elements of the Fire Triangle are necessary to start a fire. If any of them is not
present, a fire will neither start nor continue to develop.
2.2 Heating and ignition

It is a common misconception that solid materials burn, when in real terms they do not.
The process of combustion, in the case of solids and liquids, takes place in two stages,
although with dusts and thin substances such as paper the two stages may seem to
15
2
happen almost simultaneously. The first stage is when the solid or liquid is heated to a
WHAT IS FIRE?
temperature at which it gives off a flammable vapour. The second stage is when this
vapour is ignited by a flame or spark. When a flame touches a piece of paper, the paper
gives off a vapour which quickly catches fire. But, if the flame is not too close, or is
removed before the paper is more than slightly discoloured or scorched, the paper will
not burst into flames.
A prime example of how fires start in this way is that of Windsor Castle, where a
workman’s spotlight shone onto a curtain causing it to chemically decompose and
the vapours to ignite. The Windsor Castle fire on 20 November 1992 (pictured at
the beginning of this chapter) thankfully caused no deaths or serious injuries, but the
cost was extremely high. It resulted in the attendance of 39 fire appliances and 225
firefighters. The fire was alight for over 15 hours and spread to more than 100 rooms,
principally because of a lack of adequate fire compartmentation. The final cost of the fire
was £40 million for damage and restoration.
While all solids need an external source of heat (for example, a burning match or hot
surface) to raise them to the temperature at which they will give off their flammable
vapours, there are many liquid fuels that are already at this temperature, even on cold
days. Petrol and other petroleum-spirit based substances, such as certain adhesives,
vaporise even on very cold days.

The temperature at which enough vapour forms so that it can be ignited is known as
the ‘flashpoint’ of the liquid. The flashpoint of petrol is -43°C and therefore it is highly
flammable. By contrast, paraffin (kerosene) has a flashpoint of 38°C or higher and thus
cannot be ignited easily at normal temperatures. Spilt liquid fuel burns more readily than
liquid in bulk, because the volume is spread out over a greater surface area, therefore it
can be heated and can vaporise more quickly.
2.3 Flammable mixtures

Combustion is a chemical reaction in which flammable vapours (whether produced from
solids or liquids, or already present in gases) combine with oxygen in the air to give off
heat and light. Before ignition can occur, the flammable gases or vapours have to mix
with air. If too little air (and hence oxygen) is present, ignition cannot occur. Similarly,
if too much air is present, the gas or vapour will be too dilute to ignite. These limiting
concentrations of vapour are known as ‘flammable’ or ‘explosive’ limits and are specific
to each particular gas or vapour.
The explosive limits for petrol are 1.3% to 6% vapour in air, whereas the limits for
acetylene are considerably wider at 2.5% to 80%. This explains why acetylene is
deemed more dangerous.
2.4 How fire moves

Once a fire has started, has an adequate supply of oxygen and is surrounded by
material which can burn, it will spread. This may happen in three ways:
• convection
• conduction
• radiation
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Convection: When heated, air
WHAT IS FIRE?
expands, becoming less dense than the
surrounding atmosphere and, mixed
with gases produced by the fire, moves
upwards forming convection currents
that carry with them heat and smoke.
The temperature of these rising gases
can be very high and they will heat all
materials in their path. About 75% of
the heat from a fire is carried away by
air and other gases in this way.
Unless the supply of air is cut off, the Figure 4: Fire moves by convection,
movement of air upwards will draw radiation and conduction
fresh air towards the fire. This will in turn
become heated and rise upwards, continuing the process of convection.
The increasing supply of air reaching the fire as the draught caused by convection grows
stronger will intensify the upward current, enabling it to lift burning materials and drop
them over a wide area, starting new fires.
If something such as a ceiling blocks the upward path of the convection currents, they
will spread sideways. If they cannot spread sideways, because walls are present, they
are forced downwards. Hence, a thick layer of heated air and smoke will gradually build
beneath a ceiling.
Radiation: Objects in the vicinity of a fire are exposed directly to the radiant heat
from its flames. The nearer these objects are to the fire, the greater the intensity of the
radiated heat reaching them, and they may become heated to ignition point. This is what
happens when clothes drying in front of a fireplace ignite. A building on fire can set light
to another nearby building by radiation alone and the heat from a smoke layer building
up beneath a ceiling will commonly radiate sufficient heat down onto other contents in a
room or space, causing them to ignite.
Conduction: Although some metals such as steel will withstand the effects of great
heat without igniting, their presence – for example, as girders or partitions in a burning
structure – will not necessarily slow or stop a fire. Metals are very good conductors of
heat. A steel beam heated at one end will carry the heat throughout its length and may
cause combustible material at its other end to ignite. A metal door becoming heated by
a fire on one side may ignite materials in contact with its other side.
2.5 Speed of fire

Once fully developed, a fire has the potential to spread extremely quickly, depending
on the circumstances. The speed of fire spread is affected by many things, including
the materials that are burning and the size and shape of the room or area. Although
fire spread may not necessarily be rapid, you will remember from Section 1.2.2 that the
largest cause of fire deaths is the inhalation of smoke and gas. Toxic smoke and gases
may be generated and spread rapidly regardless of the speed of fire growth.
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2.6 Smoke
WHAT IS FIRE?
The most likely and evident clue to there being a fire in the premises is seeing or smelling
smoke. However, you should also be vigilant for unusual or unanticipated sounds which
often act as a tell-tale for fire, such as the squealing or hissing of gases escaping from
canisters or other sealed items where fumes under pressure are vented.
As outlined in Chapter 1, smoke can be deadly if inhaled and can also be present
at extreme temperatures. Smoke will create disorientation, and in a smoke-filled
environment it is likely to be difficult to see even nearby objects, and therefore it is
vital that smoke is contained in the room of origin by the correct use of fire doors and
compartmentation. Some of the properties of the constituents of smoke produced in a
typical fire are listed below:
• carbon/soot – reduces visibility and causes choking
• carbon monoxide – in mild concentrations can cause lightheadedness and
confusion; larger exposures can lead to significant toxicity of the central nervous
system and heart, and even death
• hydrogen cyanide – at lower doses, loss of consciousness may be preceded by
general weakness, giddiness, headaches and dizziness; high concentrations cause
apnoea, coma and cardiac arrest, with death following in a matter of minutes
• heat – causes burns and kills
Key learning points

• Fires need fuel, heat and oxygen to burn. Removing any one of these
will mean a fire cannot start or continue to burn.
• Fire moves in three ways: by convection, conduction and radiation.
It’s important to understand that fire can spread by any one of these
means.
• Smoke is the most obvious clue that a fire exists and it can be
disorientating and cause serious harm.
• Be vigilant for unusual noises, such as hissing gases and crackling
which may indicate a fire.
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3
DAILY VIGILANCE – HAZARD SPOTTING

Daily vigilance
– hazard spotting
T
he task of monitoring a workplace for fire hazards often falls to the
nominated fire warden, and it is important that all checks and hazards
identified are recorded and reported to the appropriate person without delay.
Many fires start through small, minor hazards. A greater awareness of hazards will
reduce the likelihood of fire or a breach of safety. In this chapter, we will look at
the common workplace fire hazards and the principal steps that can be taken to
effectively manage them.
3.1 Kitchens and cooking equipment

According to government statistics, the main cause of accidental dwelling fires
is the misuse of equipment or appliances, while the main source of ignition is
cooking appliances.
Cooking equipment is obviously a source of heat and, if items such as toasters or

microwave ovens are poorly sited, they can ignite nearby combustible materials.
Gas cookers involve the use of naked flames, which can ignite clothing, packaging and
towels/cloths if insufficient care is taken.
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3
Cooking oil will spontaneously ignite when heated to temperatures in excess of 340°C.
This may be caused by a defective thermostat or more commonly by human error,

perhaps through leaving cooking unattended. Once ignited, these fires are very difficult
to extinguish using conventional extinguishers such as powder or foam. Wet chemical
extinguishers (Class F) were developed specifically for extinguishing oil and fat fires in
commercial catering kitchens and should be located in close proximity to the hazard.
Many small businesses have kitchens where staff may prepare food themselves. These
facilities are similar to domestic kitchens and cooking hazards may still arise. It is therefore
important to:
• avoid undertaking deep fat frying unless a thermostatically controlled pan is
provided; even then it would be wise not to leave the pan or fryer unattended
• ensure that combustible materials such as cloths, towels and loose fitting clothing,
especially sleeves, are kept well clear of hobs
• not site toasters and microwave ovens in office areas; they should only be available
in kitchens
• have a sufficient cleaning and maintenance schedule in place
3.2 Electrical hazards

Most electrical fires are not spontaneous. Clues are there that something is wrong; you
just need to know what to look out for. Electricity generates heat and most appliances will
have air vents to provide essential cooling. Blocked vents can lead to overheating. Plugs
and sockets that feel hot to the touch are dangerous and need to be checked – unless the
manufacturer advises that this is normal, such as with some mobile phone chargers.
Frayed wiring and exposed wires where the lead enters the plug are dangerous. If this
occurs, the plug should be replaced, or rewired by a competent person immediately.
Damaged equipment or insulation can cause overheating, arcing or short circuits.
Plugging several appliances into one socket can cause an overload, which can lead to
a short circuit and a fire. It is better to use multi-socket adaptors on a lead, rather than
block adaptors as the latter often don’t contain fuses and are therefore more susceptible
to being overloaded without detection. Ideally, additional hard-wired sockets should be
provided. Don’t plug adaptors into adaptors, or extension leads into extension leads.
Only use one adaptor per socket. Check the rating of an adaptor before you plug in
appliances.
Fuses are designed to break an electrical circuit if a fault occurs. Using a fuse that is
too high for an appliance can cause the circuit to remain connected even when it is
overloaded and become a potential fire hazard. The rules for fuses are:
• 3-amp fuse – appliances up to 700 watts
• 5-amp fuse – appliances between 700 and 1,000 watts
• 13-amp fuse – appliances over 1,000 watts
Always use appliances and plugs that conform to the British Standard and have the
‘Kitemark’ logo. Some appliances are designed to be left on all the time; check the
manufacturers’ instructions. All other appliances should be switched off or unplugged
when not in use.
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3
Trailing extension leads should be protected where the potential for damage exists (such

as across a footway), not just to prevent someone tripping but also to protect the cable.
All portable electrical appliances should be subject to a routine testing and maintenance
regime known as ‘PAT testing’ (portable appliance test).
3.3 Lighting
Bulbs of low wattage generally do not produce enough heat for the surface temperature
of the bulb to become hot enough to ignite common combustible materials. As
the wattage is increased, especially with bulbs in fittings that restrict ventilation,
temperatures can greatly build up.
Potentially, a high-power light bulb can start a fire if it is placed in contact with, or too
close to, a suitable fuel. Even small light bulbs can generate enough heat to ignite paper,
cloth, sawdust and so on.
Halogen lamps get much hotter than standard light bulbs and range in temperature
between 600 and 900°C. A 300-watt tubular halogen bulb will quickly reach temperatures
capable of frying an egg. In comparison, incandescent light bulbs operate at a temperature
between 100 and 300°C, and a fluorescent light bulb operates at 60 to 80°C.
Flickering lights, discoloration of bulbs and tubes, and burning smells are all indicators of
defective lighting that should be checked by a competent person.
To reduce potential fire hazards, it is essential that combustible materials are kept clear
of all light bulbs and fittings. Particular care should be taken in storerooms and the like
where a light may be left on inadvertently overnight or over a weekend. Consideration
should be given to the replacement of lamps to newer LED lamps, significantly reducing
the heat emitted if left on for long periods of time.
3.4 Smoking
If designated smoking areas or shelters are provided, ensure that they are appropriately
sited away from buildings and combustible and other high hazard storage (such as
gas cylinders).
Make sure that metal waste bins,

ashtrays and so on are provided in
areas where smoking is permitted,
and that these are emptied regularly.
Ashtrays should not be emptied
into containers which can be easily
ignited, nor should their contents be
disposed of with general rubbish. Signs
of surreptitious smoking should be
reported immediately and offenders
disciplined in line with company policy.
Figure 5: High hazard storage

areas should not be situated near
designated smoking areas 21
3
3.5 External security
Wilful fire raising or arson is the single biggest cause of fires in the UK. In 2017, the
Department for Communities and Local Government tells us that 47 people died and
more than 500 were injured as a result of arson. According to the Arson Prevention
Forum, arson costs the economy £1.2 billion per annum in England and Wales.
The outside of the premises should be well lit and, if practical, the perimeter should
be secured. All entry points should be secure, including windows and any light wells
or other openings on the roof, but make sure that this does not compromise people’s
ability to use the escape routes. Open windows offer an arsonist an opportunity.
Encourage staff to report people acting suspiciously.
Secure against unauthorised access all storage areas and unused areas of the building
that do not form part of an escape route. Ensure access to keys to those areas is
restricted. Make sure you regularly remove all combustible rubbish.
Fit secure sheet metal letterboxes on the inside of letter flaps to contain any burning
materials that may be pushed through. Do not park vehicles or store goods or materials
in the open next to windows or doors opening into buildings.
3.6 Waste storage

Builders’ skips and rubbish bins are attractive to arsonists. When the contents of a
plastic bin or a builder’s skip are deliberately set alight, the fire may quickly consume the
contents and the bin. If sited close to a building, fire may spread to it from a bin or skip.
A steel bin with a lockable lid may deter an arsonist, or at least contain the fire.
Good housekeeping can lower the chances of a fire starting, so the accumulation of
combustible materials outside premises should be monitored carefully. If bins, particularly
wheeled bins, are used outside, they should be secured in a compound to prevent them
being moved to a position next to the building and set on fire. Skips should never be
placed against a building and should normally be a minimum of 10m away from any part
of the premises.
Any company that generates a considerable quantity of combustible waste material is

advised to develop a formal plan to manage it effectively, for example, in packing and
unpacking areas.
3.7 Self-closing fire doors and hold-open devices

Fire doors stop the flow of smoke and flames around a building, and will contain the fire
and smoke typically for between 30 minutes and 2 hours per door. They often contain
an intumescent strip that expands with the heat of a fire to create a smoke-proof seal.
This contains the fire to one compartment (room). After a fire, it is common for one side
of a fire door to be untouched by the effects of a fire, whilst the room on the other side
has been gutted.
Similarly, doors may also be fitted with brush or plastic blade type smoke seals,
which are designed to reduce but not entirely eliminate the spread of cold smoke
between compartments.
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3
Fire doors save lives, but only when kept

closed. It is an offence to prop open a fire
door. Persistent offenders can be punished
with a significant fine and/or time in prison.
Propping open a fire door needlessly
endangers lives.
Fire doors must not be wedged open,

however some doors may be held open
by electromagnetic or electromechanical
devices which are connected to the fire
alarm system and will be released to close
under the action of the self closer when the
fire alarm is triggered. Stand alone acoustic
triggered devices are also available and work
on a similar basis, releasing the door to close
on being exposed to a continuous alarm of
around 65db. Doors with all such closers
should be kept clear, so that they can close
fully and effectively in the event of a fire.
3.8 Blocked escape routes

It is essential that escape routes remain free
from obstruction and available for use at all
times that a building is occupied. A blocked
escape route may cause people to turn
Figure 6: Fire doors are often fitted back towards a fire. Partially blocked routes
with self-closing devices; it is an will cause delays and accidents.
offence to prop open a fire door
Blocking an escape route is an offence.
Escape routes should be sterile, which means they should contain nothing that can
burn and any potential ignition sources are minimised. Items such as notice boards,
photocopiers and so on should be relocated.
An escape route should be well lit with emergency lighting – that is, lighting which
operates in the event of a fire or power failure – and be fitted with appropriate signs
which clearly indicate the direction of escape.
3.9 Portable and fixed heaters

Portable heaters can often be hazardous in the work environment, especially if placed
too close to combustible furniture, fittings or materials. Convector heaters are safer than
radiant fires. Portable heaters should not be left unattended.
Ensure that all heaters are securely guarded and properly fixed in a permanent location
to prevent them from being knocked over. Place them well away from any materials that
could easily ignite. Never stand papers or books on them, or drape clothing over them.
Ensure that ventilation grilles do not become obstructed.
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3
All heating appliances use electricity, flammable liquids or gases (including LPG and
diesel fuel), or a combination of these. This introduces additional hazards into the
workplace. Review the owner’s manuals to ensure you are familiar with the operating
and safety features.
3.10 Flammable materials

Not all organisations use or handle large drums of flammable materials, but smaller
quantities of hazardous substances in the workplace are commonplace. Examples of
hazardous substances include aerosol cans, paints, thinners, turps, white spirit, alcohol,
adhesives, correction fluid, petrol, diesel, and gas canisters.
There is a useful mnemonic that is worth remembering when thinking about flammable
materials. The ‘VICES’ policy for storage and usage of hazardous substances should be
followed wherever possible:
• Ventilation – ensure where necessary that there is adequate ventilation to
disperse vapours
• Ignition – ensure that ignition sources are kept away from the storage area
• Containment – suitable metal containers should be used and kept secure
• Exchange – can you substitute the materials for a safer alternative?
• Separation – store away from areas of work and use suitable barriers where possible
3.11 Hot work

Hot work is activity that involves open flames or sparks, or that generates heat. Fires
involving hot work have led to multi-million pound losses. Most frequently, the cause is
carelessness and ineffective supervision while hot work operations are being carried out.
The sources of heat most commonly involved include

• gas and electric welding and cutting equipment
• blowlamps and blowtorches
• grinding wheels and cutting discs
• bitumen and tar boilers
Managing hot work means having absolute control over hot work activities through the
implementation of a hot work permit scheme. There are four key steps to the process:
• the hot work permit
• site preparation
• safe working
• follow-up checking
The person nominated to authorise hot work must have experience or training in the
problems associated with hot work and be of suitable status to ensure compliance with
procedures. Before any hot work starts, a hot work permit must be obtained from the
authorised person. All paperwork should be completed immediately prior to the work
taking place and immediately after it has been completed.
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3
The permit should not be issued without

first considering the significance of any
other permits to work in the vicinity. The
permit is issued for a specific task that is to
be undertaken in a clearly identified area.
Hot work permits should not be issued for
protracted periods and separate permits
should be issued for work that extends
from morning to afternoon periods.
The person carrying out the hot works

should perform a check of the area they
are due to be working in, removing all
combustible materials in a 10m radius.
Any smoke detectors or other detectors
© Thor Jorgen Udvang/Fotolia

in the vicinity should be isolated whenever
possible, but must be reinstated as soon
as the work is complete. At least two fire
extinguishers, appropriate to the work
being undertaken and the materials nearby,
should be provided and a fire watcher
should accompany the person carrying out
the hot works to keep an eye out for any
fires that may start. The person carrying out Figure 7: Hot work, like welding, must
the work should be made aware of all the be managed
fire precautions for the building including
the locations of exits, call-points and assembly points along with the system in place for
alerting the fire and rescue service.
Once the work has been completed, a continuous fire watch should be kept for at
least 30 minutes, with further checks being made at regular intervals for up to an hour
after completion.
Key learning points

• Hazard spotting is an effective way to help prevent fires.
• Consider common sources of ignition in kitchens, electrical equipment,
portable heaters and smoking.
• Minimise the risk of arson opportunities through good housekeeping.
• Keeping escape routes clear is a daily responsibility for a fire warden.
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4
4
PEOPLE AT RISK
People at risk
© Janet Wall/Fotolia
I
n identifying people who could be at risk in a fire, it is necessary to have in mind not
only regular members of staff, but anyone who may be asleep on the premises; those
present in large numbers; those who are unfamiliar with the layout of the workplace
and the exit routes; those who may be exposed to a particular or specific fire risk; and
those who have impaired sight, hearing, or mobility.
It is also important to note any people who would be unable to react quickly enough or
who are unaware of the danger of fire because they work in remote areas, have learning
difficulties, or are unaware of fire risks.
4.1 People with disabilities

Some common forms of disability are mobility impairment or frailty, hearing or visual
impairment, learning difficulties, and mental health and dementia. All must be taken into
account when planning how to evacuate occupants in the event of a fire. Remember, a
disability may be temporary or permanent. For example, someone with a broken leg will
need consideration.
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4
Different disabilities pose different risks in a fire situation:
PEOPLE AT RISK
• mobility impairment – can limit the speed at which someone can evacuate, for
example, the frail and elderly; it can also slow down the people behind them
• hearing impairment – can limit the response to the alarm
• visual impairment – can limit the ability of the individual to escape
• learning difficulties – can greatly affect the response to the alarm and people can
act very differently, for example, those with dementia may not be able to understand
the situation and react appropriately
Remember also that parents who have left their children in an on-site crèche may not
evacuate immediately, but first go to look for them. It is essential that plans are in place
which consider and cover such eventualities and that they are practised regularly.
4.2 Others at risk

Other people at risk include children; elderly people; those who may be impaired by
medication, alcohol or drugs; visitors; people who are unfamiliar with the building; people
asleep on the premises; non-English speakers; people in the vicinity of the building;
pregnant women; and obese people.
4.3 Strategies to help people at risk

There are a number of strategies that are employed when planning how to manage
people at risk:
• A Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan (PEEP) identifies the needs of a specific
individual and details of other people who would assist them in an evacuation.
PEEPs should contain specific details relating to the individual in question, and
should highlight exactly what will be done to aid their evacuation in an emergency.
For example, someone with mobility problems may need help in exiting the building;
their PEEP would highlight exactly who will support them and what they will do in the
event of an emergency, as well as any specialist equipment and training required. In
some environments, it is essential to assess the needs of each individual service user
to establish whether or not they need a PEEP.
• General Emergency Evacuation Plans (GEEPs) provide an outline guide to dealing
with people with certain disabilities or specific areas of the premises as a whole.
They can also be used to ensure that visitors with a disability can be evacuated
safely and successfully without the need for development of a full PEEP.
• Changing the location of the working areas for specific people at risk may prove
an easy way to support people with particular disabilities. For example, by locating
people with mobility problems on the ground floor, it makes it easier for them to
evacuate the building safely in an emergency.
• Staff training is the golden thread in maintaining fire safety. Confident trained staff
will help to ensure that people are evacuated safely in the event of a fire. Trained staff
will help in fire prevention and ensure that fire safety equipment is used correctly – for
instance that fire doors are not propped open.
• A buddy is someone trained to assist another person in the event of a fire alarm.
The buddy may take many different roles, from alerting someone who has hearing or
visual impairments, to physically evacuating somebody with mobility difficulties.
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4.4 Other help for people at risk
PEOPLE AT RISK
In addition to the strategies explained previously, the following may also help people at
risk in an emergency:
• A refuge is a fire protected area or fire compartment within the building. Refuges are
usually located on stair landings or lobbies, between fire doors, or in a fire escape
corridor, and must be located and designed so as not to disrupt the flow of people
evacuating the building. It is vital that all are aware that a refuge is a temporary
place of safety designed to buy time in an evacuation. The responsibility for getting
everyone to a place of ultimate safety away from the building lies with the employer
and not the fire and rescue service. A refuge can be used as a temporary but
protected location for those with mobility problems who may need assistance to
evacuate. The refuge point should be provided with a means for communication –
a personal mobile phone may be appropriate in many circumstances.
• Strobes and beacon flashing lights alert people with hearing difficulties to
the activation of the fire alarm system. They can be used where appropriate or
throughout the building.
• Vibrating alarms can be issued to people with hearing impairments. They will
vibrate upon activation of the fire alarm.
• Braille signs and large font signs can be used on escape routes to help those with
visual impairments to find their way out of a building.
• An evacuation lift has its own independent power supply, which means it can be
used in the event of a fire. Normal lifts should not be used in a fire situation as they
are connected to the mains power supply which may fail due to the fire. Specific
routines for the use of an evacuation lift in the event of an emergency will need to be
developed and practised as part of emergency/fire drills.
• Accessible exits for people with wheelchairs or who are unsteady on their feet will
help in an evacuation. Steep ramps or narrow exits must be avoided.
• Handrails on escape routes can
be provided to help people with
mobility or visual impairments.
• Evacuation chairs are used to
evacuate mobility impaired people
down a flight of stairs. Newer
evacuation chairs can be used by
one person.
• Step edge marking are strips that
go on the edges of steps to mark a
change in floor level. They are often
fluorescent and will help people to
find their way and avoid trips and Figure 8: Step edge markings are often
slips. fluorescent
Key learning points

• Not everyone will respond to a fire alarm or fire in the same manner
for a number of reasons, and some people will be less familiar with
evacuation procedures than others.
• PEEPs and GEEPs outline individuals’ evacuation strategies. Fire
wardens should be aware of specific individuals requiring assistance.
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5
EVACUATION TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES

Evacuation techniques
and strategies
T
his chapter looks at the different types of evacuation techniques that can be
used to evacuate a building. Not everyone works in an office or manufacturing
facility where evacuation plans are likely to be relatively simple. In hospitals and
residential care homes, for example, procedures must be designed to ensure that elderly
or dependent occupants can be kept safe. It is up to the employer to ensure that all
occupants can be evacuated without the assistance of the fire and rescue services.
Each premises or building will have its own specific evacuation procedures, which will
depend on the nature of the premises, the number and ability of occupants, the type of
fire alarm system installed and the evacuation method to be implemented. Fire wardens
should be fully aware of these procedures and their role in the event of an emergency.
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5
5.1 Single-stage evacuation
A single-stage evacuation is appropriate in situations where occupants are able and willing
to leave the premises without the assistance of staff, or have some mobility impairment
and need minimal assistance from one person.
This evacuation process is the simplest (and most common) of those discussed here
and will see all occupants of a premises evacuate immediately on the sounding of the
fire alarm.
5.2 Two-stage or phased evacuation

A two-stage alarm allows for implementation of two different evacuation procedures:
• two-stage evacuation: provides an alarm to staff, which allows for the incident
to be investigated before a full evacuation takes place. It is dependent on having
an addressable fire alarm system which will indicate at the panel where the alarm
has originated from. If a fire is
discovered or there is no obvious
indication of a cause for a false
alarm, a second alarm is activated
and the remainder of the building
must be totally evacuated. There is
often a set delay period between
the first and second stages, which
acts as a failsafe and will cause
the evacuation alert to be sounded
if the status of the fire remains
unconfirmed at the control panel
by a member of staff. This may be
used in shops or nightclubs, for
example.
• phased evacuation: sounds an
evacuation alarm whereby those
located within the zone, space or
floor where the alert signal has been
triggered evacuate immediately to
a place of safety, either another
zone or out of the building. Other
parts of the building may receive an
intermittent signal which warns of Figure 9: A fire action notice for a
an impending evacuation. premises that operates a phased
In high-rise premises it is likely that, evacuation
in order to reduce congestion on
stairways, floors will be evacuated in order, dependent on the location of the fire.
The use of two-stage evacuation procedures which incorporate an investigation phase

is becoming more common, as businesses and fire and rescue services work to reduce
the number false fire alarms.
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5
5.3 Delayed evacuation

This approach to evacuation – often called a ‘stay put’ or a ‘defend in place’ approach
– is particularly relevant to premises providing residential care facilities. Some residents
may be permanently or temporarily confined to bed, or attached to equipment or
treatment devices that cannot be removed easily, and therefore attempting to move
them may put them or staff at unnecessary risk of injury or death.
In these circumstances, it may be more appropriate to ensure that their bedroom is an

adequate place of safety, as part of a delayed evacuation strategy. This is a technique
used to buy time and it may still be necessary to evacuate the resident from the room
using either progressive horizontal evacuation (see below), or in extreme circumstances
a full evacuation may be unavoidable. A suitable evacuation plan will be required, along
with suitable evacuation equipment and staff training.
The stages of delayed evacuation are as follows:

• fire alarm sounds
• identified people prepare to evacuate
• await further instructions
5.4 Progressive horizontal evacuation

As required by building standards, many buildings are divided into a series of fire-
resistant compartments. This aspect of building fire safety is used to aid evacuation.
Progressive horizontal evacuation allows evacuation to be made by horizontal escape to
adjoining fire compartments. The aim is to provide a place of ‘reasonable safety’ within
a short distance. This system is necessary where visitors or, for example, residents in a
residential care home are dependent on staff to assist their escape and it is commonly
used in hospitals as their primary evacuation method, particularly where patients must
remain in bed.
The stages of progressive horizontal evacuation are as follows:

• alarm sounds
• people close to the fire are moved away from the affected area to an adjoining area
• continue horizontal evacuation until the fire is put out or the need to further evacuate
is determined
Key learning point

• Fire wardens should be aware of their organisation’s evacuation
procedures and their role in the event of an emergency.
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6
6
PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE
Protection against fire
F
ire wardens or marshals are specially trained to carry out specific duties in the event
of a fire, from checking that specific areas have been evacuated, to turning off
equipment, taking a roll call, using portable fire equipment and calling the fire and
rescue service. They also need to have knowledge of certain items of equipment, systems
and procedures that are installed or adopted in occupied buildings to help ensure that a
fire won’t start.
6.1 Staff training

Staff training is the golden thread that runs through fire safety. The best detection and
alarm system in the world is useless if the staff do not know how and when to evacuate
a building. Staff training can help prevent and minimise the effect of fires and, most
importantly, save lives.
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6

Current legislation requires that all staff must receive adequate safety training, including
refresher training, as appropriate. Potentially, the most important element of this training
is induction training, which should occur on an employee’s first day at work. Often fire
wardens are tasked with this basic level training, which should cover:
• action in the event of a fire
• location of escape routes and fire exits
• location of call-points
• location of extinguishers
• location of the assembly point is
• smoking policy
• how to open all doors on escape routes
• the importance of good housekeeping
Those with special responsibilities or who are working in a higher risk area such as a
kitchen or manufacturing area will need to be given additional training specific to the
hazards and risks present. Buddy training may also be appropriate. A buddy is someone
trained to assist another person in the event of a fire alarm. The buddy may take many
different roles, from alerting someone who has hearing or visual impairments, to physically
evacuating somebody with mobility difficulties.
6.2 Fire escape routes

Fire escape routes need to be clearly signed and lit so that they can be easily identified
and used in an emergency. The escape routes must be kept clear of obstruction.
Compliance with the Building Regulations and fire safety legislation should ensure that
any person who experiences the outbreak of a fire in a building is able to move away
from the fire and make a timely escape to a place of safety.
To avoid occupants being trapped by fire or smoke, they should have more than one
direction in which they can travel when making their way out of the building. This should
apply to all parts of the building. Dead-end corridors or aisles pose a particular fire threat
to occupants and, while not prohibited, should receive special attention during the fire
risk assessment process. If your establishment forms part of a mixed use building,
then separate means of escape should be provided from any floors or storeys used for
residential, assembly or recreation purposes.
6.3 Signage
Signs are necessary to enable staff and visitors to identify exits and escape routes
and locate firefighting equipment, such as hand-held fire extinguishers, manual call-
points and emergency fire telephones. Fire safety legislation requires that emergency
routes and exits must be indicated by signs. Hence, the premises risk assessment
must consider what is necessary. Other legislation is similarly firm on the requirement
for employers to provide safety signs, and there are specific requirements for the
shape, colour and pattern of signs. The objective is to provide signs which are readily
understandable even though they do not contain words. To this end, the use of
pictograms and colours with clearly defined meanings are required.
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6
Exit signs should contain a
pictogram of a running man, and

show the direction of travel.
The fire risk assessment will

probably indicate that signs will be
necessary at all choices of route
and exits, or locations in more
complicated premises. However,
care should be taken that confusion
is not created by a plethora of signs
which might appear to be giving
conflicting information.
It is often necessary to supplement

the signs with notices, to provide
additional information such as
instructions on how to use fire
safety equipment (eg portable fire
extinguishers) or supplementary
information for the fire and
rescue service.
Similarly, ‘fire action’ notices should

Figure 10: Fire action notices are often be posted at strategic points around
located next to call-points the building (often adjacent to call-
points) which describe the actions
to be taken upon discovering a fire or hearing the fire alarm. All signs and notices should
be located so that they can be easily seen and recognised, and worded so that they can
be easily understood.
6.4 Detection and alarm systems

A detection and alarm system will detect a fire in its early stages and set off an alarm to
warn the occupants of the fire.
6.4.1 Detectors
Detectors respond to one or more of the characteristic fire phenomena:
• heat
• smoke
• combustion gases (eg carbon monoxide)
• flame
The phenomenon may be sensed either at a single point within a space

(point detector) or along a defined line within the space (line detector). Line type
detectors may be in the form of a cable, but more often as a beam, and used to cover
large spaces or where specific risks exist. Point type heat, smoke and carbon dioxide
detectors are by far the most common. Many of these devices now contain multi-
sensors which are able to detect more than one phenomenon (eg heat and smoke).
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6
6.4.2 Alarms

Fire alarm devices can be divided into two
types of warning system:
• audible warning devices, for example
bells, electronic sounders, voice
sounders and public address voice
alarms
• visual warning devices, for example
xenon beacons, LED beacons and
rotating beacons
ECA
In addition, there are alarm systems for
people with disabilities, such as vibrating Figure 11: Fire alarms may be
pagers and strobe lights which are designed to give audible or
connected to the fire alarm system. visual warnings
6.5 Extinguishers, sprinklers and fixed systems

Fire extinguishers will be covered in more detail in Chapter 9, Firefighting equipment.
Larger or high-risk premises may also have a fixed firefighting system, of which there are
essentially four types:
• automatic water sprinklers
• water mist systems
• gaseous fire suppression systems
• powder or chemical foam systems
Automatic sprinklers are the most

commonly installed of the fixed systems
and are often used to reduce risks
that arise from a building’s use – as in
manufacturing, or to protect vulnerable
individuals or high-value contents, or to
compensate for the materials used in the
building’s construction. They are often
used in modern buildings, such as airports
or storage facilities, to allow extensive open
spaces to be created without structural
compartment walls. In addition, they
may be used to protect premises that
are geographically isolated from fire and
© Tomasz Gulla/Fotolia
rescue services.
In every case, it is important that the

reason for installation is understood and,
in those cases where the system has
been provided as part of a fire engineering
design for the building, that the responsible
Figure 12: Automatic water sprinklers person is made aware of and understands
are the most common type of fixed the interaction of the system and other
firefighting system building design and service features.
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The other suppression systems are principally distinguished by the extinguishant
used and generally protect special risks, such as major items of flammable liquid,
electrical and electronic plant and equipment. Like water sprinklers, they usually
operate automatically, being triggered by detection devices that are of a suitable
type for the special risk and that are installed in the location being protected. In
cases where the protected area is occupied, as with a computer suite, delay devices
exist and, in addition, many special risk suppression systems will have a method of
manual operation.
Fire suppression systems are often used in large kitchens, sited directly over cooking
areas. They will automatically activate when a fire starts in cooking equipment and can
also be manually activated. They work by depleting oxygen levels in the area, but they
are safe to be around and will not harm people in the area when activated.
6.6 Emergency procedures

Emergency procedures will be developed as part of the risk assessment process, will be
site specific and will detail specifically who will do what in the event of a fire.
There is a need in all premises to give employees information, to ensure that they remain
safe and know what to do in the event of fire. This means training them in the emergency
procedures – that is, the effective evacuation of the premises and how to recognise
and use any safety systems provided. In some cases when there are large numbers of
other people present, there is an additional requirement for the employer to ensure that
all employees are aware and able to guide the other relevant persons – the public and
other people entitled to be in the workplace – to a place of safety away from the building.
In larger, complex premises or those with
sleeping accommodation such as hotels,
visitors and guests should also be given
information on the correct actions to take in
the event of a fire.
Many businesses now engage contractors

and other specialists on a long or short-
term basis to undertake specific projects
or tasks. These may include engineering
or facilities management staff, or others
with specific responsibilities for parts of
the premises or a particular manufacturing
process. In every case, it is necessary to
make sure that all staff are appropriately
trained in fire safety.
6.7 Fire doors

Fire doors are an essential element of fire
safety in buildings. Propping them open
increases the potential for fire spread, loss
of life, and loss of premises, businesses Figure 13: Propping open fire doors is
and jobs. often discouraged through signs
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In premises with sleeping accommodation, fire doors are especially important. The

correct use of a door cannot only save lives and property, but can also limit the necessity
for a full evacuation. Imagine the benefits of not having to evacuate a care home full of
elderly or infirm residents, all in their nightclothes, to the open air at 3am in November.
Evacuation methods and protocols are covered in more detail in Chapter 5.
It is important also to ensure that fire doors are well maintained, in order to work
effectively in the event of a fire. Cold smoke seals and intumescent strips commonly
installed in door edges and door frames should not be damaged, removed or painted
over, as this will adversely affect their performance in limiting fire and smoke spread in
the event of fire.
Key learning points

• Fire wardens may be tasked with carrying out basic safety induction
training for new staff.
• Fire wardens should be familiar with escape routes, emergency signage
and emergency procedures including the alarm, siting, selection and use
of extinguishers and the existence of automatic suppression systems.
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7
7
FIRE WARDENS’ ROUTINE CHECKS
Fire wardens’
routine checks
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I
nvariably a fire warden or fire marshal will be allocated a specific area of responsibility,
which may be one floor of a building or in larger premises one specific area. This
chapter covers the routine maintenance and management checks that are commonly
carried out by fire wardens across their area of responsibility. It may be the case that one
or two fire wardens will carry out the majority of these tasks, or it may be that they have
responsibility for one or even none of the following. Fire wardens need to be clear about
what their responsibilities are.
7.1 Detectors
As covered in an earlier chapter, there are many different types of detectors used to
recognise a fire in its early stages and to raise the alarm, but in the average workplace it is
likely that either smoke or heat detectors are in place. The checks that should be carried
out by the user of the premises are often passed on to a fire warden. These checks are
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straightforward and should not be time consuming. It is important that fire wardens have a

basic understanding of how different types of detectors work and this knowledge can help
them in limiting false alarms.
Other detector types generally have limited and specialist application. However, many
new systems include multi-sensor detectors, which are likely to combine smoke and heat
detecting elements.
7.1.1 Heat detectors

There are two types of automatic heat detectors: fixed temperature, which react at a set
temperature similarly to a thermostat; and rate of rise, which respond to a rapidly rising
temperature and also a predetermined fixed temperature. Heat detectors are ideal for
use in kitchens and other areas where dust, fumes and so on may preclude the use of
smoke detectors.
7.1.2 Smoke detectors

Smoke detectors are usually also available in two types: ionisation and optical. They are
very sensitive, which means they respond much quicker than heat detectors, but they
are also more susceptible to false alarms,
which can include smoke, steam, spray type
aerosols or thrips/thunder flies. Ionisation
detectors are activated when smoke
particles interfere with the ion transport
within the chamber. Optical detectors are
activated when smoke reflects light from a
diode to a receiver in the chamber.
For both heat and smoke detectors,

the user should make a visual check for
damage and to ensure that the detector
ECA
has not been covered. A check of the

Figure 14: Smoke detectors respond addressable panel should also be made,
quicker than heat alarms, but are where appropriate, to ensure that no
more susceptible to false alarms faults are registered. A competent person
should make an annual inspection and test
all detectors.
7.2 Alarm systems

Certain checks should be carried out on the fire alarm system. A visual check of the
alarm panel should be done daily and any faults reported to the company maintaining
the alarm system. Once a week, the alarm should be tested from a different call-point
in rotation. This not only ensures that the call-points work and that the fire alarm can be
heard in all areas of the building, but also that the occupants of the building are aware
of what the alarm sounds like. This should be a short test of about three seconds. In
premises where some employees work hours other than those in which the fire alarm
is tested, an additional test should be carried out at least once a month to ensure that
those staff have familiarity with the alarm signals. Any linked fire protection systems,
such as self-closing fire doors, should be checked to ensure they have activated when
the alarm is sounded. All checks should be recorded.
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A competent alarm maintenance company
must carry out periodic and annual

services, along with wiring checks every
five years.
7.3 Extinguishers
At least every month, someone on site
should carry out some basic checks on
the fire extinguishers. Often this task is
passed down to fire wardens. It should be
remembered that extinguishers can differ
depending on type and manufacturer; not
all models will have a ‘used’ indicator or
pressure gauge.
The monthly user checks are:

• safety pin in place?
• any dents and gouges?
• any signs of rust or other form of
corrosion?
• is the ‘USED’ indicator visible (where
fitted)? Figure 15: Powder fire extinguishers,
• is the service label in place? like other extinguishers, should be
• has the extinguisher been serviced or checked every month
installed within the last 12 months?
• does the pressure gauge (where fitted) have a normal reading?
An annual service should be carried out by a competent, qualified person. In addition,

every five or ten years, according to the type of extinguisher, a discharge test will need to
be carried out by the competent person.
7.4 Emergency lighting

Every month, the user of emergency lighting units is required to test them, typically via
the fish-shaped key switch to make sure that they work. A visual daily check of charging
indicator lights, where fitted, should also be carried out on the units, and a full discharge
test conducted on a twice yearly basis. A full discharge test should be carried out
annually by a competent person.
7.5 Compartmentation
Every week, any fire doors held open by electromagnetic devices should be released
and allowed to close. Once this has happened, a check should be made to ensure that
the door closes fully. Fire doors should also be visually inspected for signs of warping
or damage, and the intumescent strips and cold smoke seals checked to ensure they
are intact.
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All fire doors should fit properly into their

frames. Fire doors should not be fitted with
other devices or hardware without first
consulting the manufacturer. The installation
of a digi-lock or fitting of a vision panel (into
a door without one), for example, is likely
to lead to the loss of any designed fire
resistance.
7.6 Escape routes

It is recommended that a daily or at least
weekly check of escape routes is carried
out and the results recorded, however it
is advisable that the checking of escape
routes is a continuous activity. All fire
wardens should remain vigilant for blocked
escape routes or missing equipment and
report any such incidents immediately.
Similarly, the use of escape routes for

storage, even on a temporary basis, must
be guarded against. In particular, checks
should be made of all stairwells, including Figure 16: Escape routes should be
those used solely for escape. checked routinely
7.7 Housekeeping
As with the checks on escape routes, housekeeping checks should be carried out
regularly to ensure that there is no build-up of combustible materials. Corridors,
cupboards, basements and roof spaces are often used as dumping grounds for items
such as waste, Christmas decorations, papers and unused furniture. If a fire was to
start in these areas, the increased amounts of combustible materials coupled with the
amount of time that the fire could potentially develop undetected could dangerously limit
the occupants’ time to escape the building safely.
7.8 Signage
All buildings should be fitted with fire
escape signs that clearly indicate the
evacuation routes. Generally, the main
route in and out of a building will not be
signed, but the fire risk assessment will
have indicated whether this is practicable. If
the premises has large numbers of visitors,
for example, signage to all routes may be
provided.
Figure 17: Fire exit signs should

include a running man pictogram and
show the direction of travel
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All signs should be unobstructed, clearly visible (they come in a range of sizes to suit all
viewing distances) and unambiguously indicate the route to a place of safety and on to
the final exit. Although two signs in one location indicating different directions for escape
may be seen as offering a choice, this can be confusing for those unfamiliar with the
premises and should be avoided.
Other signs indicating the presence of extinguishers or other safety equipment, and
notices displaying the actions to take in the event to fire, must also be clearly visible and
unobstructed at all times.
7.9 Recording and reporting

Although the maintenance and housekeeping checks described above should be
routinely carried out, it is everyone’s responsibility to remain vigilant for any faults and to
report them to their line manager or fire warden immediately. In summary, the following
should be recorded and reported, as appropriate:
• events/accidents with fire potential
• unaccounted for packages
• presence of strangers
• suspicious behaviour
• signs of forced entry to rooms, desks etc
• any faulty fire protection equipment or blocked escape routes
• all fire safety checks
Key learning points

• The role of the fire warden will vary from one organisation to another.
Fire wardens need to be clear what their responsibilities are.
• It’s important that all regular checks carried out are recorded and any
faults reported appropriately.
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ACTION IN THE EVENT OF FIRE

Action in the
event of fire
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T
his chapter looks at the actions that should be taken in the event of a fire,
both those specific to fire wardens and the actions everyone should take on
discovering a fire.
8.1 Actions for everyone

The basic principles for anyone to follow on discovering a fire are:
• Raise the alarm – raising the alarm is the most important action to take when
discovering a fire and should be the first action undertaken on every occasion.
Even if the fire is small, the temptation to tackle it before raising the alarm could have
dangerous consequences should attempts fail to extinguish the fire, and vital time
will be lost in warning other occupants and calling the fire and rescue service. Fire
alarms may be activated by breaking the glass of the nearest call-point. Alarm
call-points are generally located by every final exit or stairway entrance, and a
call-point will always be passed on leaving the building. The ‘glass’ is more
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commonly a scored piece of plastic, which is sometimes opaque or white but often
transparent, that will snap when simply pressed with a thumb. It will not shatter and
there is no risk of the user cutting themselves. Newer call-points have a plastic plate
that will flex and operate the call-point, which allows it to be reset using a special key
without the need to replace the broken glass or plastic plate.
• Call the fire and rescue service – it is common in many types of building for one
named person, such as the receptionist or duty manager, to have the responsibility
for calling the fire and rescue service upon activation of the alarm system. However, if
in doubt, call them yourself; it is better for the fire and rescue service to receive two or
three calls rather than none because everyone thinks someone else has called them.
• Fight the fire only if safe to do so and you are confident and trained to do so.
• Get out, go to the assembly point and await instructions. Do not re-enter the
building until told to do so by the fire and rescue service or, in the case of a
confirmed false alarm, the senior person in charge.
Local procedures may differ from these basic principles, for example, where two stage,
phased or progressive horizontal evacuation plans are in place, it may be planned that
staff attend the fire alarm panel or other meeting point to receive instructions or return to
the building to assist with evacuation. It is essential that you know what the evacuation
procedures are for your premises, building or location.
8.2 Actions for fire wardens

Every individual fire warden will have different roles in a fire situation. The key point to
remember is that your safety is paramount and you must only fulfil your role if you feel it
is safe to do so. In smaller premises, it may be that one fire warden fulfils a large number
of roles, while in larger premises, they may
be tasked with only one or two of the roles
covered in this section.
8.2.1 Investigating the alarm

Sometimes trained fire wardens may be
responsible for investigating the activation
of the alarm by attending the area
highlighted on the fire alarm panel to ensure
that it is not a false alarm and providing
further information on the need to evacuate
the premises.
8.2.2 Sweeping zones/floors

Fire wardens are vital to help people
evacuate the building in the event of a fire.
A common fire warden role is to sweep
pre-set areas, zones or floors to ensure
that the building occupants are leaving
the building. Where provided, your
high-visibility fire warden jacket could be
vital in preventing panic and ensuring your Figure 18: In an evacuation, fire
advice is heeded. Try to keep it to hand. wardens may sweep predetermined
areas as well as help people to leave
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Never open a door to a room where there

may be a fire, as this could result in a
backdraught. Backdraught occurs where
a fire may have used up all of or most
of the oxygen in a room and may even
appear to have gone out. By opening a
door or window, a fresh supply of oxygen
is introduced, allowing hot gases to ignite,
often with explosive force. If the fire warden
is in doubt, they should feel the door with
energyy/istock
the back of their hand and check for signs
of heat prior to deciding whether or not to
enter the room.
If you find a fire during a search, make sure Figure 19: Fire wardens may have
that you report it before fighting the fire (if responsibility for roll calls and
it’s safe to do so). Otherwise, the wardens meeting the fire and rescue service
can then report that their areas are clear at
the assembly point, or in the event that they could not check their area because the fire
was there, they would report that they have not checked their zone.
In the event that you are not on your floor of responsibility when the alarm is activated,
you should not put yourself and others at risk by attempting to go back to it. Never
attempt to re-enter the building or go upstairs in the event of a fire, simply go to the
assembly point and inform the person in charge that you could not safely check
your zone/floor.
When asking people to leave the building, do not put yourself at risk. If they refuse to
leave, you should move on to the next room or area and report the incident to the chief
fire warden, the person in charge of the evacuation or your manager as soon as is
safely possible.
As previously discussed, it is the responsibility of the person responsible for the premises,
normally the employer, to ensure that everybody can safely evacuate a building in the
event of a fire. One key tool for helping people with any impairment is to assign them a
‘buddy’. A buddy will then assist the person out of the building. Such a system might be
used for someone with a hearing impairment who may not hear the alarm. A buddy would
be responsible for alerting this person to the alarm and assisting them out of the building.
There may also be vulnerable groups in a building, such as a class of schoolchildren. A
fire warden may be responsible for acting as a buddy or taking control of the group in
the event of the alarm sounding and leading them to the assembly point.
In public access buildings such as supermarkets, shopping centres or restaurants, the

occupants will typically look to someone in authority to know what to do in the event of
the alarm sounding. Trained fire wardens are vital in this situation.
Closing windows and doors is something that wardens should do as they carry out
their sweeps of areas checking for people, if it is safe to do so. Closing windows and
doors limits the amount of oxygen available to the fire and restricts the spread of smoke
and heat.
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8.2.3 Switching off gas/electricity
Switching off the gas and electricity supplies can remove fuel from the fire and restrict
its growth. Fire wardens should be encouraged to do this if they feel it is safe to do so,
alongside turning off any other non-essential items of equipment or processes. Any
flammable materials – particularly liquids – should be put into an appropriate store if
time permits.
8.2.4 Roll calls

Once outside, it is vital to ensure that, whenever possible, all building occupants are
accounted for. There are two types of system commonly used for this:
• a full roll call of individuals
• fire wardens sweep areas and report them clear
Where staff in residential care facilities meet at the fire panel, they may adopt a lining
up approach similar to the school playground. Each team will line up and account for
themselves and the team leader will confirm to the fire warden they are all present and
accounted for. When lined up, the staff are generally quiet and organised, allowing the
fire warden to brief and resource teams effectively.
8.2.5 Meeting the fire and rescue service

Although sometimes undertaken by a senior member of staff or a supervisor, a fire
warden may be required to meet the fire and rescue service, direct them to the building,
and where possible explain where the fire is and any hazards that are in the building.
Anybody who is unaccounted for or any areas that remain unchecked should be
reported to the fire service officer in charge.
8.2.6 Preventing re-entry

In some establishments, fire wardens may be tasked with securing tills or other valuable
equipment, or even securing the building as a whole.
It is common that members of staff or the public will try to re-enter the building in
the event of a fire. They may want to search for friends or relatives, fetch personal
belongings, return to a queue or simply get warm. Fire wardens have a key role to play in
restricting re-entry to the building, but they should not put themselves at risk in so doing.
8.2.7 Looking after people

Some vulnerable groups will need constant supervision and reassurance. A fire warden
may also be responsible for this task, along with helping any members of the public who
may have concerns.
Key learning points

• In the event of fire, raise the alarm, call the fire and rescue service, then
fight the fire only if safe to do so, and get out of the building.
• Fire wardens mave have a number of roles in the event of fire
including checking zones, taking roll call, and meeting the fire and
rescue services.
• Remember your safety is paramount and your fire warden duties must
only be fulfilled if it is safe to do so.
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FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT
Firefighting equipment
T
he objective of this chapter is to describe the different types of fire extinguishers
and their uses and limitations. Fire extinguishers are provided to aid escape from
a building and should primarily be used for this purpose. The only other time an
extinguisher could be used is to tackle a small fire if the user feels safe and confident to
do so. However, this must only be done after the fire alarm has been raised and the fire
and rescue service called.
It must also be remembered that using the wrong type of fire extinguisher on a fire can
result in making the fire worse and putting lives in danger.
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9.1 Classes of fire
There are a number of classes of fire. Their purpose is to help identify the right type of
extinguisher to use, depending on the materials that are alight. All extinguishers carry a
pictogram to identify the types of fires on which they can be used. Some extinguishers
only carry one pictogram, whilst others have two or more. The pictograms are intended to
help people select the correct extinguisher to use on the appropriate type of fire and are
harmonised throughout Europe.
If an individual is uncertain of the correct extinguisher to use or worried about the size of the
fire, they should raise the alarm and evacuate the building. There is no responsibility placed
on anyone to fight a fire, regardless of the amount of training they have received.
The classes of fire are as follows:

• Class A – solids, such as paper, wood and plastic
• Class B – liquids, such as petrol, solvents, alcohol, and liquefiable solids such as a
car tyre or wax
• Class C – gases, such as propane and acetylene
• Class D – metals, such as magnesium and sodium
• Class F – cooking oil
Fires in electrical equipment are not specifically given their own classification, but
extinguishers that are appropriate for use on electrical fires are identified with a specific
symbol, as indicated in Table 1.
9.2 Types of extinguisher

Portable fire extinguishers have in the past been manufactured to a British Standard
which gave several options for the colour. However, a suite of harmonised European
Standards were introduced from 1996. BS EN 3 comes in several parts; BS EN 3-7:
2004+A1 2007: Portable Fire Extinguishers. Characteristics, performance requirements
and test methods allows for only one option, which is that all extinguishers should be red
in colour but it also permits a zone of up to 10% of the surface area of the extinguisher
to be colour coded to indicate the type of extinguishing medium, subject to national
regulations.
BS 7863: 2009: Recommendations for colour coding to indicate the extinguishing media
contained in portable fire extinguishers describes the colour code for the band on the
extinguishers as listed below:
• foam – cream
• dry powder – blue
• carbon dioxide – black
• water – red
• wet chemical – yellow
This applies to all new extinguishers and you may see some older extinguishers
still in use, which is acceptable providing they are serviced regularly in accordance
with BS 5306-3: 2017: Fire extinguishing installations and equipment on premises.
Commissioning and maintenance of portable fire extinguishers. Code of practice.
When using any fire extinguisher, the PASS method should always be followed:
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P – pull the pin;
A – aim the extinguisher hose or horn;
S – squeeze the handle; and
S – sweep the hose or horn.
Fully discharge the whole extinguisher, even if the fire goes out before the extinguisher
has been fully used up, as there may be sufficient heat for re-ignition to occur.
If you fully discharge an extinguisher and the fire has not gone out, never use a second
extinguisher; it is time to evacuate at this point.
When using an extinguisher, always keep the exit behind you where possible because if
the fire grows, you will be able to turn away from the fire and evacuate.
9.3 Fire blankets

Fire blankets should be located in kitchens and sited in
a safe position that is easily accessible in the event of a
fire. They come in two types: light duty or heavy duty. For
domestic type environments, a light duty fire blanket is likely
to be sufficient for dealing with small fires involving cooking
oils, fats and clothing; while in a professional or industrial
catering kitchen, a heavy-duty blanket may be appropriate.
Wherever possible, the gas or electricity supply (to a cooker,

for example) should be turned off and once applied, a fire
the blanket should be left in place and only be removed by
the fire and rescue service.
Figure 20: Fire blanket As with portable fire

extinguishers, training
should be provided on the use of a fire blanket. A
Like fire extinguishers, they are subject to a
testing and maintenance regime. 30m
Elec B
9.4 Siting of equipment 10m 10m
Extinguishers are commonly sited
conspicuously on escape routes, so that in
the event of fire they are easily accessed.
Typical locations are corridors, stairways,
lobbies, landings and room exits. F C
There should be no more than 30m travel
10m 30m
distance from any point in a building to D
an extinguisher, taking into account any
obstructions such as tables and chairs. FRA
Extinguishers should also be provided to Figure 21: Travel distances for the
deal with specific risks that are highlighted different classes of extinguisher
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by the fire risk assessment. For example, a computer room should be provided with a
carbon dioxide or dry powder extinguisher, a kitchen with a fire blanket or wet chemical
extinguisher, and a flammable liquid store with a foam or powder extinguisher.
Appropriate heights to handles are 1m for 9 and 6-litre units and 1.5m for smaller units.
This is best practice, but it is acceptable to site extinguishers on stands in the event that
the wall could not cope with the weight of an extinguisher. This should be documented
in the risk assessment.
It is important however to re-emphasise that anyone choosing to fight a fire should

always do so with their back to the exit, so that they can get away from the fire if it gets
out of hand.
9.5 Precautions when using an extinguisher

As with many items of equipment, precautions must be taken to ensure that
extinguishers can be used safely and without causing injury. Water and foam can cause
water damage to the area in which they have been discharged. The release of carbon
dioxide causes the horn and extinguisher base to freeze, which can result in the operator
sustaining freeze burns. Hence it is imperative that a carbon dioxide extinguisher is
held correctly, either with both hands on the handle, or with one hand half way up the
extinguisher body and one on the handle. Rooms should be ventilated after the use of
carbon dioxide as it is an asphyxiant and should not be used in small enclosed spaces.
The extinguisher will make a loud noise upon activation which sometimes surprises
the user.
Dry powder is mass-for-mass the most effective extinguishing medium, in that it

can be used on a wide range of classes of fire. It does, however, have a number of
hazards associated with its use. Firstly, it reduces visibility in the area in which it is used,
restricting the room occupants’ ability to safely evacuate the area. Secondly, it can
contaminate over a wide area, causing damage to electrical items, food etc. Thirdly,
anyone with respiratory problems should keep away from a discharged dry powder
extinguisher, as it can cause breathing difficulties. For this reason, it is generally not
recommended for indoor commercial use such as in care home facilities, unless to deal
with a specific hazard.
For the home, the most suitable option is a small dry powder extinguisher, which is
available from a range of supermarkets, DIY shops, car shops and internet sites. Dry
powder is the most versatile extinguishing medium because it can fight the range of
fires found in most homes. Care should be taken with such extinguishers, however,
as they generally cannot be serviced and may require replacement over time. It’s
important to remember that water or foam extinguishers must never be used on or
near electrical equipment.
9.6 Which extinguisher?

A brief summary of when to use each type of extinguisher follows, arranged by
class of fire. Class D is excluded, as metal fires require the use of specialist powders
and specific training will need to be given to any member of staff expected to use a
class D extinguisher.
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Table 1: The symbols shown in the table are used on extinguisher labels to
indicate the class of fire for which they are appropriate
Class Type of fire Type of extinguisher
Fires involving solid materials,
usually of an organic nature Water Foam
Powder Wet chemical
Fires involving flammable liquids

or liquefiable solids Foam Carbon dioxide
Powder
Fires involving flammable gases
Powder
Fires involving cooking oils

and fats
Wet chemical
Fires involving electrical

equipment
Carbon dioxide Powder
9.6.1 Fires involving solids

Fires involving solids such as paper, wood or cloth (Class A) are best dealt with using
water, since it has the most efficient cooling action. Water firefighting equipment can take
the form of extinguishers (red, or with a red indicating zone), hose reels and fire buckets.
The extinguisher jet should be directed at the base of the flames and moved from side to
side. Water must not be used on or near electrical equipment or flammable liquids.
Water can only be used on Class A fires, because:
• if used on a Class B liquid fire, it can spread the liquid, causing the fire to get worse
• if used on a Class C gas fire, it can cause an explosion
• if used on a Class D metal fire, it can react violently with the burning metal
• if used on an electrical fire, it can lead to electrocution of the operator
• if used on a Class F cooking fats fire, it can react violently with the burning fat or oil
9.6.2 Fires involving liquids

Fires involving liquids (Class B) can be extinguished by smothering or otherwise
removing the oxygen supply using foam (cream colour on extinguisher), dry powder
(blue) or carbon dioxide extinguishers (black). Foam is less effective when the fire is not
in a container, as it works by forming a blanket over the burning liquid and smothering
it. Powder offers quick knock down of a fire, but if used outside it could be blown
away allowing the fire to re-ignite. Under no circumstances should water be used on a
liquid fire.
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9.6.3 Fires involving gas

In the event of a fire involving gas (Class C), the supply should be turned off (if it is safe
to do so), the alarm raised and the premises evacuated. If the flames are extinguished
without turning off the supply, an explosion may result if the spreading gas is re-ignited.
No attempt should be made to tackle a fire involving gas cylinders, such as LPG or
acetylene. The volume of such items should be kept to a minimum and be stored
in accordance with local written policies and procedures. Further guidance can be
obtained from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE). Storage areas should also be
signed to assist the fire service in the event of an incident.
9.6.4 Fires involving cooking oils

A wet chemical fire extinguisher has yellow as its identifying colour and works by turning
the top layers of oil (Class F fires) into a soap-like substance, thereby preventing the
flammable vapours reacting with oxygen to continue the burning process. The wet
chemical is applied via a lance, which gives a gentle application to offer the operator an
element of protection.
A fire blanket works by restricting oxygen from getting to the fire. It should be applied
and left in place until the fire and rescue service arrives, as removing the blanket will
allow oxygen back and may result in the fire re-igniting.
Suppression systems, often fitted to cooking ranges, work by flooding the area affected
by a fire with an inert gas, which will put out the fire. They activate automatically when
the temperature reaches a pre-defined level. An automatic shut-off should be provided.
Under no circumstances should water be used on a cooking oil fire, as it will not
extinguish the fire but potentially cause the oil to erupt violently, spreading the fire and
injuring the operator.
9.6.5 Fires involving electrical equipment

Fires involving electrical equipment can be tackled using carbon dioxide or dry powder,
although the latter is less efficient. Even though these do not conduct electricity, the
current should still be turned off first, if at all possible, which may help extinguish the fire.
Water and foam should not be used on or near live electrical equipment, as they both
conduct electricity, which could be fatal to the extinguisher user.
Key learning points

• Fire wardens are often trained in the safe selection and use of
extinguishers and other firefighting equipment. Understanding the type
of fire and the appropriate extinguisher to use is key.
• Remember, there is no obligation for a fire warden to fight a fire even if it
is safe to do so.
52
10
10
HOME FIRE SAFETY

Home fire safety
ECA
P
lainly, there is no fire warden with responsibility for your home. But it is no less
important that fire safety is considered at home as well as at work. Indeed,
the fact that your family is at risk in the event of a fire – not to mention all your
possessions – makes it difficult to understand why anyone would ignore fire
safety arrangements at home.
In the same way that you make fire safety a routine matter at your work premises with
regular checks and prepared plans in the event of an emergency, it is straightforward to
apply the same thinking to your home. This chapter looks at domestic alarms, simple
checks that can be made, everyday safety considerations, fire extinguishers, and the
evacuation plans you can make.
Fire safety legislation generally excludes domestic premises, but there are some exceptions.
53
10
Domestic premises – defined as premises occupied as a private dwelling which is not
HOME FIRE SAFETY
used in common by the occupants of more than one such dwelling – and the private
living accommodation within houses in multiple occupation (HMOs) are excluded
and remain subject to housing law. In HMOs, access areas outside the dwellings or
‘common parts’ are included, so halls, stairways and landings, or any places of work
become subject to fire safety legislation.
In private homes with three storeys, such as town houses or two-storey homes with
a loft conversion, a protected escape route has to exist, although – public residences
aside – there is no mandatory requirement to maintain it.
10.1 Domestic checks and everyday safety considerations

When thinking about fire safety at home, there are a number of simple ‘rules’ that, if
applied, can help prevent a fire starting. The following checklist covers the main principles,
although – as every home is different and people’s behaviour varies – there may be other
considerations that affect your particular home:
Cooking • never leave hot oils unattended
• never leave children unattended in the kitchen
• keep a fire blanket handy
Electrics • do not overload extension leads or adaptors

• check your cables for signs of heat or damage regularly
• switch off non-essential electrical appliances when not in use
• keep combustible materials away from hot plugs/cables
• always fully unwind extension reels before use
Smoking • always dispose of cigarettes correctly; ideally put them out with
cold water
Doors • close internal doors at night to restrict the spread of smoke

and flames
• when locking doors, ensure the keys can be accessed easily and
quickly in the event of an emergency
Candles • avoid leaving candles unattended

• place tea light candles on a non-combustible receptacle,
ideally ceramic
• never place a spent match in a tea light candle
• keep combustible materials away from candles
Plug-in air • avoid leaving air fresheners plugged in and unattended

fresheners • never leave combustible materials on top of, or right next to plug-in
air fresheners
54
10
Heating • take care when using open fires, ensuring that chimneys are swept
HOME FIRE SAFETY

regularly (recommended yearly)
• do not place articles too close to open fires
• use a suitable fire guard
• do not place combustible materials too close to radiators or
other heaters
• if using portable heaters, do not place them too close to
combustible materials or leave them switched on in locations where
young children or animals may be left unattended
Electric • take care to ensure that electric blankets do not get wet
blankets • do not use electric blankets with scorch marks or exposed
elements
• do not leave an electric blanket switched on all night, unless it is
thermostatically controlled
• do not fold electric blankets
• keep blankets flat; do not allow them to become bunched up in
the bed
Rubbish • keep attics, cupboards and understair spaces clear

• don’t let household rubbish pile up against outside walls –
dispose of it
Garages • store hazardous materials, such as flammable liquids, safely

• take care when using electrical appliances and heaters
DIY • if power tools smell hot or spark excessively, take them to a

specialist repairer
• keep woodworking tools clean; dust and shavings can jam cutting
blades and overheat the motor
10.2 Domestic alarms and extinguishers

Legislation and control of fire alarm measures in residential premises vary widely with
the complexity and use of the buildings. In single family dwellings, fire alarm installations
can be simple, but in some large buildings, especially HMOs, the installations can
be quite complex. Some premises may feature mixed systems. In such a scheme,
BS 5839-1: 2017 systems are installed in the escape routes and other common areas,
while each residence incorporates installations that meet the recommendations of
BS 5839-6: 2019.
All new or refurbished premises are subject to the current Building Regulations, which
advise that the installation of smoke alarms or automatic fire detection and alarm
systems can significantly increase the level of safety by automatically giving an early
warning of fire.
In general, fire safety legislation applies to all areas of premises other than those
occupied as private domestic dwellings. However, there are duties in relation to fire
safety in the common areas of HMOs, flats, maisonettes, and sheltered accommodation
where personal care is not provided. A duty is placed on the responsible person (usually
55
10
the landlord, or, in the case of absentee landlords, this may be the managing agent),
HOME FIRE SAFETY
who is required to carry out a fire risk assessment and take specific action to minimise
the risk of fire in the common parts of these premises.
The following checklist offers simple guidance:

Smoke alarms • ensure that an adequate number of smoke alarms are fitted
throughout your home; most fire and rescue services will provide
free home inspections and some will even supply and fit the
smoke alarms
• ensure you test your smoke alarm batteries each week
• never remove the batteries or take down your smoke alarms
Fire • buy a suitable number of domestic fire extinguishers and locate

extinguishers them where you may need them to aid your escape from your
home – do not site them next to a radiator. You may also wish to
purchase a fire blanket for the kitchen
10.3 Home evacuation plans

It is important to plan your escape route and make sure that the whole family, and
especially children, are aware of what to do in the event of a fire. If there are elderly
people or people with disabilities in your home, make sure you have a plan to ensure
that they are safely evacuated in the event of a fire. Some find it helpful to draw a plan of
their home with escape routes marked and place it in a central location, such as on the
fridge.
The following checklist provides some guidance:

Escape routes • make sure that all windows and doors can be easily opened
• security bars on windows ought to have an internal quick release
device fitted in case they need to be opened during a fire
• never open a door that is hot to the touch, because there may be
a fire on the other side; use an alternative escape route instead
Evacuation • decide on a safe meeting place outside

• never go back inside a burning building; the rule is: stay low,
get out and stay out
• if your clothes catch on fire, drop to the ground and roll
• if you live in a flat, leave immediately on hearing a fire alarm;
do not use a lift
• practise your evacuation plan at least twice a year
Key learning point

• Apply similar principles to your home environment as you would to your
work environment – around 70% of fire deaths occur in the home.
56
FURTHER INFORMATION
Further information
Legislation
• Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005
• Fire (Scotland) Act 2005
• Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006
• Fire and Rescue Services (Northern Ireland) Order 2006
• Building Regulations in England and Wales, Approved Document B,
Volumes 1 and 2
• Scottish Building Standards, SBSA Technical Handbooks, Domestic
and Non-domestic
British Standards
• BS 5306: Part 3: 2017: Fire extinguishing installations and equipment on premises.
Commissioning and maintenance of portable fire extinguishers. Code of practice
• BS 5839: Fire detection and alarm systems for buildings
• Part 1: 2017: Code of practice for system design, installation, commissioning
and maintenance
• Part 6: 2013: Code of practice for the design, installation and maintenance of fire
detection and fire alarm systems in dwellings
• BS EN 3: Portable fire extinguishers
Other publications
• Role of the Fire Warden DVD, Fire Protection Association
• Essentials of Fire Safety Management, Fire Protection Association
• FPA Workplace Fire Safety Log Book, Fire Protection Association
• Fire Risk Assessment for Small Businesses, Fire Protection Association
• Fire Warden Checklist, Fire Protection Association
57
INDEX
Index
A combustion..........................................14-16, 34
accelerant....................................................... 10 combustion gases.......................................... 34
access roadway.............................................. 11 common rooms.............................................. 11
acetylene............................................. 16, 48, 52 compartmentation.......................... 4, 16, 18, 40
action in the event of fire..................4, 33, 43-46 competent person......10, 12, 13, 20, 21, 39, 40
adaptor (electrical)........................................... 20 conduction................................................. 16-18
adhesives.................................................. 16, 24 containment.................................................... 24
aerosol cans............................................. 15, 24 convection................................................. 16-18
air fresheners.................................................. 54 cooking equipment............................... 3, 19, 36
air vents.......................................................... 20 correction fluid................................................ 24
alarm devices and systems.................................. corridors........................................ 11, 33, 41, 49
...................................4, 34, 35, 39, 55, 57 cutting discs.................................................... 24
alarm panel............................................... 39, 44
alcohol................................................ 24, 27, 48 D
appropriate person, DIY 50, 55
see also responsible person................... 8, 19 dangerous substances................................... 11
arson, see also wilful fire raising.......... 10, 22, 25 deaths and injuries.................. 3, 8, 9, 16, 17, 56
Arson Prevention Forum................................. 22 deep fat frying................................................. 20
ashtrays.......................................................... 21
delayed evacuation..................................... 4, 31
assembly points............................ 25, 33, 44, 45
dementia................................................... 26, 27
audible warning devices.................................. 35
detection and alarm systems...............................
automatic water sprinklers.............................. 35
��4, 11, 34, 35, 39, 55, 57
detectors.........................4, 9, 10, 25, 34, 38, 39
B
diesel.............................................................. 24
backdraught................................................... 45
disabilities, people with........................................
beacons.................................................... 28, 35
��4, 11, 12, 26, 27, 35, 56
benzene.......................................................... 14
bitumen........................................................... 24 domestic alarms and extinguishers............. 5, 55
blowlamps...................................................... 24 duty holder, see responsible person
blowtorches.................................................... 24
Braille signs..................................................... 28 E
British Standards emergency procedures......................... 4, 36, 37
BS 5306............................................... 48, 57 electric blankets.............................................. 55
BS 5839............................................... 55, 57 electrical equipment.............5, 10, 25, 48, 50-52
BS 7863..................................................... 48 electrical hazards........................................ 3, 20
BS EN 3................................................ 48, 57 electrical intakes.............................................. 11
buddy................................................. 27, 33, 45 escape routes..................3, 4, 9, 12, 22, 23, 25,
Building Regulations........................... 33, 55, 57 ..................... 28, 33, 37, 41, 42, 49, 54-56
evacuation......................4, 5, 12, 13, 27-31, 36,
C .................................37, 41, 44, 45, 53, 56
call-points.........................25, 33, 34, 39, 43, 44 evacuation chairs............................................ 28
candles........................................................... 54 evacuation lift.................................................. 28
carbon monoxide.................................. 9, 18, 34 exchange........................................................ 24
central heating boilers..................................... 15 exit routes....................................................... 26
classes of fire........................................ 5, 48, 50 external security.......................................... 3, 22
58
extinguishers home evacuation plans............................... 5, 56
INDEX
fires involving cooking oils........... 5, 49, 51, 52 home fire safety......................................5, 53-56
fires involving electrical equipment.... 5, 51, 52 hot work.................................... 3, 12, 15, 24, 25
fires involving gas.................................... 5, 52 hot work permit............................................... 24
fires involving liquids................................ 5, 51 housekeeping...............4, 12, 22, 25, 33, 41, 42
fires involving solids................................. 5, 51 houses in multiple occupancy (HMOs)...... 54, 55
PASS method............................................. 48 hydrocarbon gases......................................... 14
precautions when using.......................... 5, 50 hydrogen cyanide....................................... 9, 18
siting of equipment................................. 5, 49
types of extinguisher............................... 5, 48 I
which extinguisher?................................ 5, 50 ignition....................... 3, 8, 12, 15-17, 19, 23-25
incandescent light bulbs................................. 21
F intumescent strips..................................... 37, 40
flammable materials.............................. 3, 24, 46 isolated buildings............................................ 11
firefighting equipment...........5, 12, 33, 35, 47-52
Fire (Scotland) Act 2005.............................. 7, 57 K
fire action notices............................................ 34 kitchens and cooking equipment................ 3, 19
fire blankets................................................. 5, 49 Kitemark......................................................... 20
fire certificate......................................................7
fire doors.............................. 3, 4, 10, 12, 18, 22, L
........................... 23, 27, 28, 36, 37, 39-41 LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)................... 24, 52
fire deaths and injuries, see statistics.............. 59 learning difficulties..................................... 26, 27
Fire Precautions (Workplace) legislation
Regulations 1997...........................................7 Fire (Scotland) Act 2005.......................... 7, 57
Fire Precautions Act 1971..................................7 Fire Precautions Act 1971..............................7
fire hazards.................................... 11-13, 19-21 Fire Precautions (Workplace)
fire risk assessment................... 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, Regulations 1997.......................................7
.................................33, 34, 41, 50, 56, 57 Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006..........
fire risk assessment steps............................... 59 ........................................................... 7, 57
Fire Safety (Scotland) Regulations 2006..... 7, 57 Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005....
fire science...................................................... 14 ..................................................... 7, 12, 57
fire spread................................................. 17, 36 lighting.................................. 3, 4, 15, 21, 23, 40
Fire Triangle........................................... 3, 14, 15 line detector.................................................... 34
flammable liquids.......................... 15, 24, 51, 55
flashpoint........................................................ 16 M
fuel ....................... 9, 12, 14-16, 18, 21, 24, 46 meeting the fire and rescue service....... 4, 45, 46
fuses............................................................... 20 methane.......................................................... 14
microwave ovens...................................... 19, 20
G mobile phone chargers................................... 20
garages........................................................... 55 mobility impairment............................. 26, 27, 30
gas cylinders............................................. 21, 52
gaseous fire suppression systems.................. 35 N
Generic Emergency Evacuation Plan (GEEP)....... non-English speakers..................................... 27
......................................................... 27, 28
grinding wheels............................................... 24 O
obese people.................................................. 27
H oxygen.................. 12, 14-16, 18, 36, 45, 51, 52
HMOs, see houses in multiple occupation
halogen lamps................................................ 21 P
handrails......................................................... 28 ‘PAT testing’, see portable appliance test
hazards..............3, 11-13, 19-21, 24, 33, 46, 50 paints.............................................................. 24
hearing impairment................................... 27, 45 paraffin............................................................ 16
heat detectors....................................... 4, 38, 39 people at risk.............................4, 12, 13, 26-28
heat sources................................................... 15 Personal Emergency Evacuation Plan
heaters (portable and fixed)....................... 23, 55 (PEEP)......................................................... 27
hold-open devices...................................... 3, 22 petrol............................................. 15, 16, 24, 48
59
phased evacuation...................................... 4, 30 sprinklers............................................... 4, 35, 36

INDEX
point detector................................................. 34 staircases........................................................ 11

portable appliance test (PAT)........................... 21 statistics.............................................3, 8-10, 19
portable fire equipment................................... 32 step edge marking.......................................... 28
portable heaters...................... 12, 15, 23, 25, 55 strobes............................................................ 28
powder or chemical foam systems................. 35 sweeping zones.......................................... 4, 44
power plant..................................................... 11 switching off................................................ 4, 46
pregnant women............................................. 27
preventing re-entry...................................... 4, 46 T
progressive horizontal evacuation......... 4, 31, 44 tar boilers........................................................ 24
public access buildings................................... 45 temporary disability, see disabilities, people with
terrorism.......................................................... 10
R thermostat................................................ 20, 39
radiation..................................................... 16-18 thinners........................................................... 24
refuge.............................................................. 28 toasters..................................................... 19, 20
Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order 2005, training...4, 10, 12, 24, 27, 31-33, 36, 37, 48-50
see legislation turps............................................................... 24
relevant person............................................... 11 two-stage evacuation..................................... 30
residential care.............................. 12, 29, 31, 46
responsible person.........3, 8, 10, 12, 13, 35, 55 V
risk assessment, see fire risk assessment vandalism........................................................ 10
roll call....................................................... 32, 46 ventilation............................................ 21, 23, 24
rubbish................................................ 21, 22, 55 vibrating alarms............................................... 28
vibrating pagers.............................................. 35
S ‘VICES’ policy................................................. 24
separation....................................................... 24 visual impairment...................................... 26, 27
sheltered accommodation.............................. 55 visual warning devices.................................... 35
signage........................................... 4, 33, 37, 41
single-stage evacuation.................................. 30 W
skips (builders’)............................................... 22 waste bins....................................................... 21
sleeping accommodation.......................... 36, 37 waste storage............................................. 3, 22
smoke detectors............................... 4, 9, 25, 39 water mist systems......................................... 35
smoke seals........................................ 22, 37, 40 welding............................................... 15, 24, 25
smoking..................3, 10, 12, 15, 21, 25, 33, 54 wheelchairs..................................................... 28
soot ............................................................... 18 white spirit....................................................... 24
sources of ignition........................... 8, 12, 19, 25 wilful fire raising, see arson
special needs.................................................. 11 wiring and wires........................................ 20, 40
speed of fire................................................ 3, 17 Windsor Castle............................................... 16
60

The Fire Warden Handbook details the vital role of the fire warden to help develop
awareness and understanding of their responsibilities. The book is aimed at
any member of staff who is, or will be, a fire warden, and it serves as both an
introductory resource and as a handy refresher guide. The Handbook is split into
easy-to-read sections which can be read in isolation or continuously, and key
learning points are highlighted at the end of each chapter.
The book provides comprehensive background information on all aspects of the

fire warden role to help put into context the range of tasks and actions involved in
carrying out the role successfully.
Contents include:
• Legislation, responsible and competent persons, fire risk assessments
• Fire: what it is, how it moves, smoke
• Daily vigilance and hazard spotting
• People at risk in the event of fire
• Evacuation techniques and strategies
• Protection against fire: staff training, escape routes, alarms, signage, extinguishers
• Routine checks
• Action in the event of fire
• Firefighting equipment
• Home fire safety
ISBN 978-1-9162094-0-4
Fire Protection Association

London Road
Moreton in Marsh
Gloucestershire GL56 0RH
Tel: +44 (0)1608 812 500

Web: www.thefpa.co.uk

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Fire Warden Handbook

THE UK’S NATIONAL FIRE SAFETY ORGANISATION

Fire Warden Handbook

Thanks to Russell Pratt

Fire Protection Association

© Fire Protection Association 2019

Published by Fire Protection Association

Printed by In2Print Limited 10.19

3 DAILY VIGILANCE – HAZARD SPOTTING  19

4.1 People with disabilities 26

5 EVACUATION TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES 29

6 PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE  32

7 FIRE WARDENS’ ROUTINE CHECKS38

8 ACTION IN THE EVENT OF FIRE43

10 HOME FIRE SAFETY  53

risk assessment central to the Regulations.

1.2 Statistics on fire deaths and injuries

Other and Smoke or gas

Burns and smoke

1.2.2 Causes of fire deaths

1.2.3 Where fire deaths commonly occur

Other accidental Faulty fuel supplies

Playing with fire

Figure 2: Causes of fires in dwellings and other buildings 2017-18

1.3 Who is responsible?

1.4 Who are competent persons?

1.5 Who are relevant persons?

1.6 The risk assessment process

Having conducted a risk assessment, the identified hazards should be removed or

• Step 1: Identify fire hazards including combustible materials, sources of ignition,

1.7 Responsible person and how fire wardens help

In brief, the person responsible for the premises must:

It is important that a sufficient number of competent persons are nominated to

Key learning points

2.1 The Fire Triangle

Flammable liquids release vapour

Oxygen supports combustion and must be present before combustion can be

2.2 Heating and ignition

2.3 Flammable mixtures

2.4 How fire moves

2.5 Speed of fire

Key learning points

DAILY VIGILANCE – HAZARD SPOTTING

3.1 Kitchens and cooking equipment

Cooking equipment is obviously a source of heat and, if items such as toasters or

This may be caused by a defective thermostat or more commonly by human error,

3.2 Electrical hazards

DAILY VIGILANCE – HAZARD SPOTTING

Make sure that metal waste bins,

Figure 5: High hazard storage

3.6 Waste storage

Any company that generates a considerable quantity of combustible waste material is

3.7 Self-closing fire doors and hold-open devices

DAILY VIGILANCE – HAZARD SPOTTING

Fire doors must not be wedged open,

3.8 Blocked escape routes

3.9 Portable and fixed heaters

3.10 Flammable materials

3.11 Hot work

The sources of heat most commonly involved include

DAILY VIGILANCE – HAZARD SPOTTING

3 DAILY VIGILANCE – HAZARD SPOTTING 19

4.1 People with disabilities 26

5 EVACUATION TECHNIQUES AND STRATEGIES 29

6 PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE 32

7 FIRE WARDENS’ ROUTINE CHECKS38

8 ACTION IN THE EVENT OF FIRE43

10 HOME FIRE SAFETY 53