CONTENTS

1. Basic Mathematics

2. Basic Radiatjon Physics

3. Interaction of Radiation with ~jdtter

4. Radiation Quantities and ~ n i ( s

5. Biological Effects of Radiatio$

6. Operational Limits

7. Radiation Detectors and Monitors

I
.8. Radiation Hazard. Control
.

9. Radiation ~ccidentsin 1ndustdiq Radiography

. . 1 1

, . .

10. Regulatory Aspects of dadiation Protection

11. Praqtical in Radiation Safety j

 1. BASIC MA-TICS '

industrial radiography, we need to do certai calculations/ say, for:determining the radiation

I11
6
exposure to be given for getting a good radi graph, for fiiding cordoning off distance, etc.
These are simple calculations involving some basic mathematics. I , .

POWERS I

We know that 1 kilogram (kg) means 1000 gm "4

-. /

It can also be written as - 1 kg = lo3 gm = 1000 gm

Also 1000 milligram = 1000 mg = 1 gm
Similarly, 1000 milli Rlh = 1 R/h

By these, we understand
.t

10x10~
l o = 1OOO ---------- (Kilo)
Similarly,

.
I
lo6 = 10 x 10 x l o x l o x 10 x 10 = 1,000,000 (Mega)
- ..
lo9 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 (Giga)
I
lo3 is called 10 cube or 10 raised to power 3.
42. is called 4 square or 4 raised to power 2.

lo2 is called squae of ten or ten square , .,.

is called inverse Aquare of ten

1 1 - 1
that is lo2= - - --
lo2 10 x 10 loo
j
MULTIPLICATION & DNISION
If y = 0.5
20 y = 20 x 0.5 = 10
. If 6 x = 210
210
x=-- - 35
6 ,
 A. If one mango costs Rs. 21- what is the cost of six mangoes?

Cost of one mango = Rs. 21- I

Cost of six mangoes = 2 x 6 = Rs. 121-

Similarly, we can work out the following

If radiation level at a place withone curie source is 12 mRIh, what would be the level at the
same place with 8 Ci source?

The answer would be 12 x 8 = 96 mR/h.

0. If one dozen oranges cost Rs. 241- what is the cost of one orange?
,
[
12 oranges cost Rs, 241-
24
one orange costs Rs. -
12
= Rs. 21-

In a similar way, if the exposure rate at 1 meter from an Iridium-192 source ih 2090 mRIh,
what is the activity of the source if one curie iridium-192 gives 500 mR/h a\ 1 meter ?
I
'Given : Exposure rate at 1 meter = 2000 mRlh from the source

Known : Exposure rate at 1 meter dde to 1 Ci iridiumr-192 = 500 mR/h , ,

2000
Activity of the source = -= 4 Ci
500 . >

DECIMAL REPRESENTATION . ' . .

'i 1

a. Quarter kilogram can also be call4 114 kg or 0.25 ki or'2$0&am. . , ,

0.25 kg = 0.25 x 1000 gram = 250 gram (1 kg = 1,Wgram)

b. If the distance between A and B is 254 cm, what is the distance in meters ?
254
- - - 2.54 meters [Since 1 meter = 100 cm]
100

I . d. 0.5 Rlh = 0.5 x 1000 mRlh = 500 m d h

I
 TYPICAL PROBLEMS
la. If a man travels 2500 meters in 30 minutes, what is the speed per minute and per hour ?

In 30 minutes he travels 2500 meters

2500 250
In 1 minute he will travel -30
= - meterslmin
3

.250
In 60 minutes (1 hour) he will travel 7x 60 = 5000~me&/hour

lb. If a man standing at a place for 15 minutes receives 50 mR exposure, what is the expo-
sure rate per hour or radiation level at that place ?

Exposure in 15 minutes = 50 mR
50
Exposure in 1 minute = - mR
. 15

I
2a. If a'man drinks 0.5 litres milk per day. How much milk will drink in 2 months ?

1 month = 30 days :
. .
. .
2 months = 30 x 2 = 60:days . .

In 1 day he drinks 0.5.litki milk,

I ;
. .
In 60 days he will dri*k = 0.5 x 60 8 .
. .

'. 5 ..
, . = . - x 60 = 30 litresjmilk.
.'
.
10. /'
.. .

if the radiation level at a particular .dista c e from a qne'curie iridium-192 source is

mR1h;-what is the radiation level at theT same distance from a 15 curie iridium-192
source?

Exposure rate with 1 Ci iridium-192 = 20 mR/h

Exposure rate with 15 Ci iridium-192 = 20 x 15 mR/h = 300 mR/h
 3. ~f a job requires 60 minutes for a single bperator, how many operators are needed so that
each operator spends only 5 minutes 'on 'the job ?

With 60 minutes, the job requires only one operator. With 1 minute permitted for
each operator, the job requires 60 oderators.

If 5 minutes is permitted for each operator, than

-- \-.,
60
- = 12 operators are required.
5 .-
n

4. If a person works for 40 hours in a radiation field.of 5 mremlh, how much radiation
exposure he shall receive ? , (Ans: 200 mrem)
1

5 . If for a radiation worker dose limit (maximum) is 2000 unitsfyear, he should not receive
more than units in a month. (Ans: 166 units)
I,'

SQUARE ROOTS
I
I
A. To find the square root of a number bythe method of factors.

Example:

Therefore the square root of 5625 is

equal to 75

B. To find the square root by method of long division

,
1. Find the square root of 6561
81

The square root of 6561 is 81.

-%
. . ,
. .
2. Find tho square rkt of 15625
125

7
I.

The square root of 15625 is 125.

 2. BASIC RADIATION PHYSICS I

All materials in the universe are made of different elements. Hydrogen, oxygen, iron,
iridium, gold, lead are some of the elements we are familiar with.
i

Atom is the smallest part of an element. An atom has a positively charged central portion
called 'nucleus'. It also has negatively charged electrons going around the nucleus, in
I
different orbits. The nucleus has two types of particles -protons which are positively charged
.- \-
and neutrons which do not carry any charge. An atom, is electrically neutral as the number
I of protons in its nucleus is equal to the number of electrons in the orbits. Structures of some I
atoms are shown in figure 2.1. The number of protons in an atom is known as. its atomic J

number (2). Every atom of a particular element has a definite number of protons eg.,
aluminum has 13, cobalt has 27, iridium has 77 protons.

Hydrogen (lpl Helium (2p+2n) Carbon (6p+6nI

Fig. 2.1 : Atoms of Some Elements.

The mass of an atom is almost completely concentrated in thenucleuj, as electrons have

negligible mass. A proton or a neutron is about 1800 times heavier than an electron. Mass
number (A) of an atom is the number of proton/ (2) plus the number of neutrons (N) in its
+
nucleus, ie., A = N 2. Atom of any element X is represented as
A A - Mass number
X
z Z - Atomic number

A
Hydrogen ~euterium Tritium

Fig. 2.2 : Isotopes of Hydrogen.

 The chemical behavior of an element is dependent purely on the atomic number. Any atom or
nuclide having same number of protons (Z), but having different number of neutrons (N) is
called an isotope of the element. Isotopes of hydrogen are shown in figure 2.2.
191 192 193
Ir, Ir and Ir are isotopes of iridium. Similarly,
77 77 77
58 59 60
Co and Co are isotopes of cobalt.
27 27 27 ,

- I Some isotopes are stable, others are unstable. The stability of an isotope, depends upon the
relative number of neutrons and protons in its nucleus. An unstable nucleus becomes stable
by emitting radiations such as alpha particle, beta particle. This process is known as
radioactivity. Therefore, unstable isotopes are known as radioactive isotopes (or
radioisotopes). In the above examples,
3 192 58 60
Ir. 2 7 C ~and Co are radi.oisotopes.
77 27

Radioactivity is a spontaneous process. It is not afifpc'ted,by .:external .'influences like

temperature, pressure, dil&ion, etc. On emission of a~bha,oi:b&'g.article, the element gets
.I .I :

converted into a new element. Thus, a radioisotope i s s ~ i ~ : . t o : : l r ~ n s f o(disintegrale

rrn
or decay) illto a new element along with the emission of on; 0.; two types of par,ticulate
radiations. Quite often, this is followed by the emission of ele.ctr.omagnetic radiation called
gamma radiation. Emission of different types of radjhtion are shown in figure 2.3. All
radioisotopes mentioned above,"except YH,emit gamma radiation. . .

-- Fig. 2.3 : Emission of Different Types of Radiation.

Radioactivity exists in nature, generally, among heavier elements. They are called naturally
occurring radioisotopes. Potassium-40, carbon-14, uranium-238 are some of the naturally
occurring radioisotopes. Many other elements can be made radioactive by bombarding them
with charged particles and neutrons! These are called c-irt@icially made radioisotopes.
Cobalt-60, iridium-192, caesium-137 $e some of the artificially made radioisotopes.

..

I r I I
-- . ., ..

2
' ~ dof. Half Lives $1' ->

Initially -
1 Halflif a
R f ter
2 Halflivers 3 Halflives
I

. .1
Number of N
radioactive t
atoms
. A .
Activity IBq) I

Source size 1
No No I .No
, change change I change
Radiation I No .. No No
energu change change change

Fig. 2.4 : Reduction in Radioactivity with Time.

'
Kate of IranSformation (transformation / second or disintegration / second) gives the amount
of radioactivity or strength of the source. Activity is express& in "nits of Becgurrel (Bq) or 1
Curie (Ci).

A source of activity 1 Becquerel will

undergo 1 transformation / second. Please see chapter 4 on
:Radiation
. ,
Quantities and Units.
A source of activity 1 Curie will undergo
3.7 x 101° transformations / second
 . .
AS the time elapses, many r'adioisotopes transform and hence, the activity of the source
. .
reduces. . .
, , . :. '
, .,
I:

. ,

' . '

The *half-life1of a radiation bourceis

its initial value.
. . 1
the d ration in whibh its activity reduces to one ho(fof
. .

If the original actiyity is A Bq. theri the activity after one half life will be A12 Bq. ~ h u s if,
T is the half life, after a time

1 1 A
2T, activity = A x - x- = - - -A ; and
2 . 2 22 4
1 I I 1 I A A
ST. activity = A x --
2
x - x - x
2 2
-
2
x - = - -
2 2'
-
,
-
32

The reduction in activity of a radiation-source with time are shown in figure 2.4.

SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA AND GAMlMA

RAYS

Alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrow. It is positively charged, Alpha particles
do not penetrate much in any material and they can be stopped by a sheet 6f paper or a thin foil
of aluminum (1120 mm). As the nucleus which gives out alpha particle loses two neutrons
and two protons, the mass number decreases by four and the atomic number decreases by two.
As an example,

Beta particf'e is an electron. It has negative charge. fiffcr the emission of beta particle, the
-
atomic number increyes by one, but the mass number does not change. As an example.
32 0 . 32
P -> S (Therefore, n = p + 03
15 16

Beta radiations from a radiation source have different energies from zero upto a maximum
I
value. Beta radiations are more penetrating than alpha radiations, but, beta radiations could
be stopped by a few millimeters of aluminum.

If after the emission of an alpha or beta radiation, the nucleus has some extra energy (excited
state), radiation is emitted. Gamma radiatior) is highly penetrating and is similar to
X-ray i n its properties. Hence, gamma radiations are generally used for industrial
radiograpliy. I n some special circu~nstances,neutrons are also used.
 Some properties of X and gamma rays : .

I . They are ~Jectromagneticradiations like visible light. They are called photons.
They diffq'f in origin of production and energy.
2. They travel at the speed of 300,000 km per second.

3. They affect photographic films.

4. X-rays have continuous energies, whereas, gamma rays have discrete energies. t-

5. They can be scattered and reflected. . .

" I
. ..*... .

6. They can penetrate matter. Penetration depends upona. energy of the radiation, . . ,
. .
b. atomic number of the absorber and c. the density of the absorber. \

,
Higher the energy, high& is the penetration.
Higher the atomic number, lower is the penetration.
Higher the density, lower is the penetration

All the three types of radiation can . .

1, damage living tissues.

2. can cause ionization and excitation in the medium through which they travel.

I-lence, tt IS necessary to protect ourselves from their harmful effects.

I

Relative absorption of alpha, beta and gamma radiations are

.
shownin
. .
figure 2.5.
I . . .
. .-

O.1mm 5mm Few cm

paper aluminum of lead

Fig. 2.5 : Relative Absorption of Different Types of -Radiation.

 ENERGY OF RADIATIONS
. ... . .
.'%. .
. .

All radiations have energy. Energi'es of various iadiatiohs (A,0,"~)are usually specified in
electron volts. . . . . ., , ,

One electron volt is the energy given to a single electron,as it moves across a'potential
.

difference of one volt.

1 eV = 1 electron volt = 1.6 x 10-"erg

1 keV = 1 kilo electrot~volt = 1.6 x 10" erg
1 MeV = 1 million electron volt = 1.6 x erg

Data regarding the most commonly used radioisotopes in industrial ,radiography is given in the
Table 2.1.

TABLE 2.1 : IIADIOISOTOPES COMMONLY USED

IN INDUST& RADIOGRAPHY
Radioisotope Half life Main Gamma Energy
(MeV) .
Cobalt-60 5.3 years 1.17 & 1.33
iridium-192 74.5 days 0.24 - 0.67
(0.4 MeV .Average)
I

;,
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
X and gamma radiations are similar in nature, bioloqical effects and action on photographic
. . ..
film. Gamma rays are 'emitted by the nucleus .ofla radioisotope,~,whereas,X-rays a r e
produced outside the nucleusl~he~i high energy electrons interact with atoms (target). When
these electrons interact with the field near the nucleys,'they are stopped or deflected with lesser
energy. The energy. difference between the ihcid+lt:electrpnaTd;the deflected electron is
, . given out in the form of x-rays. The energy of X-rays depends upon the closeness of the
electron path to,the target nucleus. Hence, X-rays are produced with'continuous energy, with
.'

, a nlaximu~nequal to the energy ofthe incident ebdtrons. ~ G a y ~ r o d u c t i oincreases

n with
illcrease in atomic number of the targef atom. It ado 'ncreases with increase in the incident
electron energy. ... .
I.:
. .
. .... . .
I n an X-ray machi~~'e, the electrons,emitted by the heated filament, are made to strike a
tungsten target pla e d , at higher voltage with respect to the filament. As a result o f
P
interaction between t le electrons and target atoms, X-rays are produced.

For more details on X-rays, refer to chapter on X-ray Technology.

 I . ATOM is the smallest part of any elerrient.
1 . .. . . . . .,

2. Atom consists of NUCLEUS at the cedtre and ELEC;I(ONS around then&leus.

-
p='
= .. , . . .

3. ~he'nucleus consists of PROTONS and NEUTRONS,

- b2
4. Any atom of an element has a definite number of protons in. its
. nucleus.
.
.
.. .
: .

. . .., . .
5. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called 'its ATOMICNUMBER
. . (Z). ,

6.' The number of protons plus the number

,
of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called its
, . ,
, ;
MASS. . .NUMBER (A). C . .

7 . ISOTOPES are atoms with same atomic number,

. but. different,mass
. ,. .. . nu,mber
, /.-,:

8. Alpha or be6 radiations are emitted when an atom is UNSTABLE.

9: The isotopes which emit radiations are called RADIOLSOTOPES.

10. A different element is formed after the emission of a radiation.

11. Some isotopes emit gamma radiations, after the emission of alpha or beta radiations.

12. All radiations have energy.

..' . .. ,

13. A LPH A RADIATION. has two protons and two neutrons and k 'pbsitivil; charged and is
. least penetrating.
. . :
'..
. . .
I

14. BETA RADIATION is an electron with negatively charge. It i.s-'morepenetrating than

alpha radiation. . .
. .
. , .
I

15. GAMMA RADIATION has no charge or mass. Hence, it is highly penetrating.

16. HALF LIFE of radiation source is the period in which its activity reduces to half of its
initial activity.

17. X-rays are similar to gamma rays, except their origin and method of production.

18. Al! the above radiations can ionize and excite matterand hence, are called IONIZING
RADIATIONS.
. . .

19. IONIZING RADIATIONS cause biological damage.

20. It is necessary to protect ourselves from such hazards.

 3. INTERACTION OF RADIA'TION WITH MATTER
I
' : . .

When X, D, r radiationi fall &i.a'material, iF(teractions

'J : takq$&ck:betwtcn the radiation and
the electrons in the material. : This leads to nbsos~honaid.
, &bne6ihg ,(moving in a different
. :...!!:, . ->

direction) of radiation. A part bf the incident rkdiation may also ,get transmitted (pass
through). . . . ;
. .

~he'amountof radiation transmitted through the material depends upon

'-
,
a. type of radiation (X, B, 7)
b. energy of radiation (eV, keV, MeV)
c. type of miterial and its thickness (air, iron, lead)

Beta radiations can be completely absorbed in any medium. For example, beta radiations with
E,wl(maximum energy) 1.7MeV can be absorbed completely in'3 millimeters of aluminum.
But In the case of X and gamma radiations complete absorption is not possible. For example,
one per cent of cobalt-60 gamma radiations still get transmitted through 8 centimeters of lead.

There are three main types of interactions for X and gamma radiations in any medium. These
are

a. photoelectric effect . .

. . b. Compton effect
c. pair production -.

But, for energies we normally come across i n industrial radiography, only the first two
interactions are important.

The photoelectric effect is an interaction between a gamma ray (photon) and an orbital
electron. The gamma radiation looses its complete energy to the electron and the electron is
removed from its orbit. This electron is called photoeleckon. This election being a charged
particle easily gets absorbed i n the medium. This interaction'is predominant at lower
energies and it decreases with increase in energy. It increases with'increase in,atomic number
of the object. Hence, higher atomic number materials, like lead, yranium, tungsten, etc.
absorb gamma radiations better than lower atomic number kterials, like plastic, aluminum,
iron, etc.
I j
i'
In Compton effect, Lamma radiation interacts wi;h a free electron. The gamma radiation
gives part of its energy to the electron and travels in a different direction (gets scattered) with
decreased e.nergy. The electron moves in-another direction. This effect is predominant at
r7zediunt energies and it is not dependent on the atomic number of the material.

These two interact-ions are shown in figure 3.1.

f
>
h b e n ail electron is removed from its orbit, the atom looses one negative charge. I n other
words, he atom geLs posilivcly charged or ionized, Hence, this process is known as
-
 ionization. When an electron is raised from ar( inner orbit to an outer orbit, the electron gets
extra energy. In other words, the atom gets excited. Hence, this process is called excitation.
Alpha, beta and gamma radiations can directly or indirectly cause ionization. and excitation in
material with which they interact. Hence, these radiations are called ionizing radiations.
__-

Photoe-lectrtceffect Compton scattaring

'
,,,'---- photoelectron r' compton electron
/"

. .
Fig. 3.1 : Photoelectric and ~ o m p t o hlnteraCtion.

The intensity of radiation reduces on passing through any material. In case of X and gamma
radiations, the attenuation~followsan exponent$allaw :

where, lois the intensity of the incident radiation beam, 1 is the intensity of the beam emerging < /
11 I -\
after passing through a thickness x of the material and p is 'known as linear attenuation
coefficient. It is defified as the fractional decrease in intensity per unit thickness of the
~naterinl. If thc erlergy region of 100 keg to 1.5 MeV is considered, the attenuation coefficient
decreases with increase in energy and i! increases with increase in atomic number of the
absorber material. Hence, lower energ$ radiations are better absorbed and higher atomic
I
number material are good absorbers.

Half Value Thickness (HVT)

l'lle thickness of the material, usually called absorber, (eg., steel, lead, depleted uranium, etc.)
needed to reduce the inteensity of radiation to half its initial value is known as the half value
111ickrless (H V'I') .

'I'lle HV'I' depends on the energy of radiation atid the nature of the absorber.

, 111the case of X-rays, the HVT value for any kV depends to some extent on the amount of
inherent filtration of the X-ray tube. However, the value of HVT for a given material can be
taken as constant for heavily filtered beam. -
A s higller atomic llu~nbermaterials provide better shielding than lower atomic number
. .
material, for a given energy, HVT value is lesser for higher atomic number material.

One HVT of any material reduces the intensity to half. of the original intensity. Two HVT
reduces the intensity to lh x lh = (Yz)~, ie., 1/4 of the original intensity. In general, 'n' HVT
reduces the intensity to (%)I1 (Recall the decrease of radioactivity with time).

The reduction in radiation intensity with absorbers of different half value thickness i s sliow~ii n
figure 3.2. I

. ,

1/8.
.. . . . .,..., .;.. . . . . . . . . . . .... . .. . , .,. . -
\ ,

I I I
1 e 3
. No. of Hdf Value Lauers -> .,

Source s S 6 6

Detector n w w I n
2 3
No. of HUT 0 1 j

Radiation I -I
,
'

'L
4
,
-8I
lntanaitg I
e

. .

Fig. 3.2 : ~ e d k t i o n i nRadiation Intensity yith Thickness.

 TABLE 3.1 : HVT AND TVT VALUES FOR
X AND GAMMA RADIATIONS
Material

Concrete S tee1 Lead Uranium ..

H V T T V T HVT,TVT HVT TVT H V T JTVT

Radioisotope cln cm cm cm cm cm cm cm

HVT T V T ,HVT TVT HVT T V T .

X-rays mm mm ( mm mm mm mm

.. . .. .
. . .
Tenth Value Thickness (TVT) ...
. .. .
I
: ?

.... . .
-.. /-

Tenth value thickness is the thickness of any- material needed to reduce/ the-~gdigtztn ig&.$ity
to one tenth of its initial value. Similarly, TwoTVT reduces the intensity to 1/10 ~ 1 1 1 0= ,
(1/10)2 ie., 11100 dfthe original intensity. Generally, 3.3 TVT reduces the intenski by a
f~ctorof 10, hence
I
lTVT = 3.3 HVT

FIVT and T V T values in different materials, for X and gamma radiations, are given Thble3.1.

The radiation level at a place, due to an iridium-192 source is 10 mRlh. What is the thickness
of steel required to reduce the level to 2.5 mRIh?

Radiation level at the place = 10 mR/h.

One H V T reduces the level,to 10 i2 = 5 mR/h.
One more HVT reduces the level to 5 + .2 = 2.5 mR/h 1
\.
Two HVT of steel for iridium-192 = 2 x 1125 cm = 2i.S cm.
. .
. .

3.4 . .
 Example 3.2

What is the thickness of lead required to reduce the radiation intensity at a place, due to
cobalt-60 source, from 1000 1nR1h to 5 mRlh? a

Radiation level at .the 'place : ' = 1000 mR/h.

. - Onc TVT ~.cd uccs LIIClcvhl 'lo 1000
-. , . i~ = 100 I I ~ R I I I .
One more TVT reduces the level to ' lo@+ lq = 10 mR/h.
One HVT added to this reduces the
1 ..
level to 10 + , ; 2 = 5 m'R/h.
1
I
-

Two TVT and one HVT oflead for cobalt-60 radiations ~3

= 2 x 4;+ 1 x '1.2:cm = 9.2 cm.
/"

.. . . -.
E x a m ~ l e3.3
. .
. .

The radiation intensity at a placeffom a 200 kb X-ray beam is 5000 mR/h. This has to be
reduced to 2.5 mRlh. What is the thickness of concrete required to achieve this?

1
Radiation intens ty at the place = 5000 mR/h.
3 TVT reduces this level to 5000 x 10 x 10) =i(105 mR/h.
One HVT added to this reduces the level to 5 + 2 = 2.5 mR/h.

_-- 3 TVT and one HVT of concrete for 200 kV X-ray beam
= 3 x 86 +
1 x 26 = 284 mm = 28.4 cm.

SUMMARY
1 . Beta radiations can be absorbed completely. But X and gamma radiations cannot be
absorbed completely. . . ..

2. Interactions of X and gamma radiations, i n any material, are similar.

3. X and gamma radiations undergo three types of interactions in any material:.Photoelectric
effect, Compton effect and Pair production.
4 . For energies of interest in industrial radiography, only photoelectric effect and Compton
I
interactions are important. 1 ,
,
I
5. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT is important at low energies. It decreases as energy of
radiation increases. I t increases as atomic number of the absorbing material increases.
6. COMPTON EFFECT is important at medium energies. - It decreases with energy. It
does no1 vary with tlie atomic number of the absorbing material.
7. IONIZATION is a process, in which electrons are knocked off (removed) from an atom.

8. EXCITATION is a process, in which electrons are raised from an inner orbit to an outer
orbit.
9. Alpha, beta and gamma radiations can cause ionization or excitation. Hence, these
radiations are called IONIZING RADIATIONS.

10. Higher atomic number material, like lead, uranium,,absorb X and gamma radiations better
than lower atomic number material, like plastic, aluminum.
a
1 1 . HALF VALUE THICKNESS (HVT) of any material reduces the r diation intensity at a
place to half of the original intensity.
 4. RADIATION QUANTITIES & UNITS

IJnits are necessary for quantitative description of any physical proccss or phenon~ena. 111
radiological pllysics, units are required to measure

a. Radioactivity,
b. Exposure,
c. Dose,
, d . ~ ~ u i v a l e Dose.
nt

RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity of a source is measured in terms of the number of transformatiorzs it undergoes
in one second.
I
The unit of r!adioactivity is Becquerel (Bq)

One Becqirerel corresponds to one transformation per second, Formerly, the unit of activity
was Curie (Ci)corresponding to 3.7 X l0l0 transfornations per second.

.
Sub~nultiplesof Curie viz., I mCi (1/1000Ci) and 1 pCi (1/106Ci) are occasionally used.

EXPOSURE
1

In order to obtain information about quantity of X or gamma radiation present at a point of

interest, the concept of exposure is used, which is based on the ability of radiation to produce
ionization in air.

The unit of exposure is Coulomb per kg (Clkg), whicll is defined as the qua~ltityof cllarge
produced by ionizing radiation in 1 kg of air.

The earlier unil of exposure was Roentgen (R) yhich was used for X or gamma rays upto
, 3 MeV. This was defined as the amount of exposur&dhe to X or gamma radiation of energy
upto 3 MeV wllicli would cause io~lizatio~i resulting i u 1 electrostatic unit of cllarge of either
sign in 1 cc of air at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure).
-..
I R = 2.58 X Coulomblkg (Clkg).

DOSE
The dose froin io~lizi~lgradiation is the energy irnpsited, to matter by the ionizing radiation,
per unit mass of the irradiated material at the place of interest.
 .
.
.. .. .. )
: ... .
.
. . ,. .;.: * '.. ,
.

The unit of dose is Joules per kilogrim (Jlkg) ,

' . ' . . . ..

The special name for the u n i t of dose: is Gray (Gy) . . . . . ... . ? .

. .. . . . . . . .
' , * : , . .;..:.: '. ,i..L ,

. . . . . . .

If one joule of energy is imparted by any. iadiation in. one kilogradof any mateiial, the dose
is 1 C r y . ........
;:.!.. . . ' ..
.. , . ; .,

The concept of dose applies to any medium, all types of radiations and 'all energies'. The dose
is a measure of energy deposited by radiation in the irradiated material."
,..II .
All effects of .
. 'p
radiation - physical, chemical and biological depend upon the dose.'.' '....!..:
. . . . . . . . . . . .

'..,;-,. '; .. ,,. ; . . . . . . . .

Formerly, the u n i t of dose was t a d . One rad correspond.^ t o , 1 0 0 ~ e r $ h l ~ b f ~ i ~ r r a d i a t e d . . . . . . . .
I,

material. . ..;.;:::. . . . ,
. . . . .:

1 Joule = lo7 erg , I.

f I

. . . . . ., . . .
Therefore,
j
1 1 Gray =.1 Joulelkg = lo7 erglkg . . . . . . .
............. ,,.:. . . . . . . . ., . ., ,: .

I
!
= lo4 erglg = 102 rad. . .:,. :,,:. ;:; ;. , ;. ..... ,; :.'.
.
. .
I

I
~e~ice,
I 1 Gy = 100 rad or 1 rad = 0.01 Gy.

Dose rate in terms of Gylli, Gylyear, radlh or ra'dlyear, etc., are also
. . . occasionally used,
1 . . . . . ,
,

.,
.
. .. j
. .
! 'I. . . .
1
1
I
I n the case of exposure, for practical convenience, theconcept
the radiation quantity instead of exposure.
. . .
of air kerma. . . .is: . used
. , ..
to specify
. . .. . . ,. .j
. t'

/r
'7..

1
i Kermrr is the total kinetic energy of all' the charged particles releasediin ~ k g , othe f mediumby
,! ..,,. :.. ;:;*.;.!; . . . ..::.
'f:'
... I.,, .
the ionizing radiation.

Air kerma gives an idea about the energy transferred to air.

. .
The unitof air kerma.is Joules per kilogram (Gy). .
.. . . .. . . .. .. . . . .: ..
. . . . . ,..

I;

1 air kerma Gy = 114 R. .: . . . .

The usefulhess of air kerina can be extended to the determination . :

of the ra iation output at a
.- . . . . . . \ I . .
b
specified dista~lcefrom a iadiatioli source ill terms of mGy:per hour. . , , ' . . ~ '

EQUIVALENT DOSE ,
. . .. ,

,. The biological damage suffered by the tissue exposed to differeut'radiatious may be different.
i Tlia~is, the biological dainagedue to 1 Gy of alpha dose wduld be difqerent from the damage
due to 1 Gy of galiima dose. This is because tlie energy loss per uiit path length for different
types pf radiation is different. ~ l ~ h a ~ a r t i bbecauseof
l~s, their
. .'larger charge and mass,ciusc
greater io~~ization per.unit path length than La~nmaradiatioris, whicll.'~nediatetlirouglisi~igly
' I
 charged electrons, Hence, one Gy of alpha dose is approximately 20 times more effective in
causing biological damage, comp~redto one Gy of gamma or x-zy
dose. To account for
this variation among different ,;ypes of radiations, a term known as the Radiation Weighting
Faclor (WR) is used to modify the doses due to each type of radiation. Thus, Equivalent Dose
is obtained by multip!ying 'dose' by the radiation weighting factor corresponding to the
radiation of interest.

The urit of equivalent dose is also Joules per kilogram

TIE special name for the unit of equivalent qosd is S i e ~ e r (SV).
t
Equivalent Dose in Sv = Dose in Gy X W,.'

Formerly, tile equivalent dose was called Dose Equivalent and its irnit of was rem and W,l
I
was called Quality Factor (QF).

1 Sv = 100 reln or 1 rern = 0.01 Sv.

Equivalent Dose is a measurk of biological damage caused by radiation.

Radiation weighting factor for X-rays being one, eduivalent dose in Sv can be considered as
equivalent to dose in Gy. Therefore, for X and gamma rays,

.
1 reln =I rad Z .
. .
. '
.

. '..I.
.
. . . . .
KILOVOLTAGE (kV)
!
The potentiul difference applied between the cathode and the anode of an X-ray machine is
expressed i n terms of kilovoltage (kV). It determines the maximum energy of X-rays
produced by the equipment. For example, when the potential difference applied is 300 kV,
energy of X-rays produced varies from 0 to 300 keV. Higher the applied potential
difference, higher is the energy of the X-rays emitted and higher is the penetration. ~n an
X-ray equipment, the energy of X-rays can be varied, depending upon the thickness of the
object to be radiographed, by altering the applied potential difference.

MILLIAMPERE (mA)
i
Mil1iampel.e (r~zA)of an X-ray unit indicates the c&rerll flowing tizrougiz the filament circlrif.
The intensity of X-rays at a given applied voltage is proportional to the current flowing
through the filament. The intensity of X-rays at 10 mA is twice the intensity at 5 mA. The
exposure to be given for a radiograph, at a given potential is indicated in terms of mAs, ie.,
tlie product of filament current and duration of exposure (sec). The exposure due to 10 mA
current for 2 ~ninutesis equal to that due to 5 mA current for 4 minutes (1200 mAs). The
total use of X-ray equipment or work load is expressed as mA-minutes or mA-seconds.
 SUMMMY ~
1. BECQUEREI, is tlie new u n i t of radjoactivity. It corlesponds' to one transformation per
second.
. ._.. .
.
.. .
. .
:

.. .
.. .
2. CURIE was the earl ier unit of radioactivity. It cqrresponds-t6.3.7'~
. 10" transformations.
.

.
per second. .

. . .~ i

3. The quantity EXPOSURE is based on &heab,ility of radiationlto produce i o n k & ~-_

nin air.
I I ..... .
... .. ~
7"
4. COULOMB PER KILOGRAM is thf present unit of exposure. \;

. .
',

5. ROENTGEN (R) was the earlier unit of exposure.

6 . DOSE is energy i~iipartedby radiation in unit mass of matter.

/

7. JOULES PER KILOGRAM (Jlkg) is the present unit of dose. GRAY (Gy) is the
special name given for this unit.

8. RAD was the earlier unit of dose. -

9. LQUIVALEN'I' 1)OSE signifies the biological damage caused by ionizing radiation.

I

10. Alpha and neutrons cause more biolog!cal damage than gamma radiations.,

I I . RADIATION WEIGHTING F A C T O ~(W,J is used to- modify doses due to each type of
radiation.

12. Radiation Weigl~tingFactor was earlier called QUALITY FACTOR (QF),

13. JOULES PER KILOGRAM (Jlkg) is also the present u n i t of equivalent dose
SJX'VERT (Sv) is the special name given for this unit.

14. KILOVOLTAGE (kV) is the voltage applied between the cathode and the anode of an
X-ray ~l~acliilie.

15. M I 1 2 L I A M I'ISKIS ( I ~ A i~ldicales

) ~llecurrelil Flowing through tlie Filament circuil 01' a!)
X-ray math it~e.
 5 , BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION
CELL
Cells a r e the basic urtits of living organisms. All tissues are made of cells. Adult hun~an
body consists of about 10" cells. Cells of different organs carry out the functions specific for
- those c rgans. For example, nerve cells are responsible for transmitting electrical impulses
from o l e part of the body to the other; liver cells are responsible for metabolizing thc food wc
take ar. 1 preparing nutrition for all other tissues in the body; red blood cells carry oxygen and
1
nutritio. to all tissues.

Cells of .lifferent tissues have different sizes and shapes. However, in general. they all contain
a central lucleus (with the exceptionof red blood cell), surrounded... by a viscous fluid called
?. . .

1' cytoplasm The nuclbus. contains chromosomes which'constituteari ,...

;. , array
: .
,..of genes. The
chromosor les control all the functions of the celland hence,,...of
,
. the, tissue.
.
T h e cytoplasm
. : I . . : ,

contains vi :ious membrane systems and other components that . arb . necessary
,
, for the fuectign
of the cell. . . .. .

Cell Division

Cells originate or muMi ly from cells by the of qtll division. For example,
.-?
a human being, like an other animal, develops from a single cel!,which ..,.-
'
isformed by the
.,:.?;

fusion of two germ cells, one from the father and the other from the mother.. During the nine-
>.

month period of pregnancy, th'ls cell undergoes a number of divisions. The new cells in turn
specialize to form various organs of the.fetus (unborn baby).. .. . , . After
. , birth, cell division
. ..

continues until the organs attain adultproportions. Cells'.in many,tissues of the body have life
span shorter than that of the body, as a whole. For example,'i~itesti~~al cells, blood cells, skin
cells, etc., have life span ranging from a few days to a few weeks. They wear out and die. '

They are continuously replaced for the proper function of thetissue. Hence, even in an
adult, C ~ I division
I continues in some tissues. ~ i s s i e undergoing
s cell. divisionare more-
.
sensitive to radiation than others.

From the point of view of radiation hazard, cells call be Classified into two groups: a) Sornalic
Cells, b) Gernr Cells. Germ cells are the ones i~ivolve'd'iircpiohibtive prbcess. They are
sperins in the inale and eggs ill the female. All other cells in tl~ebody are solnatic cells.
.)

.: BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION '

When radiation passes tl~rouglithe body, it transfers soink of its energyto the cells in the form
of ionizatio~'~s"and excitations, which i n turn lead to a number of chemical changes.
Generally, these chemical clla~lgesare harmful to tlie celis. , depeiid.i~lgupo~l
.. . . . . ' the seriousi~ess .

of the harm, a cell either dies or gets modified. All tlie biological'effects of radiation arise
from tliese two effects on cells - Cell Deatlz or Cell Modificntio~~.

Radiation call cause breaks in cllromosomes. Majority of these breaks get repaired, b u i
certain breaks ]nay lead to loss or rearrangement of genetic ~natcrialwhich can be seen under a
 microscope. Such events are called Chromosome Aberratioris.

Biological effects of radiation can be classified into two groups, depending upon the type of
cells damaged. They are somatic effects and hereditary effects. As the vame itself suggests.
somatic effects arise from damage to soniatic cells and they occurdinthe tissues of the exposed
person (eg., effects on skin, blood, lung, bone, thyroid, etc.). Hereditary effects arise from
1 damage caused to the germ cells and occur in the progeny of the irradiated person.
' 7 l
I
Somatic effects can be further divided into early and late effects.

Early Somatic Effects . .-

r

Whenever the body is exposed to radiation, some cells are killed and some are modified. At
low doses, since only a few cells are kil,ld, the body can cope up with the loss and hence no ,

immediate effects are seen. However, as dose increases, more and more cells get killed and
this results in radiation sickness, nausea (feeling like vomiting), vomitinL fatigue, etc., within
a few hours of ,irradiation.- However, these effects are transient and disappeqr after a few
hours. As dose increases further; the effects appear quicker, are more severe and last longer.
At sufficiently high doses, the damage caused to important organs such as blood forming
organs, intestine, etc., is so severe, the patient will not be able to recover. Anemia, infection
and high fever would occur, leading to death. Fifty per cent of the persons exposed to a dose
in the range 3 - 5 Gy, die within a period of 60 days. This is known as LD,,,,. At still
higher doses, death occurs earlier.

Instead of the whole body, if only a part of the body is exposed, the damage is confined to the
exposed part. Depending upon the part of the body exposed, different local effects at different
doses are produced. Skin is the most frequently exposed organ: Doses less than 5 Gy can
cause only a transient (temporary) erythema which lasts for 1-2 days. p i g h e r doses of the

1
order of 10 Gy can cause reddening of the skin, fixed erythema and very igh doses cause dry
or wet desquamation depending upon the severity of loss of epidermal b a1 cells, within 3-6
weeks (10-25 Gy). Doses higher than 25 Gy lead to late phase of erythema during 8-16 weeks,
finally leading to death of the tissue. If hairy parts are exposed, in addition to erythema, hair
falls off, Leading to epilation. not her sensitive organ is the reproductive organ - testes in
inale and ovaries in female. Due to d$th of the germ cells sterilization results. This may be
temporary or permanent depending upon the dose. When eyes are exposed, the cells in the
lens are killed leading to the opacity of the lens, which is called'cataract. Unlike other effects
which appear within a few days or weeks after exposure, cataract formation takes a mean
latent period of 2 to 3 years. I
. .

I11brief, radiation exposurc may lead to various types of early sblhatic effd~tsdepending upon ' ,

ij
wlleliler wl~oleor only part of the body exposed. The characteristicof the early somatic
' . .

effects are:
I
a. they do not occur below a certain dose (threshold dose),
1
b. severity of the effect increases with dose and
 c. they appear within a short time after expoqure (except cataract).
. ~ . . . . . ~. ...,
Table 5.1 shows some of the early somatic effects and thiii threshold doses. I t is generally
assumed that the exposure takes place within a shirt time - minutes to hours (acufe exposure).
If the doses are protracted (chronic exposrrre).,.then the threshold doses will be much higher,
since the effectiveness of radiation decreases due to the recoycry
. process.
,. . . . .
. . : .:..

TABLE 5.1 : SIGNIFICANCE q F DlFFERENT LEVELS OF

-
\ RADIATION EXPOSURE

Dose Significance
1-2 rnSv/y 100-200 rnremly Whole body ' ~ a c k g i o ~ nradiation
d level at sea level
(OU tdoors)

1 mSv1y 100 mremly Whole body Limit for non-radiation workers.

r3'
i
.. .... 2. %.

5 mSv/y 500 mremly Whole body Average occupational exposure.

.h .
10 mGy 1 rad . . Whole body Risk of:cance;:.mortality, 3' ..,
,' '
about-Sjpert:lOOOO exposed \ < '..
. . ,. \:
:. .. .. .

20 mSv1y 2 remly : Whole body $nit

, .
:fir
,.., : ; -, .: < ...
workers.
150 mSv/y 15 remly I . Eye , Ljmit for eye lens.
500 mSv/y 50 remly ,
- '.

Partial body 1 Ljmit for skin and extremities.

100 mGy 10 rad Whole body ~ktectadle'iii~reasbin
. . chromosome aberrations.
No detectable injury or sickness.
.. . .

1, GY. 100 rad - .... Whole body -~hreshpid. fqrradiation sickness ,?--I
. .
. .
[Nausea, Vomiting, Diarrhea (NVD)~.,%
(5- lo',%o f exposed individuals).
1 GY 100 rad Reproductive Temporary sterility i n men.
sys tem
I

2-3 Gy 200-300 rad Whole body Threshold for epilation.

Threshold for induction of cataract. w,,
Radiation sickness in most individuals.
Early erythema induction.
3-5 Gy 300-500 rad Wllole body LD 50160 for hhlan beings. @ 'J
-.
> 6Gy > 600 rad Partial body Tl~resl~old
dose of skin erythelna.4
Per~nanentloss of hair.

The threshold doses for early effects are generally, much higher~thandoses received by
persons during norhal working conditio~is. Hence, when proper working conditions are
practiced, these early effects of radiation do not occur. Co~nparethe limit for radiation
exposure with the threshold dose for various acqte effects in tab.le 5.1. However, accidents
such as holding sources by bare hands, hiding stolen sources i n pockets, etc1leading to severe
I
skin burn and tissue damage have been repqited. .. . .
. .

Late Somatic Effects

The most important late somatic effect is ynber. When the irradiated cell is riiodified rather
than killed, it may develop into cancer, akter a prolonged delay. The delay may vary from
5 years (blood cancer) to 30 years or more hung cancer). Unlike the case of early effects, the T-'
probability of cancer resulting from radiatioi increases with every increment of dose, probably
without any threshold. Radiation is not thk only agent which induces cancer. A .number- of
chemical agents (such as tobacco and its fumes, as in beedi and cigarette smoke) and biological f

processes can also induce cancer. ~ d m i a r e dto these, radiation is a week carcinogen.
However, cancers induced by radiation are indistinguishable fr'o'm those induced by other
/
agents.

Hereditary Effects

Hereditary effects may result when the irradiated germ cell is modified rather than killed and if
it also participates in the reproductive process. Under such circumstances, the damage caused
to the genetic material i n the modified germ cell will be transmitted to the subsequent
generations. As i n the case of cancer, there is probably no threshold 'dose for hereditary
effects. Even though radiation is found to induce hereditary effects in experimental animals,
there is no conclusive evidence of the same in man. Furthermore, natural incidence of
hereditary defects i n man is quite high. Mutations in germ cells could lead to a variety of
skeletal abnormalities leading to malformations, neonatal cataract and a variety of genetic d

diseases associated with mental retardation (eg., Downs Syndrome). Fetus and children are -
generally known to be more sensitive than adults to all effects of radiation.

I n normal radiation work, it is necessary to ensure that the risk of radiation induced cancer and
hereditary defects are kept at acceptable limits.

SUMMARY
I . IONIZING RADIATION can C A U ~ EDAMAGE to living beings, hdnce one should be
careful while handling radiation sources.
2. Chromosomes are the'most important parts of the cell.
3. SOMATIC EFFECTS appear i n the EXPOSED INDIVIDUAL,
4. HEREDITARY EFFECTS appear i n the FUTURE G E NE RAT IO N (children,
grandchildren) of the exposed individual.
5. ACUTE DOSE means LARGE DOSE in a SHORT PERIOD.
6. CHRONIC DOSE means DOSE received over a LONG PERIOD.
 7. Same DOSE received over a SHORT PERIOD cause MORE DAMAGE than that
received over a long period.
A
8. Large dose receive by a part of the body might cause injury only to that part.
same dose to the whole body might be more serious.
But, the

9. IMMEDIATE EFFECTS are caused due to L A R G E DOSES over a SHORT

DURATION. They occur within a short period, eg., decrease in white blood cell count,
skin erythema, etc.

-
\
10. IMMEDIATE EFFECTS occur ABOVE a certain THRESHOLD DOSE.
11. If 100 persons receive a dose of 3 to 5 Gray (300 to 500 rad), 50 persons would die withill
60 days. This is called LETHAL DOSE 50160 (LD50,J for human beings.
 6 . OPERATIONAL LIMlTS
Every profession has its own risks and benefits. While radiation can be utilized for a number
of beneficial purposes, it can produce early and late harmful effects in the exposed persons.
Hence, it is necessary to set up safety standards in the use of radiation. @e International
Commission on Radiological Protection ( I C R sets ~ guidelines in this respect in the form of
annual dose 1 imits to individuals. Since the 'early effects have dose thresholds, they can be
easily prevented by setting the dose limits below the threshold,, On the other hand late effects -
1
d

such as cancer and hereditary effects have no threshold, which means that there is no dose
below which they can be completely prevented. Hence, in setting up the dose limits, it should
be ensured that the risk of cancer and hereditary defects do not exceed certain-acceptable
limits.

TABLE 6 . J : DOSE LIMITS

(

Application Dose Limit

Occupational Public
Whole body : 20 mSv per year, averaged 1 mSv in a
(effective dose) over defined period of year, averaged
5 years, with no more than over 5 years
50 mSv in a single year
II
Parts of the body : 0
(equivalent dose)
Lens of the eye 150 mSv per year - 15 mSv in 'a yr
'

Skin* 500 m$v " , ..50mSv " ?

Hands and feet** 500 mSv " . .. . -

* Averaged over areas of 110 more, than any 1 cnlZ regardless of ~ i ~ e ' i r exposed.
ea

Accordingly, the ICRP has suggested the annual occupational dose limits to radiation workers
(including pregnant women workers), as sho n in Table 6.1, for whole body exposure. as
Y
well as for some specific organs. The avekage effective dose (whole body) should not exceed
c\, 20 rnillisievert per year. Since, i t is dksirable to keep the riskk well below the acceptable
(2j limits, the lCRP recommends that the dqse limits should be donsidered as the upper 1i)mits and
t h e c t u a l doses received must be kept Ak h w AS Reasonably Aehieiable (ALARA).--

In addition to workers who handle the radiation sources, members of the public may also get
. exposed to radiation. .Hence, separate limits for general public have also been suggested.
These are also shown in Table 6.1. The limits for general public as a group is lower than that
for workers, since this group a) consists bf more sensitive section of population (children),
b) docs no1 dcrive direct benefils rroln the use of radialion and c) no individual monitoring for
assessing exposure is done. Tlle A L A R A pri~lcipleis also applicable in the protection of
public.

The dose limits given in Table 6.1 do not include medical exposure and natural background
radiation.
 . , ..
' i;'
.. 3
i .
.: .. .
I ,is PERSPECTIVES ON OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSWLEVELS
. . . !. . . .. I
;
:,
. .\%'

..
- . ,... . .., , . , .
:
\..
>..

Radiation is a part of our daily life. We are constantly exposed to cosmic radiation, the
earth's minerals (uranium, radium) and even to radioisotop-4s %'thin our own body (carbon-14,
potassium-40). Hence, the food we eat, the air we breathe, the water we drink and the house
we live in, contain traces of radioactivity. These constitute N a t u r a l B a c k g r o u n d
Radioactivity. The average annual dose resulting from natural radioactivity is estimated to be
1 - about 2-3 mSv.
+ -
7
,?-- 8

The dose limits for radiation workers is about 10 times higher than the dose due to normal
natural background radiation. But, the average occupational dose is of the same order as the
natural background. Tbis corresponds to about 100 mSv over ones lifetime. If 1000 persons
receive 100 mSv over their lifetime, 4 persons may suffer from cancer.

It should be noted that care, rather than fear, is needed while handling radiation sources and
the associated risk should be viewed in relation with o t h ~ risks.
r ~ h procedures
k available to
cbntrol exposures to ionizing radiations are sufficient, 'f used properly, to make sure that the
4
risk due to radiation is small compared to many other ri ks to which we are all exposed.

SUMMARY
*
1. Any profession has some risk associated with it.
..
2. Certain amount of risk is tolerated, as we get benefit,
3. In radiation work we are concerned with both acute and chronic exposures and the associ-
,. ated hazard.
4. No dose is safe dose. . ,

5 . 'While settingoperatiol~allirnits,the well being bf the radiation worker and his future-
generation are coilsidered. '.
I

6. There are separate operational limits for the whole body and the individual organs.
. .

7. These limits do not include rnidi&l exposure and e{pospres due to natural background
radiation. . .
.
. .
.

,
6. ~adiationexposures are cu~n,ul.ative(~liey
add up) iy 'iheir effect.
9. The a111lualoperational liinit for whole body is 20 inSv (2 rern) for radiation workers and
1 mSv (100 mrein) for 11on-radiationworkers,
-.
- 10. Unnecessary radiatibn exposure should not be given.
11. Radiation exposure should be kept minimua~.
 INTRODUCTION
Use of radiation sources is associated dith a certain amount of rddiatibn hazard. With proper
care, this can be minimized. Radiation hazards may be broadly classified as external hazards
and internal hazards. External hazards \occur when the sourq of radiation is outside the body T*
and internal hazards arise when the source of radiation gets into the human system. Hazard
evaluation is necessary in order to adopt suitable measures to control radiation exposure. The
problem of internal hazard does not arise in the use of X-ray equipment. .-
*
It is considerably easy to estimate the external radiation hazard and there are a number of
devices suitable for this purpose. T h e y devices incorporate radiation detectors to sense the ,

presence of radiation, so that radiatio? level or dose to individuals can be evaluated. They
function on the basis that radiation can cause ionization in a medium, i.e., produce charged
particles from originally neutral atoms and molecules. The detecztors are linked with a display
unit to indicate the detector response.

Radiation monitoring devices differ from each other in the medium in which the ionization
takes place and in the method by which this ionization is detected and measured. The
following are the media generally used for radiation detection.
YI

1. Gases - Ionization chamber, Geiger Mueller (GM) counter

2. Scintillation detector
3. Photographic emulsions (Film)
4. Solid state detectors (Thermoluminescent dosimeters)
I

The selection of a particular type of detedtor depends on the pi~rposefor which it is needed.

-
H a-Insulator
?MNVV\NVVVVV\rt
IIVVVVVVVVVVVVlr)
?IVVUVV\IVVVVVVlr)

I
Radiation
Outer oiectrods I ;;-,hi , 1 $j

I Fig. 7.1 : Gas Filled Detector Syste111

I
I GAS FILLED DETECTORS
II
1I
Radiation produces ionization in a gas medium and the io~isso produced are collected as
current or pulses.

1 Gas filled detectors are generally, of cylindrical shape, with two electrodes, a central electrode
and an outer sheath, separated by an insulator (figure 7.1). A positive voltage is applied to

7.1
I
 ' ,.
.

the central electrode, with rqs@eqt,toouter sheath. . On exposure to radiation, ionization takes
I.. ,

place in the gas medium, ie., electrons are knbckkd;offthe gapmolecules. The ionized gas
molecule is called the positive ion.. The positive ions iqd
;. ,, .th6':nigative
, - electrons, thus formed,
'. . respectively Tove to the outer (negative) and central (pqgitive)
. : ,.,.. elec&ides. These ion pairs are
.
-
collected and the resultingp.~lse/iur~ent is measbred. ;;These gas filled detectors functioii

, . regions of response. Of thes.e,'two

..
.regions are of
I
differently, at different voltag<s applied to the centra el&$ode,
interesf'to us.
There are five different

\,
a. Ionization Chamber Region : I n this low voltage region (- 200 volts), the number of

"B
ion pairs produced nd collected are same. For radiation monitoring, the ionization chambers
are filled with air, enerally, at atmospheric pressure. The effective atomic number of the
wall material would be close to that of air. Hence, such an ionization chamber would give
energy independent response. Beta Gamma Exposure Rate Meter (SM 140) of Electronics
Corporation of India Ltd., Hyderabad, incorporates an ionizatio'n chamber as a radiation
I

detector.

Pocket dosimeter is another device which has an ionization chamber. It has a built-in
capacitance which can be charged by an external voltage and when exposed to radiation, the
ionization in the chamber decreases the voltage across the capacitance. The reduction in tlie
voltage across the capacitance is a measure of the amount of iol~izationand hence the quantity
of radiation exposure.

b. Geiger Mueller (GM) Region : This occurs at a higher vo1.tage (300-1400 volts),
wherein multiple ionization takes place in the gas medium. As a result,. the number of ion
?
pairs collected are much more -than that collected in the ionization chamber region.
GM detector functioning in this region, is the most widely used detector of ionizing radiation,
\ because it has high sensitivity.
I
I

In a GM counter, the central electrode is a fine wire (0.2 mm to 0.1 mm diameter) of tungsten
and the outer electrode is usually of metal. The filling gas is generally argon with quencliing
gases, like ethyl alcohol or halogen vapour, to suppress secondary discharge. Depending
upon the gas used and the pressure, the voltage difference between the two electrodes may
anywhere be between 300 volts to 1400 volts. There are GM detectors of different shapes and
sizes, depending on the purpose of use and radiation level to be ~nonitored.

GM detectors may fail to respond wlie~ithe radiation )eve1 is very liigli.

I ,
Many radiation monitors incorporate GM detectors.

SOLID STATE DETECTORS

a. Scintillation Detectors : I n this, the medium for detection is a scintillator. When

radiation interacts with the scintillator, tlie absorbed energy is instantaneously converted into
light flashes. A large portion of tlic light flash from tllc scintillator is transmitted to
pliotomul tiplier,'wliere electrons are-produced, mu1tiplied and detected as a large electrical
i
Thallium activated sodium iodide - Nal(T1) dcintillator is used for gamma radiation
 detection. These detectors are used for monitbring very low radiation levels.

b. Thermoluminescent Detectors : In this solid state-.detector, the radiation energy

absorbed, by the detector material, is retained for a long time. On heating this materiat,
visible light is emitted, whose intensity is proportional to the' radiation energy absorbed and
thus, the dose. Dysprosium activated calcium sulphate (CaS0,:Dy) is a very useful
thermoluminescent detector used for personnel monitoring purpose.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILMS
3

Photographic film consists of a sensitive layer of silver halide crystals in gelatin spread on +
cellulose acetate base. The thickness of the emulsion layer ranges from 10-25 pm.
Radiation, incident on the film causes ionization in the silver bromide crystal. Silver clumps
containing several silver atoms are forme$ on the surface of the crystal. During development, ,
each exposed grain is reduced to metallic silver. The unaffected, undeveloped silver halide
crystals are dissolved by immersing the film in fixer solution. The prbcessed film shows
blackening and the amount of blackening expressed in terms of optical dedity is telated to the
quantity of radiation absorbed in the film. The optical density is measured using an
I
instrument known as Densitometer.

Photographic films are used in industrikl radiography for revealing defects in castings, welds,
etc. Photographic films are also used for personnel monitoring, by loading personnel
monitoring films in film cassettes containing different metallic filters, designed for monitoring
different types of radiations. v
I
PERSONNEL MONITORING .-
I-.

Personnel monitoring is the evaluation of radiation doses received by the personnel working
with radiation sources and X-rays. The most commonly used personnel monitoring device is
the film badge which conhists of a photog$lphic film (PM film) kept in a cassette containing a
set of filters (Fig. 7.2). Using film badges doses from 0.1 mSv to 10 Sv (10 mrem to
1000 rem) of different types of radiations can be evaluated. The film se- a permanent
record and if worn on chest, gives the most representative value of the whole body dose under
normal working conditions. Films can be used to assess the radiation dose received from
exposure to beta rays, X-rays, gamma rays'or thermal neutrons.

Tile dose received by radiation worker can also be determined by the use of thermoluminescent
dosimeter (TLD) badges. This consists 04 three CaS-OiDy TLQdiscs embedded in a metallic
framework and enclosed in a multifilter cassettea(Fig. 7.2). The TLD badge can be used to
i monitor beta, galilma and X-rays. The TLD badge can cover a wide range of doses
from 0.1 mSV to lO&v (10 inrem to 10OOqem). ;
/+
Radiation dose to personnel call also be assessed by using pocket dosimeters (Fig. 7.3).
B
e r svery useful i n certain operations, where the radiation levels vary
Pocket d o s i ~ ~ ~ e tare
co~~siderably and may be quite hazardous. They give an on-the-spot inforination of radiation
dose, as tllc dose recorded call be read directly by the person. Pocket dosimeters in the
 range of 200 mR, 5 R, 10 R, etc., are available. . :,. . ,

~-0pn windru 2-bstic3

~~ & T h i n e
5 - w . mppar 6-Laad 4
4-
uu DO
%Jd
Film. Badge TLD badge K.

' Fig. 7.2 : Personnel Monitoring Badges.

R. Charging rod
A B C D E F F B. Insulator ring
C. Fixed quartz fibre v
D. Movable fine mutal
mated quartz fibre
E. Transparent scale
F. Lena

Fig. 7.3 : Pocket .aosimeter

AREA MONITORING

The assessment of radiation levels at different locat/ofnsin thc vicinity of radiation sources
and X-ray equipment is generally known as irks monitoring. On the basis of the
measurements taken, one would be able to determins the adequacylinadequacy of the existing
I radiation protection ~neasures~ ,

Normally, area monitoring systems should be abie tb determine radiation levels in the range of
0.2 mR/h to -5 R/h and also have audio indication. b w e r range in the instrument is useful in
assessing radiation level at occupied areas and for general radiation survey around X-ray
iustallations.

The most co~n~no~ilyused radiation monitors {eg. MINIRAD, MR 4500) have miniature G M
I
counters, making them useful ovcr wide range of exposure-ralcs. MINIRAD monitor can
/ measure upto 5 Rlh and M R 4500 call measure upto 50 Rlh making i t useful in radiation
 emergencies. Both these instruments can be used for area monitoring as well as for
monitoring, leakage radiation level around source housings, Rray~equipment.

Other monitoring instruments in use :

BETA-GAMMA EXPOSURE-RATE METER (SM-140) is an ionization chamber type

survey meter marketed by MIS Electronics Corp. Of India Ltd., (ECIL), Hyderabad. It has a <-
\
400 cc ionization chamber and can measure exposure-rate from 50 mRlh to 5 R/h due to X and
gamma radiation in three ranges. The chamber is provided with a windbw and by opening the
window, beta radiations can also be monitored. This instrument is useful forpneral purpose
monitoring and for checking the radiation levels around radiation source housings and X-ray
equipment.
,

RADIATION SURVEY METER (MR-121) also marketed by MIS ECIL, Hyderabad, is a '
GM counter type survey meter. It has a long glass walled GM counter and can cover
. exposure-rates from 0.1 mR1h to 20 mR/h due to X and gamma radiations in three ranges. It
can also redpond to high energy beta radiations. It is very useful for \ow level area
monitoring. This instrument, however, has a drawback that it does not respond at high
radiation levels.

The area monitors mentioned above, are a few typical ones. There ar? many other radiation
monitors which can cover the range of interest and serve the purpose of area monitoring.

TABLE 7.1 : SOME INSTRUMENTS USED'FOR kREA MONITORING '

Instrument Typeof Range of Remarks

Detector Measurement

MR-121 G.M.Counter 0 - 20 mR/h Fails at higher

radiation level
S M - 140 Ion Chamber 0 - 5 R/h
, , /
MINIRAD G.M. Counter 0 - 5 klh
MR 4509.' G.M. Counter 0 - 150 R/h

In addition to these area monitors, a zone monitor, located at a suitable place inside the
exposure room, would help in warning people when the radiography equipment is being
operated, so that they can avoid entering the exposure room, A zone monitor, generally,
contains audio and visual indication, which gets switched 'ON' when the radiation level at the
location of the zone monitor, exceeds a certain preset level.
\
CALIBRATION AND MAINTENANCE OF RADIATION MONITORS \

should be kept in good workil~gcondition. - They bhould be periodically

Radiation ~nol~itors
 checked to confirm that reliable readings are.jndicat4 . They ghould also be checked after any
servicing or repairs. The most simple mdhod of eckirig,ti;e
' , ,... instrument performance is to
use the instrument just after it has been calibrated.I.: y the.man,&(acturer .and record for future
1 '..,,,, ,:,
I

reference the exposure-rate at a specific distance fom a, check radiation source of known
il
activity. Performance checks can then:be.made t'any.'time,bycomparing therecorded
reading with check readings made a t t h e same q i s t a k e from the source, after making
necessary correction for radiqactivity decay. If the checkreading, after corrections, varies
considerably, the instrument shauld be sent far se{vicingand recalibrajion. In addition, the
operational and handling lhstru$ti6ns should be 'scr4@blouslyobserved to. ensure prolonged and
trouble-free performance.of the instrument.

SUMMARY
1. Radiation detectors function on the basis that radiation can causerIONIZATION
2. Com'monly used radiation monitors (eg., MR-121, MINIRAD, MR-4500) have GEIGER
MUELLER (GF)COUNTER as the radiation detector,
3. SM-140 radiation monitor consists of an IONIZATION CElAMBER, .,

4; MR-121 radiation monitor fails to respond at higher radiation levels.

5. In SCINTILLATION DETECTOR, radiation energy is converted into light flashes,
which in turn are converted into electrical pulses by a photomultiplier.
6. In THERMOLIMINI$SCENT DETECTOR, absorbed radiation energy is retained for a
long time. On heating, this absarbed energy is released in thc form of visible light. F

7. In PHOTOGRAPHIC FILM radiation ionizes silver bromide crystal and. these are
reduced to metallic silver on processing, The procesped film.shows blackening.
8. OPTICAL DENSITY expresses degree of blackening on the processed film.
9. PERSONNEL MOMTORING : Assessment of dose received by radiation workers
10. Film badge has inan filters, to help in assessment of dose due to X-rays, gamma rays,
Y
beta rays and.therma neutrons.
11. TLD badge can be used to assess personnel dose due to beta, gamma and X-rays.
12. POCKET DOSIMETERS are for on-the-spot information about the dose received.
1
I
13. AREA MONITORING : Assessment of radiation levelk at different locations.
14. It is essential to periodically check the proper functioning of radiation monitors.
--.
 . .
8. RADLATION HAZARD CONTROL
Use of gamma or X-ray equipment in industrial radiography poses external radiation hazard.
X-rays are emitted only when an X-ray machine is switched 'ON'. Hence, we are safe
from radiation hazard, when the machine is switched 'OFF'. But, in gamma ray equipment,
even in the 'OFF' condition, there is a certain amount leakage radiation coming out of the
source housing. - \. /

Radiation hazard from any radiographic source depends upon

a, energy of the gam'ma .radiation,

~ .. ,.-_
,,

b. radiation output, .
.- .

c. half-life of the radioiso~ope.: . .. . /:

. . (
Each radiography source emits gamma radiation of one or mok energies: The energy of the
gamma radiations emitted by cobalt-60 source is different from those by iridium-192 source
(Table 8.1). . .

TABLE 8 .I : CHARACTERIS+ ICS OF SOME RADIOGRAPHIC

SOURCES I

Radiography Physical Half-life Gamma energy Exposure rate

source form (MeV) at 1 metre
R/h/Ci mGy/h/Gbq s

Iridium-192 Metallic 74 d ' 0.4 (Avg.) 0-5 0.12 C

Cobalt-60 Metallic 5.26 y 1.17, 1.33 -. 1.32 0.3 1

aI
- - 1
1 Gy (air kerrna) = 114 R/1 GBq = 0.027 Ci
,A
Cobalt-60 source has gamma radiation of two energies 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV. Gamma
radiation energies from a given radioisotope are the same whether it's activity is 1 GBq,
1000 GBq or of any other value. Gamma radiation of higher energy has higher penetrating
power.

The radiation level or the exposure-rate at a particular location increases with increase i n
activity,of source.

EXPOSURERATECONSTANT

Radiation level at 1 metre distance from a source of unit activity (GBq or Ci) is called the
Exposure Rate Constant of the source. It is a constant for a particular source. Radiation
level (Rlh) at I metre from a 1 Ci radioactive source is known as the RHM (Roentgen/H_ourat
1 Metre) of the source.
 Radiation output at 1 metre (100 cm) from a given soure
.. . , . . .
= Exposure Rate Constant x activity of the source '
" ' ''.

Thus, the radiation level at 1 metre from a 7 Ci iridium-192 source is

> \

= RHM of iridium-192 x 7 = 0.5 x 7 = 3,s Rlh

Similarly, the radiation level at 1 metre from a 200 GBq cobalt-60 source is

= Exposure date constant of cobalt-60 x 200 mGy1h = 0.3 1 x 200 = 62 mGy/h

If the radiation level at 1 metre is known, the activity of the source can be determined.
if the radiation level at 1 metre from an iridium-192 source is 1.5 ~ l hthen
,
0.5 x Ci = 1.5 Rlh
1.5
Activity of the iridium-192 source = -
0.5
= 3 Ci

Similarly, if the source is cobalt-60, and the radiation level is 100 mGyih at 1 metre from the
source, then
0.31 x GBq = 100 mGy1h
. .L . 100
Activity of the cobalt-60 source = -
0.31
= 330 GBq. , 1

,.-
\
TABLE 8.2 : RADIATION OUTPUT OF SOME INDUSTRIAL
X-RAY MACHINES
Make & Type Max kV/mA Filter Focal Spot Radiation
output
mm I
mm 2 Rimin at 1 m
I (

Philips MCN-421 300110 2.2 Be 4.5 X 4.5 392

350110 2.2 Be 1 4.5 X 4.5 408
420110' 2.2 Be 1$ 4.5 X 4.5 440
Siefer t 420110
32017 1*
7.0 Be
7.0Be
1' 4.5 X 4.5
1.5 X 1.5
59
24
320113 1 7.0Be 4.0 X 14 58
Sonex 10015 # 2.0 A1 1.5X 1.5 8
2001 5 2.0 Al 2.0 X 2.0 58
3001 5 3.0 A1 3.2 X 3.2 150
I .

Note how radiation X-ray output

a. increases almost proportionately with mA (*)
b. increases more than proportionately with kV (#)
c. decreases wit11 increased filtration (@)
 Radiation hazard,from an X-ray equipment depends on

a. kV of the X-ray equipment and

b. X-ray output.

X-ray output @/h) depends not only on the kV and mA of the X-ray equipment, but also on
various other factors such as construction of the tube, size of the target, type of rectification,
inherent filtration, etc. The radiation output from an X-ray equipment is very high as L -

compared to the radiation output from gamma sources, normally used in industrial
radiography. Table 8.2 gives an idea about the radiation output of some common industrial
X-ray equipment.

CONTROL OF EXTERNAL HAZARD I

I

I ,
The three basic factors by which external'radiation hazard can be controlled are

'
!I '
a. time
b. distarice
c. shielding

I
I
Time :
I
I
I

It is essential, from radiation protection point of view, that the time spent near gamma or
I v
I X-ray equipment during radiographic exposur,es should be minimum, The radiation dose
I
received by a radiographer depends upon the total time spentLbyhim near a source. T
I -

Fig. 8.1 : Radiation Dose with:Time . . ,

a
In view of high radiation output from an x&ay equipment, even few seconds of exposure to .
direct X-ray beam will result in very high dose to the exposed person.
 If an operator takes 1 minute while working with a sdurce and is exposed to 10 mR, another
operator who takes 2 minutes to do the same job would bd exposed to 2 x 10 = 20 mR. If he
were to take 114 minute, he would have been exposed 1s only 1/4 x 10 = 2.5 mR.
I

LESSER THE TIME SPENT +AR THE SOURCE,

OR X-RAY EQUIPMENT (DIJRING EXPOSURE)
b
I
LESSER WOULD BE TKE DOSE WIATION
I n order to minimize the.time of exposure

a. all the operations'should be planned in advance.

b. all the operations bk performed, initially on a trial basis without radiation and in
case of gamma rays with a non-radioa tiv dummy source. The time taken should
be noted. F 7
c. the work may be'shared b$ two or three operators, if the total workload (number of
exposures) is large, . Evaluation of dose r e ~ i v e dby kith operator should be done
by using pocket dosimeters, especially durivg field radiography,

Example 8 . 1 9 radiography shot with an Jf-ray equipmqnt results in an exposure of 2 inR %-

n
to the operator. HOW many operators are necessary to take 120 such shots in a week? k?.
,-.
-e '

Weekly permisiible limit for each operator = 40mR

Exposure to operator during one shot = 2 m ~
Number of shots one operator can take = 4012 = 20
Total number of shots to be ~ompleted = 120
Number of operato~r.ec&red for the job = 120120 -
= 6
-
..re*- *. /-

Example 8.2 : An operator wearing a pocket dosimeter sp&ds 10 minutes in a radiation field 1
of 150 mR/h. What is the exposure recorded by the dosimeter?

Radiation field = 150 mR/h

Radiation exposure for 60 minutes = 150 mR ,
Radiation exposure for 10 millutes = 150 X (10160) = 25 mR
I
Radiation exposure indicated by the pocket dosiqleter = 25 inR
,
Distance :

Larger the distaoce, lesser is (lie radiatio~ilevel. Tlie most effective and economic method of
reducing exteriial radiatio~ihazard is to increase tlie distance belweeil the radiatioii source ai~d
persons.

a. Use long cables between X-ray unit aiid the colltrol panel
b. In case of remote operated cameras, work at maximum distance
fro111 source Iiead.
 MAINTAIN.MAXXMSJM DISTANCE FROM 'SOURCE,OF RADIATION

The radiation intensity or radiation level from a given source decreases as wk move away from
the source. It is governed by the following inverse square;law.
. . .
. ,. ... .

. .
.where I, = radiation level at a distance Dl metres from the source;
- T
I, = radiation level at a distance D, metres from the soutce.

Distance (Dl meterrs -> 1 2 3 4 5

~ 2 - - - - > 1 4 9 16 25

Source
100 GBq Ir-192 > -

a
Y
Fig. 8.2 : Depiction of Illverse Square Law.

It means, if we double tlie distance, tlie radiation level \\lould be one fourth of the earlier level.
\

\
At 2 m distance (Dl) from a gamma radiography source, if the radiation level is 125 mRlh (I,),
at 5 In distance (D,) the radiation level (I,) would be 20 mR/h, since
 125 x 4
I,= -- - 20 mRlh
25

Example 8.3 : Determine the radiation level at a distance of 5 metres from a 74 GBq (2 Ci)
iridiurh-192 source?

. .
Activity of the source = 74 GBq (2 Ci)
! RHM for iridium-192 = 0.5 Rlh at 1 m
I

Radiation .level at 1 m (Dl)

from a
2 Ci source (I,) = 2 x 0.5 = 1 Rlh
I, is the radiation level at 5 metres (D,)
Since, 1 x 1 = 1 2 x s 2
1
- -1 Rlh = 40 mRlh
-
24

Example 8.4 : The radiation level at 4 metres from a gamma sQurceiq.500 mR/h. What is the.
distance required .to reduce the radiation level to 20 mR/h ?.

-- Since, I,Di = I,D; , +

500 x 42 = 20 x D;
i
or D, = J400 = 20 m = 20 metres

Example 8.5 : What is the distance in metres required to reduce the radiation level from a
150 GBq iridium-192 source to 2 microGyIh?

Exposure rate constant of iridium-192 = 0.12 mGy111 = 120 microGy/h

Activity of the source = 150 GBq
Radiation level at 1 m = 150 x 120 = 18P00 1nicroGyI11

i
Thus, we are given that ,
 Example 8.6 : Radiation level at 50 cm distance from an X-ray equipment is 20 R per
minute. What is the radiation level at a distance of 10 metres?

Example 8.7 : What is the distance in metres required to reduce the radiation level from
40 R/h at 1 metre to 100 mRlh? ,
I
I, = 40 R/h = 40000 mR/h D,=lm

D, = J 400 = 20 metres

Shielding :
When maximum distance and minimum time do not bring down-the radiation level to an
acceptably low value, materials like concrete, steel or lead are used as a shield between the
source of radiation and the operator.

Shielding Thickness Calculations: Shielding is provided in order to reduce the radiation

intensity to the required value. The shielding thickness required can be calculated from
trans~nissionratio. it is the ratio of the radiation level with,the shield td that without the
shield.
, Radiation level with shield . .
Transmissio~~
ratio =
Radiation level ~ i t h o u st h i e F , '. . . - '

. . ..

I
The required shielding tllick~lessis the number of half value thickness or tenth value thickness --
(or combination of both) to provide the nearest transmission ratio. (See table 8.3)
d

I
SHIELD YOURSELF FRO~M SOURCE OF RADIATION
I
The shielding properties of ally material dedehd upon its atonlic number. and the energy of the
incident radiation,
 Exa~nple8.8 : Calculate the lead shielding thickness required to reduce the radiation level
from a 14 Ci iridium-192 source to 3.5 mR/h at 10 metres.

RHM x activity of the source in Ci

Radiation level at =
10 m metres ' lo2

y p ,
This is the radiation level at 10 metres from the source without any shielding. One TVT of
shielding will reduce the radiation level to 70 s 10 = 7 mR/h. Additional thickness of
1 HVT of shielding will reduce the radiation level td 7 + 2 = 3.5 mRlh. Therefore, the total
thickness required is 1

= 1 TVT + 1 HVT
= 1.6 cm + 0.48 cm of lead

, ..
= 2.08 cm of lead = 2 cm (approx.) of lead

TABLE '8.3 : HVT AND TVT VALUES FOR

X AND G&MA
I RADIATIONS
Material
/

Concrete S tee1 Lead Uranium v

HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT

, Radioisotope cm cm cm cm dm cm cm cm

Iridium-192 4.6 14 1.25 4.0 0.48 1.6 0.31 1.0

1
Cobal -60 6.6 21.8 2.0 6.6 1.2 4.0 0.7 2.2

HVT TVT HVT TVT HVT TVT

X-rays mm mm mm mm mm mm
Example 8.9 : The radiation level at 1 metre from a lead container housing an iridium-192
source is 10 mR/h. if 1 cm lead is remobed from the containe~whatwill be the new radiation
level at the.same distance ? . .

HVT of lead = 0.48 cm

1
No, of HVT in 1 cm of lead = - = 2 (approx). I
0.48
Removal of 1 HVT of shielding will increase the radiation level by 2 times.
Removal of 2 HVT of shielding will increase the radiation level by 2* = 4. times
-
Hence, Radiation level at 1 meke from the container
after removal of 1 cm lead (2 HVT) = 22x 10 = 40 mR/h
,
Example 8.10 : Calculate the requirkd shielding thickness in lead which will reduce the
radiation level from an X-ray equipmeljt (300kV. 1OmA) to 3 mR/h at one metre. [Given -
Radiation output per rnA.min (for 300kV X-ray equipment) at 50 cm from the target is 20 R1.
I

20 x 50 x 50
Radiation level per mA.min at 1 m = =5R
100 x loo
Radiation level at 1 m for 10 m ~ . m i n= 10 x 5 = 50 R
Radralion levcl at 1 m for I hour = 50 x 60 min = 3000 R/h = 3000 x lo3 mR/h
This value is to be rcduced to 3 mR/h
3000 lo3
Reduction factor = = lo6
3
Shielding thickness required = 6 TVT = 6 x 6 mm = 36 mm = 3.6 cm

Example 8.11 : A Sonex X-ray machine is operated at 100 kV and 5 mA (2mm A1 filter).
What is the thickness of concrete required to reduce the radiation level at 5 metre to 1 mRIh?

The radiation level at 1 metre distance is 8 Rlmi!~= 480 Rlh (Refer Table 8.2)
At 5 metre distance, the radiation level is 480125 = 19 Rlh = 19000 mRl'h
The radiation level at 5 metre should reduce from 19000 k ~ l toh 1 yR1h.
For this reduction, 4 TVT and 1 H ~ ofT shielding material is required.
The thickness rcquired in case of concrete is (4 x 55 + 1 x 16) mm, ie 236 mm
(Refer table 8.3)

SAFETY IN RADIOGRAPHY INSTALLATIONS

Radiography iustallations are those areas where X a~ldgamma radiations are used for purpose
of radiographic inspection. I n i~ldustrialradiography, radiography equipment is used,
 generally, either in factory premises or at construction sites. I t may be used either inside a
radiography enclosure (enclosed installation) or in open,areas such as work-shop or
construction sites (field installation). All such installations, where radiography equipment,-.,,si
proposed to be used, shall be got approved by the Head, Radiological Physics and Advisory '4 1
Division (RP&AD), BARC, prior to their actual use. According to the level of protectiont-1, /(

required, the areas surrounding these installations are broadly divided into two categories, viz..
controlled areas and uncontrolled areas.

., A
Areas which are occupied only by radiation workers and are under direct supervision o f
Radiological Safety Officer are called controlled areas and the radiation levels in these areas ~ - 3
shall not exceed the specified whole body dose limits for radiation workers ( 4 c m n - i n one,<, +
week);

Areas which do not satisfy the definition of controlled areas are called uncon~rolledareas.
The radiation levels in these areas shall not exceed the whole body dose limits recommended
for members of public (2 mR in one- week).
-

I
In the case of enclosed installations, the radiation levels outside are controlled by providing
barriers (shielding) of concrete and brick (for walls) and steel or lead (for entrance doors).
The thickness of the barrier depends upon many parameters, such as radiation source used and
its activity, in case of radioisotopes, the maximum ratings-(kv'& rnA) bf writ,
X-ray output, in case of X-rays, weekly workload, distance &tween the barrier and the
radiography equipment, occupancy factor, use factor and dose limits. The HVT and TVT
I
values, given in Thble 3.1 ;-can be made use of for calculating shielding thickness values.

d
The Radiological afety Officer may either approach the Head, Radiological Physics and
Advisory Division (RP&AD), B'habha Atomic Research Centre with a11 the requisite details
J mentioned above, for proper planning and approval of the installation or submit a plan for
approval prior to starting the construction. W i l e selecting the area for use as X-ray installa-
tion, an area of comparatively low occupancy is preferred. The area chosen shall be such that
it facil itates easy and convenient movement of radiography objecls.

Enclosed Radiography Installations

Enclosed installations are those areas specifically eqrmarked for radiography purposes with
walls of adequate thickness all around, so that the radiation levels 0ut.sid.e the walls are well
below the operational limits. The objects to bp iadiographed are always brought to the
enclosure for radiography examination. Radiography work can bexarried out safely inside the
enclosure without causing hindrance or radiation hazard to other workers outside. As far as
practicable, all radiography exposures should be given, only in such radiography enclosures.
Proper design of the enclosure may be chosen depending upon the type of the objects to be
radiographed, the nature and activity of the source used, the size of the objects to be
radiographed, the total work-load, etc. (figures 8.3 and 8.4).

Wherever the objects are hugo i l l size and also Ileqvy, a opeil-top ellclosurc or a pit typc
I
/ '
e~~closure
(Fig. 8.5) may be provided so that the objepts for radiography may be lowered into
the exposure room by means of overhead cranes. In such radiography enclosures, the
radiation dose to the crane operator should be within the speeified'limits~ Further, in such
h
installations, the skyshine radiatibn level (the contribution due to the radi tion scattered by
air and other intervening materials above, such as beams, roof etc.) around the enclosure in the
workshop should also be considered during planning.

.t..
.- r.

I
\

Collimated Expure

Fig. 8.3 : Enclosed Installation

(Radiography Room with sliding door Entry System) 9
. ... -.

Fig. 8.4 : Enclosed ihtallation

(Exposure Room with Maze ~ n t &System)

The maximum activity of the source that can be handled ill such open top installations is
mainly decided by the skyshii~econsider?tions. The conslruction material used,for such
installations may b-e either brick or concrete. These installations should preferably be
located in the least occupied areas. Expert advice on the planning of such radiography
installations is given by the Radiological Physics and Advisory Division (RP&AD), Mumbai 400 085.

Fig. 8.5 : Enclosed Installation (Pit type - Opcn top)

Safety in Enclosed Radiography Installations v

The following are some of the salient points which need to be considered while planning
radiography enclosures as we! l as during the use of ipdibgraphy sources inside sucl~enclosed
installations. I 1
1. Prior to undertaking construction, approval of 'the prodosed layout of the
radiography enclosure should be obtained from Head, RP&AD.
2. All walls, floors, ceilings and doors shall have surficient shielding so as to minimize
radiation levels, below the recommended dose I /mits. The shielding inaterial .
chosen should be structurally strong and should be properly supported.
. .

3. All exposures should be given from a separate co~ltrolroom, situated outside the
exposure roqm. 1
4. The exposurd rooin should be kept locked, when not in use.
5 . Entry of unnrrthorized pcrsolts into these areas should be strictly prohibited.
-.
6. The entrance door to the exposure room should be locked during exposures. A
suitable electrictrl or ~llechn~ricnl interlocking system for the door may be
iiicorporated so that the radiation beam cannot be made ' O N ' when the door I S
open.
7. Underground conduits should be provided, for cables, between the control room and
 the exposure room. There shall not be any through and throdgh opening or hole in
any of the walls of exposure room.
8, If there is a lead glass viewing winppw in the wall between control room and
exposure room, it is essential to confirm its lead equivalence, so that it provides
adequate protection. I t is also ne$ssary to confirm that there is no radiation
streaming through the fixing frame di the viewing window.
9. There should not be any windows o/l the walls of the exposure room. Exhaust
openings should be provided on wallq adjoining unoccupied areas at a height of at
least 2.5 metres above the floor level. These ventilators or exhausts or any such
openings in the walls should be provided with suitable baffles.
10. A red warning light shall be provided above the entrance door, as well as insida the
exposure room and this light shall be made ' O N ' whenever the radiography
equipment is energized. Radiation warning signs with legends "RADIATION -
DANGER - KEEP AWAYn (or its equivalence in local language) shall be
conspicuously painted on the entrancefdoor.
!
11. A radiation zone monitor should be installed at a suitable location, so as to indicate
the radiation levels during exposures and also to positively indicate the 'ON' or safe
position of the source.
12. In the case of open' top enclosures,, red light should be provided on the topof the
wal.ls and should be made 'ON' during exposures as a warning to the crane
operator.
13. All operations with the equipment should be done from the control room.
14. A n emergency switch to turn the X-ray equipment 'OFF' and a means of
communication shall be provided inside the ex osure room, which can be made use
R
of by persons who are trapped there by mista e. It should be possible to energize
tpe X-ray equipment from the control panel, only after pressing a reset switch
provided inside the exposure room.
,

15. Setting up of objects, films, etc. for radiographic inspection should be duly
completed, before starting the exposure.
16. Wherever possible, the radiationbeam should be directed towards areas of
minimum occupancy. The beam should never be pointed towards doots, windows
or the control panel. Any restrictions on the beam directions which are assumed
while planning the installation should be strictly followed. This information
sllould also be prominently displayed in a poster in the radiography area.
17. All safety accessories, tools and handling devices required for routine or
emergency use in the exposure room must be readily available in good working
condition in the control room.
18. All important information ertaining to radiation safety, such as radioisotope,
P
activity, maximum ratings o the X-ray equipment, the directions towards which
the primary beam can be pointed and the maximum weekly work load, etc., shall
be co~~spicuously exhibited inside the exposure room, as well as in the control
room.
19. I f more than one radiation maclline is used in the same room, it should be ensured
that only one of them is operated at a time.
 . .
' . Field Radiography h t ~ l l a t i o n " ' , . ./.

.. . .
In some cises, i t may not be possible. to restrict the radiogr.aphy ,,work within the exposure
room, eg., huge objects, radiogr'iphfat erectson bites, etc. '1n i ~ c h c i e radiography
s work ill
I, . t
the fieldlplan area is permitted,su~ectto the approval of the site by the RP&AD, BARC.
. .
. . ... .

Safety in Field Radiographic Installations

::I I
1. There should b e a site incharge looking after the radiation safety.
2. Exposures sllall be performed only when minimum number of people are presenc
around the radiography site. [for example; third shift (during night) or holidays).
3. Certain area around the source, should be cordoned off using ropes and radiation
warning symbols. The radiation level outside the cordoned area should be within
the dose limit of non-radiation workers.
4. The exact area to be cordoned off will depend upon the nature and activity of the
source, type of exposures (collimated or panoramic), work load and the nature of
occupancy around.
5. The cordoning distance during field radiography, should be computed such that the
radiation level beyond the cordon is less than 20 pSv1wk (2 mremlwk).
6. Proper collimators should be used to limit the radiation beam to the job to be
radiographed.
7. The collimated beam or in case of X-rays, the primary beam, shall be directed
only towards unoccupied areas or. adequately shielded areas. +
I ---
8. Entry of unauthorized persons into these cordoned arcas during exposures should be
strictly prohibited.
> 9. Radiation warning sign "RADIATION DANGER - KEEP AWAY" in English as
well as in local language should be posted around the site.
10. Setting up procedures required for radiography shall be completed prior to start of
radiographic exposure.
11. ~ a x i m u length
J of the cable, provided between the control panel and radiography
equipment, shall always be made use of.
12. Whenever possible, the control panel of the X-ray equipment should be
positioned behind some temporary shielding barrier. A temporary shield,
I
preferably lead, should also be provided behind the object, in the direction of the
primary beam. ,
13. The primary X-ray beain skall never be pointed towards the control unit.
14. -Properly calibrated radiation monitors, shall always be used, to confirm that
radiation levels, i n controlled areas, as .well as along the cordon, are below
specified limits.
15. A proper log-book should be maintained in which information of day-to-day use
of radiographic sources and the radiation levels around cordoned off areas are
recorded.
 16. Any radiation accident or loss of iource/camera should.:beimmediately reported to
the site incharge and also to Head, RP&AD, Mumbai 400 085.

TRANSPORT OF RADIOGRAPHY SOURCES

Following procedure should be adopted for the transport of radiography sources.

1. Make sure that the source has returned to the camera.

2. Monitor the guide tube to ensure that the source is not left inside the guide tube.
3. Lock the camera, to ensure that the source assembly would not be released from the
camera. i..

4. Monitor the camera with a suitable radiation inonitor (eg., MR 4500, S M

140D or Minirad), to determine if there are any hot spots'on the camera. If any
hot spot is detected, the camera should not be despatched without obtaining specific
prior permission from H ~ ~ ~ , ~ R P & BARC,
A D , Mumbai 400 085.
5. If the camera is free from hot spots, place the camera in a sturdy wooden box,
preferably in the same box in which it was origin all!^ received from,the supplier.
Make sure that the box is in good condition.
I
I
6. Close the box and lock it.
7. Act as directed in the 'Procedure for marking,.latieling'and forwarding the
packages containing radioactive materilFls8given btlow.
. .. .
. ..
. ,

Procedure for Marking, Labeling and Forwarding Packages Containing ~ndioaftive

Materials

1. Monitor the radiation level at the external surface of the box using a suitable
radiation monitor (eg., MR 4300, M 140D or Minirad) and record the maximum
exceed the limit of 200 mR/h~
?
radiation level at the external bur ace of the padkage in mR/h. This should not
I

2. Measure the radiation levels a( a distance of one metre from the external surface of
the package in mR/h and reco d the maximum value. This maximum value is the
6:I '
transport index (T.I.) of the pa kage.
3. Now determine the category of tHe package by the $vels given in table 8.4.
4. Having thus determined the cate g or y of the package, affix the labels of the
determined category on at least two opposite sides, on the external surface of the
package.
5. Write the following details on the external surface of the package clearly and legibly.

a, complete addresses of the sender and the receiver of the package,

b. gross weight of the package,
c. the legend 'RADIOACTIVE',
d. the legend 'Type B' .
 Fig. 8.6 : Transport Lable.
TABLE 8.4

- Limit on the radiation Limit on

7
level at t e external
surface of the package
(mR/h)
Transport
Index
i-

,'
- WHITE
%

Category I d!5
Category I1 - YELLOW 3q 1 .O
Category 111 :YELLOW 20'0 .. 1O;O

I
6. Bind a strap around the package as proyf against tamper.
I

7. Obtain the following transport docu~nentsfr,om the site incharge.

. .
.;
a. Consignor's declaration in the forkat given below:
. .

' I hereby certify that the package con tnining radioactive rnateria l h;~s
been properly packed, mfuked and labeled and as such the consignmen1
is in confor~nitywith the relevant regulations for Safe Transport o f
Radioactive Material '.
8. Forward theipackage to the carrier along with the above transport documents.
I
 1. An appropriate source storage facility is necessary for safe storage and proper
security of the source. Not having a proper storage facility may result in loss of
radiography sources. All the radiography sources, cameras and source containers,
when not in use, should be stored necessarily in a separate storage roomlshed with
a pit under lock and key. Radiography source housings should never be left at the
work site unattended. I

2. As soon as the radiography work is completed, the radiography camera should be

immediately returned to the storage place and kept under lock and key.
3. The radiographer should regularly confirm the proper and safe storage of
radiography sources inside the radiography cameraistorage room by monitoring the
radiation levels around, using a suitable radiation monitor.
4. After storing the radiography source housings inside the storage place, the storage
place should be securely locked and the key should bc handed over to a responsible
person for safe custody.
5. If more than one radiography source housing is to be stored inside the'storage
room, individual storage pits may be provided inside the room .for easy
identification to avoid any possible mix-up of sources. While providing storage
pits, care should be taken to prevent water seepage into the pits during monsoon.

Fig. 8.7 : Radiography source storage room

6 . Radiation warning symbols should be exhibited outside the storage room.

7. Radiation level around the storage room should be less than 0.25 mR/h.

8. Fencing should be provided around the storage facility to prevent unautl~orizedentry

into storage areas. A typical source storage facility is shown in Fig, 8.7,
9. A log book should be maintained i n order to record the day-to-day use of
radiography sources stored in the storage room.
SAFE WORK PRACTICES AND GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The operators of the radiography equipment shou1.d ensure that all the safety
instructions, stipulated for the particular radiograpl~yequipment, by Radiological
 Safety Officer (RSO), are s~rupulouslyfollowed.
2. Suitable radiation monitors Shokldbe used to measdre radiation levels..
3. All operators of radiography equipment should wear personnel radiation monitoring
badges and dosimeters. 1
4. Setting up procedures required for radiogradhy shall be cbmpleted before start of
radiographic exposure. Job specimens or test objects and film cassettes shall
never be held by hand .during .exposures.
, .

5. Wherever possible, suitable' beam limiting devices, such as collilnators/diapl~ragrns

should be used, to limit the'area
. .
of the primary beam as per the job requirement.
6. Unauthorized entry into controlled areas shall be preventLd. Particular care should
be exercised while using panoramic X-ray equipment (rod anode tubes) since in
such units, the primary X-ray beam is emitted in all directions (360°).*
I
7. All radiographic dxposures shall be given only by duly.approved Gperators and they
shall be In immediate attendance when the radiographic equipment b i n use.
8. The maximum length of the cable, provided between radiographic equipment and
the control unitlpanel, should be made use of and the operator should always
position the control unitlpanel and himself behind temporary barrierlhuge objects.
9. The radiographic equipment, when not being used, sliall be secured in such a
manner, to prevent its operation by unauthorized persons.
10. Maintenance and servicing of radiographic equipment shall not be attempted
without consulting the Radiological- Safety Officer.
11. The operator of the radiographic equipineat shall maintain a log book to record the
details of day-to-day use of the equipment.
> 12. Any emergency situation which might result in higher radiation dose, shauld be
immediately brought to the notice of Radiological Safety Officer.
13. The operators should be aware of their dose records and reports of periodical
. medical examination.

SUMMARY
1. NEVER TOUCH OR HANDLE TI-IE S O U R C E ASSEMBLY WITH B A R E
HANDS. Gloves (not even lead glovcs) do not offer ally protection. Always use
suitable manipulator rodsltongs for handling the source assembly.
2. Never carry the radiographic source i n an uiilocked source housing. Lock the
source housing securely and carry in a suitable wooden box. Never transport the
radiograplly sobrce housing in a passenger cofnparlrnent of the train or i n a
passenger bus. It should always be transported in the goods compartment or in a
separate vehicle.
3. Never forget to carry tllc relllotc Ilandling tongs and other source handling
accessories along with tllc radiograplly equipment to tlle site.
4. Never leave tllc sourcc Ilousiog unaticnded at the site. Always store the source
Ilousing in a separate storage area under lock a~ldkey.
 5. Never leave the source unattended at the site during exposures. A person must be
present at the site during exposures to have a constant watch so that the sources are
not picked up by others.
6. Never do the radiography work at crowded locations. Do it either during night or
on holidays or when there is very little occupancy around.
7 . Never forget to cordon off the area with ropes. Radiation warning symbols or red
lights should also be provided along the cordon to warn people.
-v
I 8. Never allow anybody to enter these cordoned areas during exposures.
9. Never attempt to take out the source assembly from the camera.
10. Always try to use the minimum required source activity for ~anoram/cexposures.
0
LESSER THE SOURCE ACTIVITY, W S E R WILL BE THE DOSE RECEIVED
I IN ANY GIVEN PERIOD. I
I
11. Try dummy operations prior to giving the actual exposures in order to reduce the
I time of operation with radiation source.
1 ,' I
LESSER THE TIME SPENT NEAR THE SOURCE, LESSER WILL BE THE
DOSE.
I 12. Always keep m a x i r n ~ r n ~ o ~ s idistahce
blc from the source during exposures.
I !
I LARGER THE DISTANCE, LESSER WILL BE THE RADIATION DOSE.
13. NEVER USE A DEFECTJYE CAMERA for giving &posures. Check everything v
before starting the day's work as well as during the course of work.
- 3

14. NEVER FORGET TO WEAR FILMITLD BADGE DURING WORK.

Anybody who handles a radiographic source is entitledlo have a FILMITLD
badge.
15. USE OF RADIATION M O N I T O ~IS A MUST. Never plan radiographic work
without a suitable radiation rnoni{or.l
16. The control badge provided at eacti site along with personnel badges must be kept
in a radiation free zone - away froh the area where the radiography sources are
usedlstored.
17. I n case of accidents such as darnake to the camera orsource assembly or loss of
source assembly, cordon-off the area and report the matter, immediately, to the
superiors and subsequently, to Head, Radiological Physics and Advisory Division,
BARC, Mu~nbai400 085.
I

5 ! 18. INFORM CO-WORKERS ABOUT RADlATION HAZARDS AND SAFE WORK

PRACTICE.
I
I
 9. RADIATION ACCIDENTS IN INDUSTRIAL, RADIOGRAPHY
I

Use of radioactive sources in industrial radiography has been increasing steadily during the last
few decades. Radiation sources of activity of a few curies to a few hundred curies are used in
industrial radiography. In spite of all the precautions taken during use, some abnormal events/
radiation accidents, may happen which may result in higher dose to concerned people and to
others in the vicinity.

,,
An accident in industrial radiography, can be described as an event or series of events whicl~
leads to loss of norm41 control of the source.

Total radiation safety is achieved by built-in safety in the equipment/installation accompa~lied

by good administrative control. A review of radiation accidents ir~dicatesthat human error and
equipment error are the main causes of these accidents.
ts
xi The main factors which contribute to the human error are ,
ml
r r: 1. inadequate training,
avc 2. failure to monitor,
, ar 3. failure to lnaintain the equipment,
4. ignorance about operation and handling and
5. taking things for granted.

car Of these, the last factor,.the tendency of the operators to overlook some of the basic
requirements for proper work practice during routine work, lias been the major cause in*
maximum number of accidents in industrial ;adiography.
,
The following are some of the events wllicll may lead to radiatioll emergencies.

I. Loss of source duriug storage, use or tran port.

nit:
"I
2. Source assembly falling out during transpgrt and use.
3. Source assembly getting detached from drive mecl~anis~n.
of 4. Source assea~blygetting stuck in the guidk tube. '
5. Rupture of source capsule (this may also ikad to contamination).
ord
6. Damage to source llousillg (radiography dknlerallead pot).

The following are seine of lhc accidents whicli have bccurred in our country.
,

1. DETACHMENT OF SOURCE PIGTAIL

... 1.1. After co~npletionof exposure with a remote operated camera, the operator, when lie
retracted the cable, ditl nod see tlie rear ctld of the pigtail assembly. Even then, witllout
properly cllecking with radintio~imonitor, he I ollcd the guide tube a ~ l dcarried it on his
1
shoulder to the dark room, wllere somc radiograpllj r films nncl personnel monitoring badges
'Ic
were kept. Incidentally, tile guide tube had the source and [his was detected only on rllc next
day with the help of racliation monitors. The dose to the operator could not be determined by
' . .*>
 should never become panicky. The operator should stop work with the equipment, Cordon the
area and report the matter to his higher authorities and Radiological:Pltysics & Advisory
Division (RP&AD), Bhabha Atomic Research.Centre;Mumbai 400 085.

The site incharge1R.S .O, should monitor around the place of accident and analyze the
situation. No attempt should be made without calm thinking and proper planning. If he has
necessary tools, radiation monitors, pocket dosimeters and if he is familiar with the equipment
d
and confident of handling the situation with least exposure to himself and t others in vicinity,
he may do it. In such a case, he should inform RP&AD, BARC, Mumbai 400 085, about the
accident and write in detail about the situation and the procedure adopted in handling it and
the dose received by those who handled it. If he feels that he would not be able to handle it
and the situation is complicated, he khould cordon the requisite area, provide-necessary
shielding around the source and i n f o r r h ' ~ P , &for
~ ~further
, action.
. . .
! "'
Meddling with the-equipment or in oth.dr.words, groping i?r the dark when an unusual
incident becurs, would make th-e situaJioh worse and complicate the management of the
accident. 1 '
I

REQUIREMENTS TO HANDLE ~ADIATIONEMERGENCY

SITUATIONS
,'
, .
* Training and experience.'
* Thorough knowledge of equipmknt.
,
* Understanding of the situation.
.' * A safe and systematic approach. ;
* Sensible and intellectual interrqga!ion of personnel involved in the incident.
* Proper mobilization and utilization of men and material.
I

I
I * Cool and calm thinking and planning.
POINTS TO BE REmMBERED
** Only certified and traitled person'are permitted to work with radiography sources;
** Radiation source is a hazardous material.
** During radiation accident,
a. there is likeliliood of over-exposure to radiation and
b. inembers of public including children are likely to be exposed to radiation.
** Possible injuries to an i~ldividualin a radiatio~laccide~ltare
a. severe radiation burns to individual organs, particularly fingers,
b. prolonged medical treatment,
c. amputation of affected parts,
d . late effects of radiation,
e. death, if dose is very high.
##. OFFENDER IS LIAI3LE TO BE LEGALLY PROSECUTED.
 10. RIEGULATORY ASPECTS OF RADIATION PROTECTION
Work with radiation sources may involve exposure of workers and public. Therefore, work
with radiation should be controlled by the Government. Such control can be effective only if
rules and regulations are made by the Government. The Government of India issued Radiation
Protection Rules, 1971. These rules prescribe that a licence should be obtained by ally
~ person, prior to handling radioactive materials. The rules are ellforced by the Atomic E~rergy
\>
) I Regulatory Board (AERB). The chairman, kGRB is the Corrlpetelrt Authority. Under these
rules, a surveillance order was issued i n 1980, with particular reference to industrial
radiography. The salient features of this order are given below.

1. Only approved equipment (ie., camera) should be used for radiography.

2. Radiography cameras should be operated only by qualified, trained personnel.
3. For each radiography site, the licensee should appoi!~ta qualified, trained site in-
charge.
4. Prior to appointment of a radiographer or a site incharge, the licensee should obtain
approval from the Competent Authority.
5. All radiographic personnel should be provided with suitable personnel monitoring
badges.
6. Each site should be equipped with suitable area monitoring devices, capable o f
-- measuring low-dose rates as well as high dose rates.
7. Radiography work should be carried out only in approved enclosures or sites.

b - 8. The licensee should provide adequate facilities for the security of the source.
9. Each radiation worker should be periodically subjected to the prescribed ~nedical
tests.
10. The licensee should maintain complete records relating to the details of the work
carried out, personnel dose and medical history.

I n order to effectively implement the Rules, the Competent Aulllority may arrange for inspec-
tion of sites and records.

1. Before starting [he radiography work, wear personnel monitors.

2:'Carry the Radiographer's certificate duritig radiography work.
3. Adopt correct procedure,.wllile operating 4 radiograpl~iccamera.
4. After completion of eacli exposure, mq,ke sure by means of a suitable radiation
mo~litorthat the source' is safely back in file canjera,
5. In the event of an emergency, report the matter to the site incharge without delay.
Until the emergency situation is brought under control, take suitable measures for
prevention of excessive exposure of other radiation workers and public to radiation.
6. When you change job, inform the Competent Authority.
 11. RADIATION SAFETY PRACTICAL -1
A. Verification of Inversp Square Law

1. EQUIPMENT :

Radioactive source, survey meter, metre scale, r&rker

Gr 2. THEORY :

Radiation intensity decreases w i t h increase in distance from the source. I t follows

inverse square law, which states thatpKadiation intensity is inversely proportional to the
I I
square of the distance from the sourc3-I Mathematically, it can be expressed as
-,./---'
1
{-j
l a -
d, y-
;,',
!

,,

where, I is the radiation'intc3niity and d is the diqtance from the source. Similarly, i f I,
and I, are radiation intensities a t distancesd, and d, respectively, from the source,
. .
then

3. PROCEDURE (including Safety precautions) :

! a. Wear personnel monitoring ( f i l m f r ~ badge.
~)

b. Take a survey heter, which is in proper working condition.

c. Place the source container in such a way that the radiation beam can be made ' O N '
horizontally, towards unoccupied area.
d. Mark four points at different distances from the source location.
e. Place the survey meter at the first distance, in such a way that the. meter can be
read from a distance.

f. Turn t h e beam 'ON' and note d o w n the meter reading. After noting d o w n the
reading switch 'OFF' the beam. )

g. Repeat steps 'e' and ' f ' for other distances.

h. Note d o w n these readings in a table, as shown below.;

.

i; Take care to see that minimum time is spent near the source and hands are not put
in the radiation beam.

j. Calculate I x d2 for each distance and note down the values in the table.
 I
4. OBSERVATION :
'.

Source : Activity: o n date: .

I . . . .
Survey meter used arid i t s serial no.: . . .. ,
'
.

. .
.

I S.No
'I

I Dls,tance / Exposure rate,

7 . / I x d2
1
I ;

1. I metres (dl I in mR/h (I) . '1. . '

+I
.

I
I
I
I
1 I1 I
I: , I
I I I . I I
I I I . .

I I
I I.
I. I
: . .

Observe whether I x d 2 is fairly constant at different distances. If the value'is constant,

inverse square l a w is verified. If vahiations are observed, it would ge'nerally be due to
-contribution of radiation scattered b y dearby objects.
 B. Determination of Activity of a Given Radiation Source

1. EQUIPMENT :
J
Radioactive source, survey meter, metre scale, marker

2. THEORY :
!

Radiation output from a given gamma radiation source of unit activity is constant. This
constant output at one metre is k n o w n as ,RHM. R H M is defined as exposure rate in
R/h at 1 metre from a gamma source of 1 Ci activity. By measuring exposure rate at a
certain distance from the source, activity can be calculated as per the following relation:
I
A x RHM
Exposure rate = [ A is activity of source in Ci I
d2

Exposure rate x d 2
A = C'i
RHM

3. PROCEDURE (inclhding safety precautions) :

a. Wear personnel monitoring (filmTrLD) badge.

- b. Take a survey meter,.-which is in proper working condition.

c. Place the source container i n such a way that the radiation beam can be made 'ON'
horizontally, towards unoccupied area.
I
d. Mark four points at different distances from the source location.

e. Place the survey meter at the first distance, i n such a way t h a t the meter can be
read from a distance.

f. Turn t h e beam 'ON' and n o t e d o w n the meter reading. A f t e r n o t i n g d o w n the

reading s w i t c h 'OFF' the beam.

g. Repeat steps 'e' and 'f' for other distances. ?

h. Note d o w n these readings i n a table, as shown; below. I

,
i. Take care t o see that minTmum time is spent qear the source and hands are not put
i n the radiation beam.

j. Calculate I x d 2 for each distance, divide this by RHM for the source and note d o w n
the values in the table.
4. OBSERVATION :

Source : Activity: on date:

Survey meter used and its serial no.:

7
1 S.No 1
7
Distance
1
( Exposure rate lxd2 1
I ( metres (dl I in mR/h (I) I A = -I
1 I I I RHM 1
I-* --i
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I --
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I
I I

I I
1 I
I I
I,'- 1 .
I I
I L
I I
J

Average A = - Ci

5. RESULTICONCLUSION :

Activity of the given source is Ci.

 C. Determination of Half Va,lue'Thickness (HVT)
1. EQUIPMENT :
1

Radioactive source, survey meter, metre scale, lead sheets/steel sheets, marker
i

2. THEORY :

W h e n g a m m a r a y s pass t h r o u g h matter, s o m e of t h e m u n d e r g o a b s o r p t i o n .
~ransrn'ittedradiation intensity decreases with increase i c h e thickness of the absorber.
The thickness of the absorber which reduces the radiation intensity to half of its or~ginal
value i s k n o w n as Half Value ~ h i c k n e s gSimilarly, the thickness o f t h e absorber
which reduces the radiation intensity to one tenth of the original value is known as
Tenth Value Thickness.

Radiation
ilk \

I I I I

. d
No. of alf Value fayera
l 1 ->
 T h e curve given above / s obtained aftey.plotting radiation intensity w i t h respect t o
thickness of the absorber. Erom'this curvg, w.e can find out the HVT of the absorber.
' I
3. PROCEDURE (including safety precautions) :
I

a. Wear personnel monitoring (filmKLD) badge.

b. Take a survey meter, which is in working condition:

I11 ,
c. Place the source container in such a way that the radiation beam can be made 'ON'
horizontally, towards unoccupied are+. '

d. Fix a suitable distance between sourqp position and survey meter so that absorbers
can be conveniently placed i n between. ,-

e. Position yourself in such a way that sllrrvey meter can be read from a distance.

f. Take readings. by inserting absorbersone by one and record them i n a table.

II
g. Take care to see that minimum time is spent near the source arid hands are not put
in the radiation beam.

Source : Activity: on date:

Survey meter used and its serial No.:

7 1 - 1
1 S.No 1 Absorber 1. Exposure rate 1
1 I thickness (mm) 1 in mR/h I

. .;
5. CALCULATION :

A graph is plotted. Absorber thickness corresponding to 50 per cent reduction in the

intensity is read on the g'raph. Multiply this HVT value by 3.3 to get TVT value.

6. RESULTICONCLUSION :

From the plotted curve, HVT value for gamma radiations of source in
material is found to be mm. The TVT value is found to be
mm.
 . . i
D. Safety Procedure foi Open Field ~ a d i o ~ i a ~ h ~

1. EQUIPMENT : I

Radiography camera, survey meter, warning symbols, fencing rope, radiography

: . 1

accessories.

2 . 'THEORY :
. I

All radiation safety~procedures

-. .~
.. . . should be followed during setting up of radiography
-- -..-- -. .- . .
unit.
i
~l~%ced.ure should
s be such that u n d w t h e given conditions, radiation exposure to the'
, indi.vi.dualand t o the public;should a--..-.s low-..->as reasonably achievable and chances of any
? - -.
p
overex osure or radiation incidents. .are . reduced.
. . . .

3. PROCEDURE (including safety precautions) :

a. Wear Personnel monitoring (film~TLD)badge and pocket dosimeter.

' . b. Take a survey meter, which is in proper working condition.

c. ifo ore opening the storage pit, monitor radiation levels.

I d. Check the locks and radiation levels on the camera.
-
e. Carry radiography camera on a trolley to the site.
%
G

I
f. Cordon off required area with fencing rope.
I
L
!. g. Connect smallest guide tube possible. The source assembly (pigtail) should be in lock
I position.
I

h. Set up radiogpphy joint with film and penetrameter.

I

, i. Position the collimator in such a way that the radiation beam would be towards
unoccupied area.
1
I j. Spread out maximum length of drive cable and couple it with the source assembly
, properly.
I

k. Put the camera in operate position.

I. Ensure that no one is in the cordoned area. j
,
m. Drive the source in minimum time.

n. Monitar radiation level at the gear~box.

5
Q o. Spend minimum time near the gear box.

p. Drive source back after completion of exposure.

q. Check proper return of source into the camera with survey meter.
r. Lock the source assembly in the camera.

s. Follow the. procedure

.
for another job, if needed,

Radiation dose will be minimum when we follow operation procedures systematically.

 SETTING UP OF RADIOGRAPHY JOB

1. . Wear personnel monitoring TLDlFilm badge. P ~ c k e dosimeter

t (charged)

2. Take a survey meter and check for its proper working such as battery check, calibration
etc. and put it on before going near the radiography camera.

3. Before opening the stcrage pit, check radiation levels (Icss than 0.1 mR/h)

4. Check the radiation levels on the camera and ensure safe position of the source in
the camera. Conduct visual inspection of camera locks, drive cable condition,
coupling, guide, tube etc. i

5. Carry radiography camera along with its acckssories such as remote handling tongs,
lead pot, lead shots, fencing ropes, warning symbols etc. to the site on a trolley.

6. Cordon. off required area (less than 1 mRlh) k i t h fencing rope and warning symbol.

7. Spread out maximum length of'drive cable and connect it first' to the pigtail and
ensure proper coupling.

8. Remove shipping plug, if provided, and connekt guide tubc, preferably shortest length,
source assembly bei'ng in locked conditions.
4.4.

9. After setting the job properly with film and Qenetrarneter, put the camera in operate
al position and drive the source up to the end of the guide Lube in minimum time.
I
10. Monitor the radiation level at the cranking / driving unit and at the cordon.
I

I 1. During exposure stay outside the cordov.

1 12. Drive source back after ex.p o.s ure time is over.

13. Check the source posi[i-on,in'the camera with survey meter. Close -t he shutter.

14. Disconnect drive cable and

. .guide tube, replacejthe shipping plug and lock the camera.
,
I ,
i f the job is over.

15. Shift the camera to the storage pit and lock the pit and pit room properly.
-.
i

.Lj 16. Encer the work in the log book and record pockel dosin~cterreading.

17. Keep your filmITLD badge in safe position, (radiation free area)

(I
18. Follow the same procedure for another job, if needed.

11.8 a
 fi E. Checking of Shielding Adequacy of Radiography Camera

I
Radiography camera, survey meter, metre scale, marker

2 . THEORY :

I .k

I1 Shielding provided i n t h e radiography camera should meet w i t h maximum permissible

leakage limits. Table shown below indicates the permissible radiation leakage limits for
I different types of cameras.
. .
1 ' t
I I I 1
1 I Exposure rate in mR/h I
I
( Class
I
I( On exter,nal
Surface '
-
(
I
7 4
5 c m from
External
I 1 m from
( External
I
I
1 1 I Surface I Surface I
I-+--+
I .Portable 1 200 I 50 I 2 I <
1 Mobile I 200 I 100 1 5 '1
I Fixed 1 200 1 100. 1 10 1

By scanning the external surface of the camera in a systematic way, shielding adequacy
of the camera is checked. As per the standards, each measurement is averagcd over
an area of 1 0 sq. cm.

3. PROCEDURE (including safety precautions) :

I
a. Wear Personnel monitoring ( f i l m / T ~badge.
~l I

I
b. Take a survey meter, which is in proper working condition.

c. Make different segments o n the surface of the camera and mark points for taking
measurements.

d. Measure radiation level at each of these points.

e. Record all readings in a table as shown below.

 4. OBSERVATION :

Radiography .camera m o d e l a n d Sl.no.:

Source : ~ c t i v i. t y. : o n date:
. .
Survey meter used and i t s serial no. :

Readings (mR/h)

5. CALCULATION : I
I 'permissible l e a ~ a iimit
~e J , .:
capacity of the camera =
'

1 !/. x Present activity '

'
,
. .
I Observed max. -1eakaga ... .

' The camera shielding i s adequate from radiation s a f e t y p o i n t o f v i e w , T h e m a x i m u m

activity which can be loaded in the camera is Ci.