PE 351

Power System Analysis

Lecture8: Transformers and its modelling

Dr. Shahid Alam

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering
Sciences and Technology
s.alam@giki.edu.pk
Introduction

• Power systems are characterized by many different voltage

levels, ranging from 765 kV down to 240/120 volts.
• Transformers are used to transfer power between different
voltage levels.
• The ability to change voltage levels is a key advantage of ac
systems over dc systems.
• In this section, discussion regarding developing the models
for transformers will be carried.

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Introduction
• A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at
one voltage level to another level using faradays law.
• There are two or more stationary electric circuits that are
coupled magnetically.
• It involves interchange of electric energy between two or
more electric systems.
• Transformers provide much needed capability of changing
the voltage and current levels easily.
– They are used to step-up generator voltage to an appropriate voltage
level for power transfer.
– Stepping down the transmission voltage at various levels for
distribution and power utilization.

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Transformer Classification
• In terms of number of windings
– Conventional transformer: two windings
– Autotransformer: one winding
– Others: more than two windings

• In terms of number of phases

– Single-phase transformer
– Three-phase transformer

• Depending on the voltage level at which the winding is operated

– Step-up transformer: primary winding is a low voltage (LV)
winding
– Step-down transformer: primary winding is a high voltage (HV)
winding

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Transmission to Distribution Transformer

4
Transmission Level Transformer

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Primary and Secondary Windings

A two-winding transformer consists of two windings interlinked by a

mutual magnetic field.
• Primary winding – energized by connecting it to an input source
• Secondary winding – winding to which an electrical load is
connected and from which output energy is drawn.

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Types and construction
Power Transformers

Windings are wrapped around two Windings are wrapped around the
sides of a laminated square core. center leg of a laminated core.
Usually, windings are wrapped on top of each other to decrease
flux leakage and, therefore, increase efficiency.
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Types and construction

8
Ideal Transformers
• An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding
and an output winding. It has the following properties:
– No iron and copper losses
– No leakage fluxes
– A core of infinite magnetic permeability and of infinite electrical
resistivity
– Flux is confined to the core and winding resistances are negligible

• We’ll define the “primary” side of the transformer as the

side that usually takes power, and the secondary as the side
that usually delivers power.
– primary is usually the side with the higher voltage, but may be the
low voltage side on a generator step-up transformer.

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Ideal Transformers
An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding
and an output winding.

The relationships between the input voltage and the output voltage,
and between the input current and the output current, are given by the
following equations.
v p t  i s t 
In instantaneous quantities  a
v s t  i p t 
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Ideal Transformers

v p t  i s t  N p
  a
v s t  i p t  N s

Vp I
In rms quantities  s a
Vs I p

Np: Number of turns on the primary winding

Ns: Number of turns on the secondary winding
vp(t): voltage applied to the primary side
vs(t): voltage at the secondary side
a: turns ratio
ip(t): current flowing into the primary side
is(t): current flowing into the secondary side
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Ideal Transformers
d p  t  d M t  …………….. (1)
v p t    Np
dt dt
d  t  d t  …………….. (2)
v s t   s  N s M
dt dt
v p t  N p
  a ………………......……….. (3)
v s t  N s
Dividing (1) by (2)

N p i p t   N s i s t 
i s t  N p …………………..……….. (4)
From Ampere’s law  a
i p t  N s

v p t  i s t  N p ………………….. (5)
Equating (3) and (4)   a
v s t  i p t  N s

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Power in an Ideal Transformer
Assuming that 𝜃p and 𝜃s are the angles between voltages and currents on the
primary and secondary windings respectively, the power supplied to the
transformer by the primary circuit is:

Since ideal transformers do not affect angles between voltages and currents:

Real power coming out of the secondary circuit

Thus, the output power of an ideal transformer is equal to its input power.
The same relationship applies to reactive Q and apparent power S:

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 Impedance Transformation through a
Transformer
Ip Is
Impedance of the load:
ZL = Vs/Is
Vp Vs ZL
The apparent impedance of the primary circuit:
Z’L = Vp/Ip
= (aVs)/(Is /a)
= a2 (Vs / Is )
= a 2 ZL

Ip Is
Z’L

Vp Vs

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Real Transformers

• Real transformers
– have losses
– have leakage flux
– have finite permeability of magnetic core

• Real power losses

resistance in windings (i2 R)
core losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis

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Transformer Core losses
Eddy currents arise because of changing flux in core.
Eddy currents are reduced by laminating the core

Hysteresis losses are proportional to area of BH curve and the

frequency

These losses are reduced

by using material with a
thin BH curve

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Theory of Operation of Single-Phase Real
Transformers

Leakage flux: flux that goes

through one of the transformer
windings but not the other one.
Mutual flux: flux that remains
in the core and links both
windings.

p: total average primary flux

 P   M   LP M : flux linking both primary and secondary windings
LP: primary leakage flux
 S   M   LS
S: total average secondary flux
LS: secondary leakage flux 17
Magnetization Current

When an ac power source is connected to a transformer, a current flows

in its primary circuit, even when the secondary circuit is open circuited.
This current is the current required to produce flux in the magnetic core
and is called excitation current. It consists of two components:
1. The magnetization current Im, which is the current required to
produce the flux in the transformer core
2. The core-loss current Ih+e, which is the current required to make up
for hysteresis and eddy current losses
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 The Magnetization Current in a Real Transformer
When the transformer is on no-load (the secondary side is open)
conditions, only excitation current flows in the primary resulting in core
losses and flux. Ic
E1
Excitation current, Io qo

Magnetization current IM
(current required to produce flux
in the core) IM Io

Core-loss current Ih+e 

(current required to make up for
hysteresis and eddy current losses)  is proportional to the IM
Ic = Ih+e = Core loss in phase with E1

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The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The losses that occur in transformers have to be accounted for in any
accurate model of transformer behavior.
1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional
to the square of the current in the windings.
2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in
the core of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the
voltage applied to the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement
of the magnetic dipoles in the core during each half-cycle. They are a
complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes which escape the core and pass through only
one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes
produce a self-inductance in the primary and secondary coils, and the
effects of this inductance must be accounted for.
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The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Modeling the copper losses: resistive losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the core, represented in the equivalent circuit by RP and RS.
Modeling the leakage fluxes: primary leakage flux is proportional to the
primary current IP and secondary leakage flux is proportional to the
secondary current IS, represented in the equivalent circuit by XP and XS .
Modeling the core excitation: Im is proportional to the voltage applied to the
core and lags the applied voltage by 90o. It is modeled by XM.
Modeling the core loss current: Ih+e is proportional to the voltage applied to
the core and in phase with the applied voltage. It is modeled by RC.

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The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Although the previous equivalent circuit is an accurate model of a transformer,
it is not a very useful one. To analyze practical circuits containing transformers,
it is normally necessary to convert the entire circuit to an equivalent circuit at a
single voltage level. Therefore, the equivalent circuit must be referred either to
its primary side or to its secondary side in problem solutions.

Figure (a) is the equivalent

circuit of the transformer
referred to its primary side.

Figure (b) is the equivalent

circuit referred to its secondary
side.

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