Lecture 30

Wireless Networks

Reasons to Go Wireless
1) 2) 3)

Challenges in Going Wireless

1) 2) 3)

Medium: The Radio Spectrum

Wireless communications use the electromagnetic spectrum, which is regulated by government institutions such as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Regulations specify what bands of frequency can be used for different applications. For instance: FM radio has 88-108MHz (200KHz) and AM radio has 540-1600KHz (10KHz bandwidth). Regulations also specify the transmission power that can be used in each band. There are portions of the spectrum that are UNLICENSED, however. The most popular wireless networks of today operate in unlicensed bands.

Omnidirectional Antenna
Radiates in all azimuth directions.

Directional Antenna
Radiates in a cone.

Design Alternatives
Point-to-point channels: Information flows in beams that connect communicating parties.
signal received

signal not received

The antennas on the transmitter and receiver need to be properly aligned for signals to go through. On the flip-side, directional antennas have great power efficiency and range.
Directional antennas are a good choice for systems with fixed infrastructure. They introduce additional difficulties in infrastructure-less systems or when transmitters and receivers can move around, but offer reduced power consumption.

Design Alternatives
Broadcast channels: Information radiates in all possible directions from the transmitter.
signal received

Theres no need to align antennas on the transmitter and receiver. If signals radiate in all directions, a receiver will the transmitters independently of their relative positions. Because power radiates all around, omnidirectional antennas cant reach as far as directional antennas. Note also that quite a bit of power can be wasted.

signal received

This is a good choice for mobile systems. At the expense of increased power consumption, coverage reaches 360o.

Concepts in Radio Communications

Coverage = f(PowerTX)

D A E B
Multipath Noise Interference

Multiple Access to the Radio Spectrum

Spatial Division Multiple Access (SDMA): each pair of nodes communicates through a tight beam that takes a portion of space.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): each pair of nodes uses a distinct subrange of the total frequency band for the application. T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

frequency spectrum

Multiple Access to the Radio Spectrum

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): each pair of nodes uses a different time slot to communicate. During its time, the pair can use the entire frequency band allocated for the application. T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T0 T1
time

one time unit

one time unit

one time unit

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): can be seen as a combination of FDMA and TDMA. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): transmitters use each frequency band for a random time then move to another randomly chosen TX and RX must agree to a hopping sequence. T0 time T1 T2

time time

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Remember Ethernet? When Problems Get Worse:

Assume that all wireless devices use the same channel. Arbitration of access to the medium (Medium Access Control, or MAC, a protocol in the Data Link layer) is similar to Ethernets CSMA/CD. Most radios in wireless networking cant transmit and receive at the same time, so we cant detect collisions. Instead, well do CSMA/CA (collision avoidance). Collisions are bad because they reduce the effective bandwidth and also because they cause waste of power. Even when two transmissions do not collide, they may still interfere with each other causing bit error rates to rise.

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IEEE 802.11 DCF (CSMA/CA)

start

NAV=0

NO

NAV starts with the Duration field value of the last transmission sensed on the medium and counts down to zero.

YES
Sense Medium

Medium Idle

NO

Random Backoff Time

YES
Transmit Frame

Collision?

YES

NO

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The Hidden Node Problem

Station C can sense stations A and B. Stations A and C cant sense each other. Problem: coordinate transmissions from A and C so as to avoid collisions.

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The Hidden Node Problem

Station C can sense stations A and B. Stations A and C cant sense each other. Problem: coordinate transmissions from A and C so as to avoid collisions.

Solution: RTS/CTS/DATA/ACK handshake A sends RTS to B, B sends CTS to A, C hears CTS and stays quiet, A sends DATA to B, B replies to A with an ACK.

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The Exposed Node Problem

An exposed node is one that is in range of the transmitter, but outside range of the receiver.

Problem: exposed nodes reduce bandwidth.

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Types of Wireless Networks

Fixed Infrastructure
wired backbone

BS

BS

BS

Ad Hoc
Easy to deploy. Good in changing environments. Allows for node mobility. Can be designed for self-configurability. Can be designed for scalability.

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Data Link Layer: Medium Access Control

(Coordinated access to a shared resource)

Power is a scarce resource (so is the RF spectrum). Collisions lead to wasted power (AND wasted spectrum). Need to impose some kind of access discipline so as to avoid collisions.

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The MAC Layer Challenge

Maximize throughput:
Minimize collisions. Avoid exposed nodes.

An interesting option: schedule medium access. Related challenges:

Clock synchronization. Distributed coordination for determining schedule.

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The Network Layer Challenge

How do we build routes dynamically?
Pro-active algorithms. Reactive algorithms.

Will the routing protocol scale up to LARGE networks? Can routing adapt to changes in network traffic, propagation conditions, etc.? Packet forwarding costs power. Can we do routing in a way that balances power consumption?

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Security Issues
Desirable properties:

Confidentiality Authenticity Integrity Freshness Scalability

Availability Accessibility Self-organization Non-repudiation Flexibility

As of today, the network can be vulnerable at multiple levels: PHY: radio jamming. MAC: DoS via fake requests or schedules. NET: fake route advertisements (black hole attack). A funny but scary notion: caveman attacks.

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