Sampling and

Sampling
UNIT 12 CHI-SQUARE TESTS
Distributions

Objectives
By the time you have successfully completed this unit, you should be able to:
• appreciate the role of the chi-square distribution in testing of hypotheses
• design and conduct tests concerning the variance of a normal population
• perform tests regarding equality of variances from two normal
populations
• have an intuitive understanding of the concept of the chi-square statistic
• use the chi-square statistic in developing and conducting tests of
goodness of fit and
• tests concerning independence of categorised data.
Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Testing of Population Variance
12.3 Testing of Equality of Two Population Variances
12.4 Testing the Goodness of Fit
12.5 Testing Independence of Categorised Data
12.6 Summary
12.7 Self-assessment Exercises
12.8 Further Readings

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have studied the meaning of testing of hypothesis
and also how some of these tests concerning the means and the proportions of
one or two populations could be designed and conducted. But in real life, one
is not always concerned with the mean and the proportion alone-nor is one
always interested in only one or two populations. A marketing manager may
want to test if there is any significant difference in the proportion of high
income households where his brand of soap is preferred in North, South,
East, West and Central India. In such a situation, the marketing manager is
interested in testing the equality of proportions among five different
populations: Similarly, a quality control manager may be interested in testing
the variability of a manufacturing process after some major modifications
were carried out on the machinery vis-a-vis the variability before such
modifications. The methods that we are going to introduce and discuss in this
unit will help us in the kind of situations mentioned above as well as in many
other types of situations. Earlier (section 11.6 in the previous unit), while
testing the equality of means of two populations based on small independent
samples, we had assumed that both the populations had the same variance
224
and, if at all, their means alone were different. If required, the equality of Chi-square Tests

variances could be tested by using methods to be discussed in this unit.

In many of our earlier tests, we had assumed that the population distribution
was normal. It should be possible for us to test if the population distribution
is really normal, based on the evidence provided by a sample. Similarly, in
another situation it should be possible for us to test whether the population
distribution is Poisson, Exponential or any other known distribution.
Finally, the procedures to be discussed in this unit also allow us to test if two
variables are independent when the data is only categorised we may, for
instance, like to test whether consumer performance for a brand and income
level are independent-i.e. the variables e.g. the sex of respondents, have been
measured only grouping respondents in categories.
The common thread running through all the diverse situations mentioned
above is the chi-square distribution first introduced to you in section 14.4 of
unit 14. We start with a recapitulation of the chi-square distribution below
before we start with the statistical tests.
The Chi-Square Distribution--A Recapitulation
A chi-square distribution is known by its only parameter viz. the degrees of
freedom. Figure I below shows the probability density function of some chi-
square distributions. The left and the right tails of chi-square distributions
with different degrees of freedom are extensively tabulated.
If x is a random variable having a standard normal distribution, then � � will
have a chi-square distribution with one degree of freedom. If �� and �� are
independent random variables having chi-square distributions with �� and ��
degrees of freedom respectively, then (Y� + Y� ) will have a chi-square
distribution with �� + �� degrees of freedom.
Figure I: Chi-square distributions with different degrees of freedom

As shown in Figure I above, if � � is a random variable having a chi-square

distribution with v degrees of freedom, then � � can assume only non-

225
Sampling and negative values. Also, the expectation and the variance of � � is known in
Sampling terms of its degrees of freedom as below:
Distributions
E[x � ] = v
and var [x � ] = 2v
Finally, if x� , x� … , x� are n random variables from a normal population with
mean � and variance � � and if the sample mean x and the sample variance � �
are defined as
�
��
x� = �  
�
���
�
�
(�� − �̅ )�
� = � 
�−1
���

(���)��
Then, ��
will have a chi-square distribution with (n -1) degrees of
freedom. Although the distribution of sample variance (� � ) of a random
sample from a normal population is not known explicitly, the distribution of a
(���)��
related random variable viz ��
is known and is used.

12.2 TESTING OF POPULATION VARIANCE

Many times, we are interested in knowing if the variance of a population is
different from or has changed from a known value. As we shall see below,
such tests can be easily conducted if the population distribution is known to
be or can be assumed to be normal. We shall develop and use the test
procedure under different null and alternative hypotheses.
One-Tailed Test
The specifications for the surface hardness of a composite metal sheet require
that the surface hardness be uniform to the extent that the standard deviation
should not exceed 0.50. A small random sample of sheets is selected from
each shipment and the shipment is rejected if the sample variance is found to
be too large. However, a shipment can be rejected only when there is an
overwhelming evidence against it. The sample variance from a sample of
nine sheets worked out to 0.32. Should this shipment be rejected at a
significance level of 5%?
It is clear that in absence of a strong evidence against it, the shipment should
be accepted and so the null and the alternative hypotheses should be:
H� : � � ⩽ 0.25
H� : � � > 0.25
The highest acceptable value of v is 0.50 and so the highest acceptable value
of σ2 is 0.25. If the true variance of the population (shipment) is above 0.25,
then the alternative hypothesis is true. However, in the absence of a strong

226
evidence against it, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected and so the Chi-square Tests

shipment will be accepted.

We assume that the surface hardness of these composite metal sheets is
distributed normally. The test statistic that we shall use would ideally be the
sample variance, but Since the distribution of � � is not known directly. We
(���)��
shall use ��
as the test statistic which is known to have a chi-square
distribution with (n -1) degrees of freedom.
We shall reject the null hypothesis only when the observed value of � � is
much larger than � � . Suppose we reject the null hypothesis if � � > �, where
c is a number much larger than � � , then the probability of type I error should
not exceed .05-the given significance level of the test. As before, the
probability of type I error is the highest when � � is at the breakpoint value
between H0 and �� i.e. when � � = 0.25 Therefore, Pr [� � > �] = 0.05,
when � � = 0.25
(���)�� (���)�
or, Pr � ��
> �.��
� = 0.05
(���)��
Since ��
is known to have a chi-square distribution with (n -1) –degrees
of freedom, we can refer to the tables for the chi-square distribution where
the left tail and the right tail are tabulated separately for different areas tinder
the tail. As shown in Figure II below, the probability that a c2 variable with
(9 -1) = 8 degrees of freedom will assume values above 15.507 is 0.05. So,. if
the (observed) value of c2, i.e, the value of c2 calculated, from the observed
value of � � when � � = 0.25, is greater than 15.507, then only can we reject
the null hypothesis at a significance level of .05.
Figure II: Rejection region for a one-tailed Test of Variance

The observed value of � � has been 0.32. So, the observed value of � � has
been
(� − 1)� � (9 − 1) × 0.32
=
�� 0.25
= 10.24

227
Sampling and As this is smaller than the cut-off value of 15.507, we conclude that we do
Sampling not have sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis and so we accept the
Distributions
shipment.
It should be obvious that we can use � � as the test statistic in place of
(���)� ��
��
. If we were to use � � as the test statistic then, as before, we can reject
the null hypothesis only when
(n − 1)s �
⩾ 15.507, when � � = 0.25
��
(���)��
i.e. �.��
⩾ 15.507
�.��
i.e.� � ⩾ 15.507 × �

or � � ⩾ 0.485
As our observed value of � � is only 0.32, we come to the same conclusion
that the sample evidence is not strong enough for us to reject Ho.
Two-Tailed Tests of Variance
We have earlier used both one-tailed and two-tailed tests while discussing
tests concerning population means and proportions. Similarly, depending on
the situation, one may have to use a two-tailed test while testing for
population variance.
The surface hardness of composite metal sheets is known to have a variance
of 0.40. For a shipment just received, the sample variance from a random
sample of nine sheets worked out to 0.22. Is it right to conclude that this
shipment has a variance different from 0.40, if the significance level used is
0.05?
We start by stating our null and alternative hypotheses as below.
H� : � � = 0.40
H� : � � ≠ 0.40
(���)��
We shall again use ��
as our test statistic which will have a chi-square
distribution with (n -1) degrees of freedom, assessing the surface hardness of
individual sheets followed a normal distribution.
Now, we shall reject the null hypothesis if the observed value of the test
statistic is too small or too large. As the significance level of the test is 0.05,
the probability of rejecting Ho when Ho is true is 0.05. Splitting this
probability into two equal halves, we again have two critical regions each
with an equal area as shown in Figure III below.

228
Figure III: Acceptance and rejection regions for a two-tailed Test of Variance Chi-square Tests

The test could, therefore, be summarised as follows:

(���)�� (���)��
Reject H� , if ��
is larger than 17.535 or if ��
is smaller than 2.180,
�
when � = 0.40 and n = 0. In other words,
��� ���
Reject H� , if �.�� is larger than 17.535, or if �.�� is smaller than 2.180/

The observed value of � � is 0.22 and so,

(���)�� ��.��
the observed value of ��
= �.��
= 4.40

As this value falls in the acceptance region of Figure III, the null hypothesis
cannot be rejected and so we conclude that at a significance level of 0.05,
there is not enough evidence to say that the variance of the shipment just
received is different from 0.40.
Activity A
A psychologist is aware that the variability of attention-spans of five-year-
olds can be minimised by σ2 = 49 (�������)�. While studying the attention-
spans of 19 four-year- olds, it was found that S � = 30 (minutes)� .
a) If you want to test whether the variability of attention-spans of the four-
year-olds is different from that of the five-year-olds, what would be your
null and alternative hypotheses?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
b) On the other hand, if you believe that the variability of attention-spans of
the four-year-olds is not smaller than that of the five-year-olds, what
would be your null and alternative hypotheses?
229
Sampling and c) What test statistic would you choose for each of the above situations and
Sampling what is the distribution of the test statistic that can be used to define the
Distributions
critical region?
Activity B
For each of the folio wing situations, show the critical regions symbolically
on the chi-square distributions shown alongside:

a) H� : � � ⩽ 0.5
�� : � � > 0.5

b) �� : � � = 0.5
�� : � � ≠ 0.5

c) H� : ��� ⩾ 0.5
H� : ��� < 0.5

12.3 TESTING OF EQUALITY OF TWO

POPULATION VARIANCES
In many situations we might be interested in comparing the variances of the
populations to see whether one is larger than the other or they are equal. For
example, while testing the difference of means of two populations based on
small independent samples in section 15.6 of the previous unit, we had
assumed that both the populations had the same variance. We may want to
test if it is reasonable to assume that the two population variances are equal.
While testing the equality of two population means, the test statistic used was
the difference in two sample means. As we shall discover soon, while testing
the equality of two population variances, the test statistic would be the ratio
of the two sample variances.
The F Distribution
If � � and �� are independent random variables having chi-square distributions
with �� and �� degrees of freedom, then
�� /��
�=
�� /��
has an F distribution with V� and �� degrees of freedom.
The F distribution is also tabulated extensively and finds a lot of applications
in applied statistics. An F distribution has two parameters-the first parameter
refers to the degrees of freedom of the numerator chi-square random variable

230
and the second parameter refers to the degrees of freedom of the denominator Chi-square Tests

chi-square random variable.

The right tail of various F distributions with different numerator and
denominator degrees of freedom is extensively tabulated. As we shall see
later, the left tail of any F distribution can be easily calculated by some
simple modifications.
Being a ratio of two chi-square variables (and their degrees of freedom), an F
distribution exists for only positive values of the random variable. It is as
symmetric and unimodal as shown in Figure IV below.
Figure IV: An F distribution with �� and �� degrees of freedom (df)

A One-Tailed Test of Two Variances

A purchase manager wanted to test if the variance of prices of unbranded
bolts was higher than the variance of prices of branded bolts. He needed
strong evidence before he could conclude that the variance of prices of
unbranded bolts was higher than the variance of prices of a branded bolts. He
obtained price quotations from various stores and found that the sample
variance of prices of unbranded bolts from 13 stores was 27.5. Similarly, the
sample variance of prices of a certain brand of bolts from 9 stores was 11.2.
What can the purchase manager conclude at a significance level of Let us use
the subscript 1 for the population of prices of unbranded bolts and the
subscript 2 for the population of prices of the given brand of bolts. We also
assume that both these populations are normal. The purchase manager would
conclude that the unbranded bolts have a higher price variance only when
there was a strong evidence for it and not otherwise. So, the null and the
alternative hypotheses would be:
H� : ��� ⩽ ���
H� : ��� > ���
What should be the test statistic for this test? While testing the equality of
two population means we had used the difference in sample means as the test
statistic because the distribution of (x� − x� ) and known. However, the
distribution of (s�� − s�� ) is not known and so this cannot be used as the test
��
statistic. Let us see if we can know the distribution of ��� when Ho is true.
�

231
Sampling and Actually, we are interested in the distribution of the test statistic to define the
Sampling critical region. The probability of type I error should not exceed the
Distributions
significance level, �. This probability is the highest at the breakpoint between
Ho and �� , i.e. when ��� = ��� in this case.
(�� ��)���
Now, if both the populations are normal, then ���
has a chi-square
(�� ��)���
distribution with (n� − 1) degrees of freedom, and ���
has a chi-square
distribution with (n� − 1) degrees of freedom. These two samples can also
be assumed to be independent and so
(�� ��)���
���
/(�� − 1)
(�� ��)���
���
/(�� − 1)

will have an F distribution with (n� − 1) and (n� − 1) degrees of freedom.

But,
���
if ��� = ��� then, ���
Will have an F distribution with (�� − 1) and (�� − 1)
degrees of freedom.
In this case n� = 13, s�� = 27.5; n� = 9, s�� = 11.2; and so by referring to the
F tables for the distribution with 12 and 8 degrees of freedom, we find that
��
the cut-off value of ��� is 3.28, as shown in Figure V below.
�

Figure V: Acceptance and Rejection Regions for a One-tailed Test of Equality of variance

��
The observed value of ��� = 27.5/11.2 = 2.455
�

As this falls in the acceptance region of Figure V, we cannot reject Ho.

Therefore, we conclude that we do not have sufficient evidence to justify that
unbranded bolts have a higher price variance than that of a given brand.
A Two-Tailed Test of Two Variances
A two-tailed test of equality of two variances is similar to the one-tailed test
discussed in the previous section. The only difference is that the critical
region would now be split into two parts under both the tails of the F
distribution.
232
Let us take up the decision problem faced by the marketing manager in Chi-square Tests

section 15.6 of the previous unit with some slightly different figures. Here the
marketing manager wanted to know if display at point of purchase helped in
increasing sales. He picked up 13 retail shops with no display and found that
the weekly sale in these shops had a mean of Rs. 6,000 and a standard
deviation of Rs. 1004. Similarly, he picked up a second sample of 11 retail
shops with display at point of purchase and found that the weekly sale in
these shops had a mean of Rs. 6500 and a standard deviation of Rs. 1,200. If
he knew that the weekly sale in shops followed normal distributions, could he
reasonably assume that the variances of weekly sale in shops with and
without display were equal, if he used a significance level of 0.10?
In section 15.1 we developed a test procedure based on the assumption that
�� = �� . Now we are interested in testing if that assumption is sustainable or
not. We take the position that unless and until the evidence from the samples
is strongly to the contrary we would believe that the two populations-viz. of
shops without display and of shops with display-have equal variances. If we
use the subscript 1 to refer to the former population and subscript 2 for the
latter, then it follows that
H� : ; ��� = ���
H� : ; ��� ≠ ���
��
We shall again use ��� as the test statistic, which follows an F distribution with
�
�� (n� − 1) and (n� − 1) degrees of freedom, if the null hypothesis is true.
This being a two¬tailed test, the critical region is split into two parts and as
shown in Figure VI below, the upper cut-off point can be easily read off from
the F tables as 2.91.
Figure VI: Acceptance and Rejection Regions for a Two-tailed Test of
Equality of Variances

The lower cut-off point has been shown as K in Figure VI above and its value
cannot be read off directly because the left tails of F distributions are not
generally tabulated. However we know that K is such that
���
Pr � ⩽ �� = .05
���
233
Sampling and ��
i.e.Pr ���� ⩾ 1/�� = .05
Sampling �
Distributions
���
Now, ���
will also have a F distribution with (n� − 1) and (n� − 1) degrees of
freedom and so the value of 1/K can be easily looked up from the right tail of
this 'distribution. As can be seen from Figure VII below, 1/K is equal to 2.75
and so K =1/2.75 = 0.363.
Figure VII: The distribution of ��� /���

���
Hence, the lower cut-off point for ���
is 0.363: In other words, if the
significance level is 0.10, the value of should lie between 0.363 and 2.91 for
��� �����
us to accept Ho. As the observed value of ���
= ����� = 0.700 which lies in
the acceptance region, we accept the null hypothesis that variance from both
populations are equal.
Activity C
From a sample of 16 observations, we find S�� = 3.52 and from another
sample of 13 observations, we find S�� = 4.69. Under the assumption that
��� = ��� , we find the following probabilities
���
Pr �− ⩾ 2.62� = .05
���
��
and Pr ���� ⩾ 2.48� = .05
�

Find C such that

���
Pr � ⩽ �� = .05
���
Activity D
For each of the following situations, show the critical regions symbolically
on the F distributions shown alongside:

a) �� : ��� ⩾ ���
H� : ��� < ���

234
 Chi-square Tests
b) H� : ��� = ���
H� : ��� ≠ ���

c) H� : ��� ⩽ ���
H� : ��� > ���

12.4 TESTING THE GOODNESS OF FIT

Many times we are interested in knowing. if it is reasonable to assume that
the population distribution is Normal, Poisson, Uniform or any other known
distribution. Again, the conclusion is to be based on the evidence produced
by a sample. Such a procedure is developed to test how close is the fit
between the observed data and the distribution assumed. These tests are also
based on the chi-square statistic and we shall first provide a little background
before such tests are taken up for detailed discussion.
The Chi-Square Statistic
Let us define a multinomial experiment which can be readily seen as an
extension of the binomial experiment introduced in a previous unit. The
experiment consists of making n trials. The trials are independent and the
outcome of each trial falls into one of k categories. The probability that the
outcome of any trial falls in a particular category, say category i, is p� and
this probability remains the same from one trial to another. Let us denote the
number of trials in which the outcome falls in category i by �� . As the total
number of trials is n and there are k categories in all, obviously
�� + �� + ⋯ + �� = �
Each one of the n, s is a random variable and their values depend on the
outcome of n successive trials. Extending the concept from a binomial
distribution, it is not difficult to see that the expected number of trials in
which the outcome falls in category i, would be
E(ni) = n.pi, i = 1,2,... ,k
Now suppose that we hypothesis values for p� , p� , … , p� . If the hypothesis is
true then the observed values of n would not be greatly different from the
expected number in category is the random variable � � defined as below, will
approximately possess a chi-square distribution.
� �
�
[�� − �(�� )]� [�� − ��� ]�
� = �  = � 
�(�� ) �(�� )
��� ���

235
Sampling and It is easy to see that when there are only two categories (i.e. k = 2), we will
Sampling approximately have a chi-square distribution. In such a case p� + p� = 1 and
Distributions
so
(�� ���� )� (�� ���� )�
χ2 = ���
+ ���
(n� − np� )� ⋅ p� + (n� − np� )� ⋅ p�
=
np� p�
(�� − ��� ) ⋅ �� + [(� − �� ) − �(1 − �� )]� ⋅ ��
�
=
��� (1 − �� )
(n� − np� ) ⋅ P� + (−n� + np� )� ⋅ p�
�
=
np� (1 − p� )
(�� − ��� )�
=
��� (1 − �� )
But from our earlier discussion of the normal approximation to the binomial
�� ����
distribution, we know that when n is large, (��� )
has a standard normal
���� �
distribution and so � � above will have a chi-square distribution with one
degree of freedom.
In general, when the number of categories is K, � � has a chi-square
distribution with (k - 1) degrees of freedom. One degree of freedom is lost
because of one linear constraint on the �� 's, viz.
n� + n� + ⋯ + n� = n
The � � statistic would approximately have a chi-square distribution when n is
sufficiently large so that for each i, np� is at least 5-i.e. the expected
frequency in each category is at least equal to 5.
Using a different set of symbols, if we write O� or the observed frequency in
category i and Ei for the expected frequency in the same category, then the
chi-square statistic and also be computed as
�
�
(�� − �� )�
� = � 
��
���

An Example: Testing for Uniform Distribution

Suppose we want to test if a worker is equally prone to producing defective
components throughout an eight hour shift or not. We break the shift into
four two- hour slots and count the number of defective components produced
in each of these slots. At the end of one week we find that the worker has
produced 50 defective components with the following break-up:

Time Slot (hours) Observed Frequency

8.00-10.00 8
10.00-12.00 11
12.30-14.30 16
14.30-46.30 15
50
236
From this data using a significance level of .05, is it reasonable to assume Chi-square Tests

that the probability to produce a defective component is equal in each of the

four two-hour slots?
We shall take the position that unless and until the sample evidence is
overwhelmingly against it, we shall accept that the probability to produce a
defective component in any two-hour slot is the same. If we represent the
probability that a defective component came from the � �� slot by �� , then the
null and the alternative hypotheses are:
�� : �� = �� = �� = �� = 0.25
H� All of ��, �� , �� and �� are not equal.
We shall use the chi-square statistic � � as our test statistic and the expected
frequencies would be computed based on the assumption that the null
hypothesis is true. This and some more computations have been made in
Table 1 below.
Table 1: Computation of the Chi-Square Statistic
S1.No. Time Obs. Exp. O� − E� (O� − E� )� (O� − E� )�
(i) Slot Freq. Freq. E�
(hours) (Oi) (E� )
1 8.00- 8 12.50' - 4.50 20.25 1.62
10.00
2 10.00- 11 12.50 - 1.50 2.25 0.18
12.00
3 12.30- 16 12.50 3.50 12.25 0.98
14:30
4 14.30- 15 IH12.50 2.50 6.25 0.50
16.30
Total 50 50.00 3.28

In the above table, the expected frequencies E have been calculated as ���
where n, the total frequency is 50 and each �� is 0.25 under the null
(�� ��� )�
hypothesis. Now, if the null hypothesis is true, ∑����   ��
will have a chi-
square distribution with (k -1), i.e. (4 - 1) = 3 degrees of freedom and so if we
want a significance level of .05,then as shown in Figure VIII below, the cut-
off value of the chi-square statistic should be 7.815.
Figure VIII: Acceptance and Rejection Regions for a .05 significance level Test

237
Sampling and Therefore, we can reject the null hypothesis only when the observed value of
Sampling the chi¬square statistic is at least 7.815. As the observed value of the chi-
Distributions
square statistic is only 3.28, we cannot reject the null hypothesis.
Using the concepts developed so far, it is not difficult to see how a test
procedure can be developed and used to test if the data observed came from
any known distribution. The degrees of freedom for the chi-square statistic
would be equal to the number of categories (k) minus 1 minus the number of
independent parameters of the distribution estimated from the data itself.
If we want to test whether it is reasonable to assume that an observed sample
came from a normal population, we may have to estimate the mean and the
variance of the normal distribution first, We would categorise the observed
data into an appropriate number of classes and for each class we would then
calculate the probability that the random variable belonged to this class, if the
population distribution were normal. Then, we would repeat the
computations as shown in this section-viz. calculating the expected frequency
in each class. Finally, the value of chi-square statistic would have (k - 3)
degree of freedom since two parameters (the mean and the variance) of the
population were estimated from the sample.
Activity E
From the following data, test if it is reasonable to assume that the population
has a distribution with p� = 0.2, p� = 0.3 and p� = 0.5. Use α = .05.

Category O� P� E� (O� − E� ) (O� − E� )� (O� − E� )�

(i) E�
1 17 0.2 (O� − E� ) (O� − E� )�
2 35 0.3
3 48 0.5
Total 100 1.0

12.5 TESTING INDEPENDENCE OF

CATEGORISED DATA
A problem frequently encountered in the analysis of categorised data
concerns the independence of two methods of classification of the observed
data. For example, in a survey, the responding consumers could be classified
according to their sex and their preference of our product over the next
competing brand-(again measured by classifying them into three categories
of preference). Such data is first prepared in the form of a contingency (or
dependency) table which helps in the investigation of dependency between
the classification criteria.
We want to study if the preference of a consumer for our brand and shampoo
depends on his or her income level using a significance level of .05. We
survey a total of 350 consumers and each is classified into (1) one of three
income levels defined by us and (2) one of four categories of preference for
our brand of shampoo over the next competing brand-viz., 'strongly prefer',
238
'moderately prefer', indifferent' and 'do not prefer'. These observations are Chi-square Tests

presented in the form of a contingency table in Table 2 below.

The table shows, for example, that out of 350 consumers observed 98
belonged to the high income category, 108 to the medium income category
and 144 to the low income group. Similarly, there were 95 consumers who
strongly preferred our brand, 119 who moderately preferred our brand and so
on. Further, the contingency table tells us that 15 consumers were observed to
belong to both the high income level and the "strongly prefer" category of
preference, and so on for the rest of the cells.
Table 2: Observed (Expected) Frequencies in a Contingency Table

Category of Preference
Income Strongly Moderately Indifferent Do not Total
Level Prefer Prefer Prefer
High 15 (26.60) 35 (33.32) 21 (16.52) 27 (21.56) 98
Medium 48 (29.31) 18 (36.72) 20 (18.21) 22 (23.76) 108
Low 32 (39.09) 66 (48.96) 18 (24.27) 28 (31.68) 144
Total 95 119 59 77 350

Let �� = marginal probability for the � �� row, i = 1, 2,…, r where r is the total
number of rows. In this case �� would mean the probability that randomly
selected consumer would belong to the � �� income level.
P = marginal probability for the jth column, j = 1, 2, ... c, where c is the total
number of columns. In this case �� would mean that the probability that a
randomly selected consumer would belong to the � �� preference category.
and ��� = Joint probability for the � �� row and the j�� column. In this case ���
would refer to the probability that a randomly selected consumer belongs to
the � �� income level and the � �� preference category.
Now we can state our null and the alternative hypotheses as follows:
Ho: the criteria for column classification is independent of the criteria for row
classification.
In this case, this would mean that the preference for our brand is not
independent of the income level of the consumers.
H� : the criteria for column classification is not independent of the criteria for
row classification.
If the row and the column classifications are independent of each other, then
it would follow that ��� = �� × ��

This can be used to state our null and the alternative hypotheses:
�� : ��� = �� × �.� for � = 1,2, … , � and � = 1,2, … , �
�� : ��� ≠ �� × �.� for � = 1,2, … , � and � = 1,2, … , �
Now we know how the test has to be developed. If �� and p� are known, we
can find the probability and consequently the expected frequency in each of 239
Sampling and the (r x c) cells of our contingency table and from the observed and the
Sampling expected frequencies, compute the chi-square statistic to conduct the test.
Distributions
However, since the �� 's and �� 's are known, we have to estimate these from
the data itself.
If �� = row total for the � �� row
�� = column total for the j�� column

and n = the total of all observed frequencies.

then our estimate of p�, = n� /n
and our estimate of p� = n� /n

and so the expected frequency in the � �� row and column � ��

��� = np�� = n(p�. )�p.� � = n × (n� /n)x�n� /n� = �n� xn� �/n

and if the observed frequency in the � �� and column is referred to as O�� then
the chi¬square statistic can be computed as
� � �
���� − ��� �
�� = �   �  
���
��� ���

This statistic will have a chi-square distribution with the degrees of freedom
given by the total number of categories or cells (i.e. r x c) minus 1 minus the
number of independent parameters estimated from the data. We have
estimated r marginal row probabilities out of which (r - 1) have been
independent, since
�� + �� + ⋯ + �� = 1
Similarly, we have estimated c marginal column probabilities out of which (c
- 1) have been independent, since
�� + �� + ⋯ … … + +�� = 1
and so, the degrees of freedom for the chi-square statistic
= �� − 1 − (� − 1) − (� − 1)
= (� − 1)(� − 1)
Coming back to the problem at hand, the chi-square statistic computed as will
have (3-1) (4-1) i.e. 6 degrees of freedom and so by referring to the Figure IX
below, we can say that we would reject the null hypothesis at a significance
level of 0.05, if the computed value of � � above is greater than or equal to
12.592.

240
 Figure IX: Rejection region for a test using the Chi-square statistics Chi-square Tests

Now, the only task is to compute the value of the chi-square statistic. For
this, we first find the expected frequency in each cell using the relationship.
�� × ��
��� =
�
For example, when i = 1 and j = 1, we find
98 × 95
F�� = = 26.60
350
These values have also been recorded in Table 2 in parentheses and so the
chi-square statistic is computed as
(15 − 26.60)� (35 − 33.32)� (21 − 16.52)� (27 − 21.56)�
�� = + + +
26.60 33.32 16.52 21.56
(48 − 29.31)� (18 − 36.72)� (20 − 18.21)� (22 − 23.76)�
+ + + +
29.31 36.72 18.21 23.76
(32 − 39.09)� (66 − 48.96)� (18 − 24.27)� (28 − 31.68)�
+ + +
39.09 48.96 24.27 31.68
= 5.059 + 0.085 + 1.215 + 1.373 + 11.918 + 9.544 + 0.176 + 0.130
+ 1.286
+5.930 + 1.620 + 0.427
= 38.763
As the computed value of the chi-square statistic is much above the cut-off
value of 12.592, we reject the null hypotheses at a significance level of 0.05
and conclude that the income level and preference for our brand are not
independent.
Whenever we are using the chi-square statistic we must make sure that there
are enough observations so that the expected frequency in any cell is not less
than 5; if not, we may have to combine rows or columns to raise the expected
frequency in each cell to at least 5.

12.6 SUMMARY
In this unit we have looked at some situations where we can develop tests
based on the chi-square distribution. We started by testing the variance of a 241
Sampling and (���)��
normal population where the test statistic used was ��
since the
Sampling
�
Distributions distribution of the sample variance � was not known directly. We found that
such tests could be one-tailed depending on our null and the alternative
hypotheses.
We then developed a procedure for testing the equality of variances of two
normal populations. The test statistic used in this case was the ratio of the
two sample variances are this was found to have a F distribution under the
null hypothesis. This procedure enabled us to test the assumption made while
we developed a test procedure for testing the equality of two population
means based on a small independent samples in the previous unit.
We then described a multinomial experiment and found that if we have data
that classify observations into k different categories and if the conditions for
the multinomial experiment are satisfied then a test statistic called the chi-
(�� ��� )�
square statistic defined as � � = ∑����   ��
will have a chi-square
distribution with specified degrees of freedom. Here, O� refers to the
observed frequency of the � �� category and E� to the expected frequency of
the � �� category and the degree of freedom is equal to the number of
categories minus 1 minus the number of independent parameters estimated
from the data to calculate the E's. This concept was used to develop tests
concerning the goodness of fit of the observed data to any hypothesised
distribution and also to test if two criteria for classification are independent or
not.

12.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1) A production manager is certain that the output rate of experienced
employees is better than that of the newly appointed employees.
However, he is not sure if the variability in output rates for these two
groups is same or not. From previous studies it is known that the mean
output rate per hour of new employees at a particular work centre is 20
units with a standard deviation of 4 units. For a group of 15 employees
with three year's experience, it was found that the sample mean of output
rate per hour was 30 units with a sample standard deviation of 6 units. Is
it reasonable to assume that the variability of output rates at these two
experience levels is not different? Test at a significance level of .01.
2) For self-assessment exercise No. of the previous unit test if it is
reasonable to assume � = �� at � = .05.
3) The safety manager of a large chemical plant went through the file of
minor accidents in his plant and picked up a random sample of some
accident and classified them according to the time at which the accident
took place. Using the chi-square test at a significance level of 0.01. What
should we conclude? If you were the safety manager, what would you do
after completing the test?
Time (hrs.) No. of Accidents
3.00-9.00 6
242
 Chi-square Tests
9.00-10.00 7
10.00-11.00 21
11.00-12.00 9
13.00-14.00 7
14.00-15.00 8
15.00-16.00 18
16.00-17.00 9
4) A survey of industrial sales persons included questions on the age of the
respondent and the degree of job pressure the sales person felt in
connection with the job. The data is presented in the table below. Using a
significance level of .01, examine if there is any relationship between the
age and the degree of job pressure.
Degree of pressure job
Age (years) Law Medium High
Less than 25 32 25 17
25-34 22 19 20
35-54 17 20 25
55 and above 15 24 26
For each of the statements below, choose the most appropriate response
from among the ones listed.
5) The major reason that chi-square tests for independence and for goodness
of fit are one-tailed is that:
a) small values of the test statistic provide support for Ho
b) large values of the test statistic provide support for Ho
c) tables are usually available for right-tailed rejection regions
d) none of the above.
6) When testing to draw inferences about one or two population variances,
using the chi-square and the F distributions, respectively, the major
assumption needed is
a) large sample sizes
b) equality of variances
c) normal distributions of population
d) all of the above.
7) In chi-square tests of goodness of fit and independence of categorical
data, it is sometimes necessary to reduce the numbers of classifications
used to
a) provide the table.with larger observed frequencies
b) make the distribution appear more normal
c) satisfy the condition that variances must be equal 243
Sampling and d) none of the above.
Sampling
Distributions 8) In carrying out a chi-square test of independence of categorical data, we
use all of the following except
a) an estimate of the population variance
b) contingency tables
c) observed and expected frequencies
d) number of rows and columns.
9) The chi-square distribution is used to test a number of different
hypotheses. Which of the following is an application of the chi-square
test?
a) goodness-of-fit of a distribution
b) equality of populations
c) Independence of two variables or attributes
d) all of the above.

12.8 FURTHER READINGS

Bruce Bomerman, Business Statistics for Practice, McGraw Hill.
Gravetter F.J. and L.B. Wallrnce. Statistics for the Behavioural Sciences,
West Publishing Co.: St. Paul.
Minnesota Levin R.I., Statistics for Management: 1 5rentice-Hall of India:
New Delhi.
Mason R.D., Statistical Techniques in Business and Economics, Richard D.
Irwin, Inc: Homewood, Illinois.
Mendenhall W., Schaffer R.L. and D.D. Wackerly. Mathematical Statistics
with Applications, Duxbury Press: Boston Monachasetts.
Plane D .R. and E.B. Oppern,ann. Business and Economic Statistics,
Business Publications, Inc: Plano, Texas.
APPENDIX TABLE 5
Area in the Right Tail of a Chi-square (� � ) Distribution.1

1
Taken from Table IV of Fisher and Yates, Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural
and Medical Research, published by Longman Group Ltd., London (previously published by
Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh and by premission of the authors and publishers.
244
 Degrees of 99 0.975 0.95 0.90 0.800 Chi-square Tests
freedom
1 0.00016 0.00098 0.00398 0.0158 0.642
2 0.0201 0.0506 0.103 0.211 0.446
3 0.115 0.216 0.352 0.584 1.005
4 0.297 0.484 0.711 1.064 1.649
5 0.554 0.831 1.145 1.610 2.343
6 0.872 1.237 1.635 2.204 3.070
7 1.239 1.690 2.167 2.833 3.822
8 1.646 2.180 2.733 3.490 4.594
9 2.088 2.700 3.325 4.168 5.380
10 2.558 3.247 3.940 4.865 6.179
12 3.571 4.404 5.228 6.304 7.807
13 4.107 5.009 5.892 7.042 8.634
14 4.660 5.629 6.571 7.790 9.467
15 5.229 6.262 7.261 8.547 10.307
16 5.812 6.908 7.962 9.312 11.152
17 6.408 7.564 8.672 10.085 12.002
18 7.015 8.231 9.390 10.865 12.587
19 7.633 8.907 10.117 11.851 13.716
20 8.260 9.591 10.851 12.443 14.578
21 8.897 10.283 11.591 13.240 15.445
22 9.542 10.982 12.338 14.041 16.314
23 10.196 11.889 13.091 14.848 17.187
24 10.856 12.401 13.848 15.658 18.062
25 11.524 13.120 14.611 16.473 18.940
26 12.198 13.844 15.879 17.292 19.820
27 12.879 14.573 16.151 18.114 20.703
28 13.565 15.308 16.928 18.939 21.588
29 14.256 16.047 17.708 19.768 22.475
30 14.953 16.791 18.493 20.599 23.364
* Taken from Table IV of Fisher and Yates, Statistical Tables for Biological, Agricultural
and Medical Rsearch, Published by Longman Group Ltd., London (previously published by
Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh and by permission of the authors and publishers.
0.20 .10 .05 0.025 .01 Degrees of
freedom
1.642 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 1
3.219 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 2
4.642 6.251 7.815 9.48 11.345 3
5.989 7.779 9.488 11.143 13.277 4
7.289 9.236 11.070 12.833 15.086 5
8.558 10.645 12.592 14.449 16.812 6
9.803 12.017 14.067 16.013 18.475 7
11.030 13.362 15.507 17.535 20.090 8
12.242 14.684 16.919 19.023 21.666 9
13.442 15.987 18.307 20.483 23.209 10
14.631 17.275 19.675 21.920 24.725 11
15.812 18.549 21.026 23.337 26.217 12
16.985 19812 22.362 24.736 27.688 13
18.151 21.064 23.685 26.119 29.141 14
19.311 22.307 24.996 27.488 30.578 15
20.465 23.542 26.296 28.845 32.000 16
21.615 24.769 27.587 30.191 33.409 17
22.760 25.989 28.869 31.526 34.805 18
23.900 27.204 30.144 32.852 36.191 19
25.038 28.412 31.410 34.170 37.566 20 245
Sampling and 26.171 29.615 32.671 35.479 38.932 21
Sampling 27.301 30.813 33.924 36.781 40.289 22
Distributions 28.429 32.007 35.172 38.076 41.638 23
29.553 33.196 36.415 39.364 42.980 24
30.675 34.382 37.652 40.647 44.314 25
31.795 35.563 38.885 41.923 45.642 26
32.912 36.741 40.113 43.194 46.963 27
34.027 37.916 41.337 44.461 48.278 28
35.139 39.087 42.557 45.722 49.588 29
36.250 40.256 43.773 46.979 50.892 30

APPENDIX TABLE 6
Values of F for F Distributions with .05 of the Area in the Right Tail2

Degrees of freedom for numerator

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30 40 60 120 ∝
1 161 200 216 225 230 234 237 239 241 242 244 246 2'48 249 250 251 252 253 254
2 18.5 19.0 19.2 19.2 19.3 19.3 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.5 19.5 19.5 19.5 19.5 19.5
3 10.1 9.55 9.28' 9.12 9.01 8.94 8.89 H.K5 8.81 8.79 8.74 8.70 8.66 8.64 8.62 8.59 8.57 8.65 8.53
4 7.71 6.94 6.59 6.39 6.26 6.16 6.09 6.04 6.00 5.96 5.91 5.86 5.80 5.77 5.75 5.72 5.69 5.66 5.63
5 0.61 5.79 5.4! 5.19 5.05 4.95 4.88 4.82 4.77 4.74 4.68 4.62 4.56 4.53 4.50 4.46 4.43 4.40 4.37
6 5.99 5.14 4.76 4.53 4.39 4.28 4.21 4.15 4.10 4.06 4.00 3.94 3.87 3.84 3.81 3.77 3.74 3.70 3.67
7 5.59 4.74 4.35 4.12 3.97 3.87 3.79 3,73 3.68 3.64 3.57 3.51 3.44 3.41 3.38 3.34 3.30 3.27 3,23
8 5.32 4.46 4.07 3.84 3.69 3.58 3.50 3.44 3.39 3.35 3.28 3.22 3.15 3.12 3.08 3.04 3.01. 2.97 2.93
9 5.12 4.26 3.86 3.63 3.48 3.37 3.29 3.23 3,18 3.14 3.07 3.01 2.94 2.90 2.86 2.83 2.79 2.75 2.71
10 4.96 4.10 3.71 3.48 3.33 3.22 3.14 3.07 3.02 2.98 2.91 2.85 2.77 2.74 2.70 2.66 2.62 2.58 2.54
11 4.84 3.98 3.59 3.36 3.20 3.09 3.01 2.95 2.91) 2.85 2.79 2.72 2.65 2.61 2,57 2.53 2.49 2.45 2.40
12 4.75 3.89 3.49 3.26 3.11 3.00 2.91 2.85 2.80 2.75 2.69 2.62 2.54 2.51 2.47 2.43 2.38 2.34 2.30
13 4.67 3.81 3.41 3.18 3.03 2.92 2.83 2.77 2.71 2,67 2.60 2.53 2.46 2.42 2.38 2.34 2.30 2.25 2.21
14 4.60 3.74 3.34 3.11 2.96 2.85 2.76 2,70 2.65 2.60 2.53 2.46 2.39 2.35 2.31 2.27 2.22 2.18 2.13
15 4.54 3.68 3.29 3.06 2.90 2.79 2.71 2.64 2.59 2.54 2.48 2.40 2.33 2.29 2.25 2.20 2.16 2.11 2.07
16 4.49 3.63 3.24 3.01 2.85 2.74 2.66 2.59.) 2.54 2.49 2.42 2.35 2.28 2.24 2.19 2.15 2.11 2.06 2.01
17 4.45 3.59 3.20 2.96 2.81 2.70 2.61 2.55 2.49 2.45 2.38 2.31 2.23 2.19 2.15 2.10 2.06 2.01 1.96
16 4.41 3.55 3.16 2.93 2.77 2.66 2.58 2.51 2.46 2.41 2.3.4 2.27 2.19 2.15 2.11 2.06 2.02 1.97 1.92
19 4.38 3.52 3.13 2.90 2.74 2.63 2.54 2,48 2.42 2.38 2.31 2.23 2.16 2.11 2.07 2.03 1.98 1.93 1.88
20 4.35 3.49 3.10 2.87 2.71 2.60 2.51 2.45 2.39 2.35 2.28 2.20 2.12 2.08 2.04 1.99 1.95 1.90 1.84
21 4.32 3.47 3.07 2.84 2.68 2.57 2.49 2,42 2.37 2.32 2.25 2.18 2:10 2.05 2.01 1.96 1.92 1.87 1.81
22 4.30 3.44 3.05 2.82 2.66 2.55 2.46 2.40 2.34 2.30 2.23 2.15 2.07 2.03 1.98 1.94 1.89 1.84 1.78
23 4.28 3.42 3.03 2.80 2.64 2,53 2.44 2.37 2.32 2.27 2.20 2.13 2.05 2.01 1.96 1.91 1.86 1.81 1.76
24 4.26 3.40 3.01 2.78 2.62 2.51 2.42 2,36 2.30 2.25 2.18 2,11 2.03 1.98 1.94 1.89 1.84 1.79 1.73
25 4.24 3.39 2,99 2.76 2.60 2.49 2.40 2,34 2.28 2.24 2.16 2.09 2.01 1.96 1.92 1.87 1.82 1.77 1.71
30 4.17 3.32 2.92 2.69 2.53 2.42 2.33 2.27 2.2! 2.16 2.09 2.01 1.93 1.89 1.84 1.79 1.74 1.68 1.62
40 4.08 3.23 2.84 2.61 2.45 2.34 2.25 2.18 2,12 2.08 2.00 1.92 1.84 1.79 1.74 1.69 1.64 1.58 1.51
60 4.00 3.15 2.76 2.53 2.37 2.25 2.17 2.10 2.04 1.99 1.92 1.84 1.75 1.70 1.65 1.59 1.53 1.47 1.3'J
20 3.92 3.07 2.68 2.45 2.29 2.18 2.09 2.02 1.96 1.91 1.83 1.75' 1.66 1.61 1.55 1.50 1.43 1.35 1.25
cc 3.84 3.00 2.60 2.37 2.21 2.10 2.01 1.94 1.88 1.83 1.75 1.67 1.57 1.52 1.46 1.39 1.32 1 22 1.00

Value for F for Distribution with .01 of the Area in the Right Tai

2
Source: M. Mervin'ton and C.M. Thompson, Riontetrika, vol. 33 (1943).
246
 Chi-square Tests

Degrees of freedom for numerator

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 24 30 40 60 120 ∝
1 4,052 5,000 5,403 5,625 5,764 5,859 5,928 5,982 6,023 6,056 6,106 6,157 6,209 6,235 6,261 6,287 6,313 6,339 6,366
2 98.5 99.0 99.2 99.2 99.3 99.3 99.4 99.4 99.4 99.4 99.4 99.4 99.4 99.5 99.5 99.5 99.5 99.5 99.5
3 34.1 30.8 29.5 28.7 28.2 27.9 27.7 27.5 27.3 27.2 27.1 26.9 26.7 26.6 26.5 26.4 26.3 26.2 26.1
4 21.2 18.0 16.7 16.0 15.5 15.2 15.0 14.8 14.7 14.5 14.4 14.2 14.0 13.9 13.8 13.7 13.7 13.6 13.5
5 16.3 13.3 12.1 11.4 11.0 10.7 10.5 10.3 10.2 10.1 9.89 9.72 9.55 9.47 9.38 9.29 9.20 9.11 9.02
6 13.7 10.9 9.78 9.15 8.75 8.47 8.26 8.10 7.98 7.87 7.72 7.56 7.40 7.31 7.23 7.14 7.06 6.97 6.88
7 12.2 9.55 8.45 7.85 7.46 7.19 6.99 6.84 6.72 6.62 6.47 6.31 6.16 6.07 5.99 5.91 5.82 5.74 5.65
8 11.3 8.65 7.59 7.01 6.63 6.37 6.18 6.03 5.91 5.81 5.67 5.52 5.36 5.28 5.20 5.12 5.03 4.95 4.86
9 10.6 8.02 6.99 6.42 6.06 5.80 5.61 5.47 5.35 5.26 5.11 4.96 4.81 4.73 4.65 4.57 4.48 4.40 4.31
10 10.0 7.56 6.55 5.99 5.64 5.39 5.20 5.06 4.94 4.85 4.71 4.56 4.41 4.33 4.25 4.17 4.08 4.00 3.91
11 9.65 7.21 6.22 5.67 5.32 5.07 4.89 4.74 4.63 4.54 4.40 4.25 4.10 4.02 3.94 3.86 3.78 3.69 3.60
12 9.33 6.93 5.95 5.41 5.06 4.82 4.64 4.50 4.39 4.30 4.16 4.01 3.86 3.78 3.70 3.62 3.54 3.45 3.36
13 9.07 6.70 5.74 5.21 4.86 4.62 4.44 4.30 4.19 4.10 3.96 3.82 3.66 3.59 3.51 3.43 3.34 3.25 3.17
14 8.86 6.51 5.56 5.04 4.70 4.46 4.28 4.14 4.03 3.94 3.80 3.66 3.51 3.43 3.35 3.27 3.18 3.09 3.00
15 8.68 6.36 5.42 4.89 4.56 4.32 4.14 4.00 3.89 3.80 3.67 3.52 3.37 3.29 3.21 3.13 3.05 2.96 2.87
16 8.53 6.23 5.29 4.77 4.44 4.20 4.03 3.89 3.78 3.69 3.55 3.41 3.26 3.18 3.10 3.02 2.93 2.84 2.75
17 8.40 6.11 5.19 4.67 4.34 4.10 3.93 3.79 3.68 3.59 3.46 3.31 3.16 3.08 3.00 2.92 2.83 2.75 2.65
18 8.29 6.01 5.09 4.58 4.25 4.01 3.84 3.71 3.60 3.51 3.37 3.23 3.08 3.00 2.92 2.84 2.75 2.66 2.57
19 8.19 5.93 5.01 4.50 4.17 3.94 3.77 3.63 3.52 3.43 3.30 3.15 3.00 2.92 2.84 2.76 2.67 2.58 2.49
20 8.10 5.85 4.94 4.43 4.10 3.87 3.70 3.56 3.46 3.37 3.23 3.09 2.94 2.86 2.78 2.69 2.61 2.52 2.42
21 8.02 5.78 4.87 4.37 4.04 3.81 3.64 3.51 3.40 3.31 3.17 3.03 2.88 2.80 2.72 2.64 2.55 2.46 2.36
22 7.95 5.72 4.82 4.31 3.99 3.76 3.59 3.45 3.35 3.26 3.12 2.98 2.83 2.75 2.67 2.58 2.50 2.40 2.31
23 7.88 5.66 4.76 4.26 3.94 3.71 3.54 3.41 3.30 3.21 3.07 2.93 2.78 2.70 2.62 2.54 2.45 2.35 2.26
24 7.82 5.61 4.72 4.22 3.90 3.67 3.50 3.36 3.26 3.17 3.03 2.89 2.74 2.66 2.58 2.49 2.40 2.31 2.21
25 7.77 5.57 4.68 4.18 3.86 3.63 3.46 3.32 3.22 3.13 2.99 2.85 2.70 2.62 2.53 2.45 2.36 2.27 2.17
30 7.56 5.39 4.51 4.02 3.70 3.47 3.30 3.17 3.07 2.98 2.84 2.70 2.55 2.47 2.39 2.30 2.21 2.11 2.01
40 7.31 5.18 4.31 3.83 3.51 3.29 3.12 2.99 2.89 2.80 2.66 2.52 2.37 2.29 2.20 2.11 2.02 1.92 1.80
60 7.08 4.98 4.13 3.65 3.34 3.12 2.95 2.82 2.72 2.63 2.50 2.35 2.20 2.12 2.03 1.94 1.84 1.73 1.60
20 6.85 4.79 3.95 3.48 3.17 2.96 2.79 2.66 2.56 2.47 2.34 2.19 2.03 1.95 1.86 1.76 1.66 1.53 1.38
∞ 6.63 4.61 3.78 3.32 3.02 2.80 2.64 2.51 2.41 2.32 2.18 2.04 1.88 1.79 1.70 1.59 1.47 1.32 1.00

Degrees of freedom for denominator.

247