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Framed Structures and Their: Parts
t
A building structure consisting of a steel frarnework or skeleton is made
up of tension members, columns, beams, and membErs under combined bend-
i ing and axial loads. The members are joined together by bolted and/or welded
f
x
connections or joints. The members must resist the action of the weight of
the building and its contents, snow and ice on the roof, the pressure and
II
{ suction of the wind, earthquake forces, and impact. All of the loads must be
transmitted by the structural members to the foundation and then to the ground.
Commercial and industrial buildings are framed in a number ol different
ways. Commonly they are one story high with roofs supported by trusses,
beams, or open-web joists. The trusses, beams, or open-web joists may be
supported by walls or columns.
Truss-on-column.framing for an industrial building is illustrated in Fig.
l-1. The truss and supporting columns together are called a bent. The spaces
between the bents are call ed bays. The roof is supported by the purlins, *'hich
in turn are supported by the trusses at their panel points. The side and end
walls are supported by the columns and girts. Horizontal forces from the
wind, an earthquake, or impact acting in a transverse direction (perpendicular
to the sides of the building) are resisted by the side-wall girts, which transmit
their loads to the bents, where they are resisted bythe knee braces and end-wall
bracing. Horizontal forces in a longitudinal direction (perpendicular to the
end walls) are resisted at the roof by' purlins and roof bracing and belorv the
roof by end-wall girts and side-wall lateral bracittg.

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+

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Figure Floor framing plan for a multistory building.

 -Ltt - lntroduction to Steel Structures

Stnrctural steel may be classified in accordance with the American Society

for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 'rt'6 standard as carbon steel, high-strength
low-alloy steel , andquenched and tempered alloy steel. Propenies and product
availability for various steels are given in Table 1-1.

TABLE l-l Structural Steet Properties and Plate and Shape Avaitability

Minimum
Yield Tensile Plate
Stress, Strength, and Bar Shape
Type of ASTM ty Fu Thickness" Availabiliry
Steel Designation {ksi) (ksi) (in-) (Group)b

Carbon .A36 36 58-80 To8 AII

High- A44l 4A 60 4-8

strength 42 63 rt-4 4 and
3 rl 3
low-alloy 46 67 4- L7

50 70 Tol 1 and

A572
Grade 42 42 60 To6 Att
Grade 50 50 65 To2 All
Grade 60 60 75 To 11 land2
Grade 65 65 80 To ll I

Corrosion- A242 42 63 rt-4 4 and

3 rl 5
resistant 46 67 4- t2
high- 50 70 Toi 1 and
strength
low-alloy A588 42 63 5-8
46 67 4-5
50 70 To4 All
Quenched A514 90 100- 130 2r-6
and 100 110-130 To 2I
tempered
alloy

"Thicknesses do not include smaller dimension but do include larger

dimension'
p. l-6, for stmctural shape in each ASTIV{ 46 group.
osee AISC Manual, Table 2,
Source: Adapted from AISC Manua\ Table l, p' l-5'

Garbon Steels

Carbon steels have specified maximum percentages of the elements

carbon, manganese, silicon, and copper. Their strength is dependent on carbon
and mangarrr.g. They are divided into four categories-low, mild, medium,
 -irJ -
Sect. l-7 Structural Steel ShaPes 15

and high-based on the carbon content. Mild carbon steel has a carbon content
between 0.15 and 0.29 percent. The most commonly used structural steel,
ASTM A36, has a carbon content from 0.25 to 0.29 percent, has a marked
yield point at 36 ksi, and may be riveted, bolted, and welded. Increased carbon
raises the yield point but reduces ductility and weldability.

High-strength Lovn-alloy Steels

These steels have higher yield stresses than carbon steels, ranging from
40 to 70 ksi. In addition to carben and manganese, small amounts of such
alloy elements as chromiuffi, columbium, copper, nickel, vanadium, and others
are adderd to increase the strength and corrosion resistance of the steel-
High-strength low-alloy steels ASTM A44l and 4514 ma)' be economical
;.i where light rnembers can be used and corrosion resistance reduces main-
tenance. They are rolled without heat treating.
tr
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ce

Heat-treated AlloY Steels

{i:l
,aj"

:.1i
;:i Alloy steels are heat-treated by quenching and tempering to produce
':-i
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strong and tough steels. They have yield strengths frorn 80 to 110 ksi. Since
they do not exhibit a well-defined yield point, the yield strength is defined by
1:
.t-.:
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l;a

permanent strain. (For steel it is usually defined at 0.2 percent permanent

.-:.

s
-1+
f{
1:,
itrain.) The heat treating consists of quenching and then tempering the steel.
Quencing is the rapid cooling of the steel with water or oil from temperatures
t'ti

-:i
of about 1650'F to about 350'F. Tempering is the reheating of the steel to
about 1l50oF, then allowing it to cool to room temperature. Although temper-
',+
jii

l;i'
ing steel reduces strength and hardness, it increases toughness and ductility.
One heat.treated alloy steel-ASTM A5l4 is shown in Table l-1.
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:;:
1.7 STRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES
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Structurai steel is rolled into a variety of shapes and sizes. The shapes are
designated by the shape and size of their cross section. The Manual of Steel
rl.:'
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Consrruction publishrO Uy the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)

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JE
.f,
Tc'

gives information on dimensions and sectional properties of the various steel

."1$--

e
shapes.
Commonly used structural shapes are shown in Fig. 1-10 and described
in the followi ng paragraphs-
/
t/ t. Wide-flange beams. A wide-flange section has a cross secion similar to
an I. The two paralle I hanzontal parts of the cross section are called
flanges and the vertical part is called the web' Example: W18 x 7l has
u *idr-flange bearn shape approximately 18 in- deep and *'eighs 7 | lb I ft-
 --.\J-
16 lntroduction to Steel Structures Chap. 1

ll-ide-llange American American

beam standard standard
beam channel'

LTAngie Structural
tee
Pipe Tube

Figure 1-10 Commonly used structural shapes.

2. American standard beam. This section is commonly called an l-beam.

The flanges are narrower than those of the wide-flange beam and the
inner flange surfaces have a slope of approximately 9.2" (2 to 12in.).
Example: S20 x 66 has an Amgrican stlndard beam shape 20in. deep
and weighs 66lb/ft.
3. Bearing pile section Bearing pile sections are sirnilar to the wide-flange
beam except that the web and flange thickness are equal. Example:
HPI 4 x 73 has abearingpileshape approximately 14 in. deep and weighs
73tb/ft.
4. Miscellaneous shapes. These sections have a doubly symmetric H-shape
that cannot be classified as a W, S, or HP section. Example: M20 x 9
has a miscellaneous shape, is approximately 20 in. deep, and weighs
/ 9lb/ft.
J S. American standard channel. This section is similar to the American
standard beam with the flanges removed from one side. Example: C9 x 20
has an American standard channel shape, is 9 in. deep, and weighs
20lb / ft.
t/ U. Angl',es. Angles are shaped like an L. The horizontal and vertical parts
are called legs. The inner and outer surfaces of each leg are parallel.
The section may have either equal or unequal legs. Examples: (Equal-leg
angle) L6 x 6 x i has an angle shape L, both legs 6 in. long, and leg
thickness + in.; (unequal-leg angle) L5 x 3 x f tras an angle shap€ L, long
leg 5 ir., short leg 3 in., and leg thickness * itt.
 --
\rL
-
17
Sect. 1-9 Codes and SPecifications

miscel-
7. structural tees. A standard tee is made by cutting a wide-flange' axis'
section in half along ahorizontal
raneous, or an American standard shape' Example: (from
M' or s
The designation is similar to the
w,
W.shape)wT7x4t;(fromM-strape)MfiX.'9;(fromS-shape)
STI 2 x 40-
square and
both
S.Pipesandtubes.Variouspipesandstructuraltubes, and 4,501 carbon
rectangular,aremanufactur.df'o-ASMEA53,4500,
steel (see the AISC Manual,
Table 4, p. 1-11).

1-SALLoWABLEsTREssES:FAcToRoFsAFEw
stress that is considered safe
for a material
The allowable stress is the maximum
conJitions. It is the stress used in
the design
to support under cerrain loading
values are
load-supporting members of a structure- The allorvable stress
of various loading conditions and by
on the material with
determine,c by tests
performance of previous designs under
service
experience gained from the
usually specified by codes and specifications'
conditions. Allowable stresses are desigr, .un be determined from
The alrowable stress in allowabte stress
safety factor.may be define{ as the ratio of some stress
a factor of safetl,. The
stress of a member to the
allowable
that represents the ,rr*rrgtt, o, buckling
for the member. if based on tile yield stress, the factor of safety is
stress
defined as the ratio of yield stress
to the allowable stress:

F's' :
F^ Fy
F*
or buckling stress for a
Similarly,thefactorofsafetybasedonthecritical the allowable stress:
column is definedas the ratio of the critical stress to

F.S.:+
f all

lox'er than the yield stress

since the allowable stresses are substantially
gri^t", than-l' For the ductile
or critical stress, factors of safety are numbers
Institute of Steel construction
failure of a tension member, ttr. American For a buckling failure
(AISC) spectfications.elrrira a safety factor of r-67- 1
r.67 to -92 are recommended'
ir, design, facto6 of safety varying from
fi "ot*n
1'9 CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS
their jurisdiction to conform
Most states and cities require structural d.esign in use regional or
to a building code. Some cities have their own ".*qti.iltjtof building safety'
national codes. Buirding codes generally cover all'aspeets