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MLICONFERENCE-2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1062 (2022) 012032 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1062/1/012032

Mahakam River Potency as Raw Water to Support Drinking

Water Services and Sanitation in the New Territories of the
State Capital, East Kalimantan

I D A Sutapa1,2*, A Nurhidayat1,2 and E Prihatinningtyas1,2

1
Asia Pacific Centre for Ecohydrology (APCE) - UNESCO C2C, APCE Building, Cibinong
Science Centre – LIPI – BRIN, Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46, Cibinong - Bogor, West Java - Indonesia
2
Research Centre for Limnology and Water Resources, National Research and Innovation
Agency (BRIN), Indonesia

Email: ignasdas@yahoo.co.id

Abstract. The Indonesia Government's decision to move the country's capital city from DKI
Jakarta on the Java island to Penajam – Paser Utara in East Kalimantan provides new hope and
challenges that must be faced. The pressure on the environment due to anthropogenic activities,
industry, transportation, business, trade, tourism, etc., causes the Jakarta area not to have a good
ecosystem and environmental carrying capacity. Some basic needs that have not been fully
addressed so far are drinking water, sanitation, and health services for the community and need
serious attention in the development planning of the new national capital. The limitations of raw
water in terms of quality, quantity, and continuity are often the main obstacles to ensuring the
fulfillment of drinking water and sanitation according to appropriate needs. East Kalimantan
region has many surface water resources consisting of rivers, lakes, swamps, and springs. The
Mahakam River is one of the major rivers in this region, which has a potential source of raw
water to be processed into clean water and drinking water. This study aims to examine the
potency of Mahakam river water as raw water to support drinking water and sanitation services
availability. The results showed that the water of the Makaham river in the city of Samarinda
experienced daily ups and downs with a difference in water level of 2 m. Meanwhile, the
turbidity level of river water varies between 185 to 229 NTU. Mahakam river water is
categorized as C - D quality, with sufficient quantity and continuity. A complete treatment
system is needed to improve its quality to clean water or drinking water in accordance with the
standards.

1. Introduction
Several reasons became the basic considerations for the Indonesian government's decision to move the
country's capital, including population density, a potential disaster of floods and pollution, and limited
environmental carrying capacity. Java is the country's most densely populated area, with 54% of nearly
270 million people living on this island. So far, the capital city of Jakarta has borne a very heavy burden
as a government center, trade, services, business, finance, and largest airport and seaport locations. As
an Asian mega-city with more than 10 million people, Jakarta is prone to flooding, water pollution,
earthquakes, and sinking due to uncontrolled groundwater extraction. The new capital city in North
Penajam Paser, near Samarinda and Balikpapan cities, will move prospectively from polluted,
overcrowded, and sinking to a sparsely populated site in East Kalimantan province Borneo island[1].
One of the basic facilities and services the new capital city must provide is adequate drinking water
and sanitation. Water is an important compound for all living things on this earth. Almost all activities

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1062 (2022) 012032 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1062/1/012032

carried out by humans are always in contact with water, and in this sense, its quantity and quality will
affect human health. Poor quality of drinking water and sanitation will cause various diseases
transmitted directly through drinking water (water-borne diseases) due to pathogenic germs containing
cholera, typhus, and dysentery. At the same time, scabies, skin and mucous membrane infections,
trachoma, and leprosy are diseases associated with water-washed diseases[2]. Most drinking water
companies (PDAM) in Indonesia obtain raw water from passing rivers to be processed into drinking
water/clean water to meet the wider community's needs. The absence of special concessions to protect
the raw water results in its quality being greatly affected by pollutants entering the river. The facts
exacerbate this: most domestic and industrial waste is discharged directly into river water bodies without
treatment process and may contain pollutants such as hydrocarbon compounds, phosphates, sulfates,
nitrates, microplastics, and heavy metals[3].
As one of the buffer zones for the new nation's capital, Samarinda city must prepare itself by
equipping facilities and infrastructure to support various domestic, industrial, and government activities.
Drinking water and sanitation services as a vital component of the community need to be improved,
considering the current condition is still in the range of 15% of the total population[4]. Fitriati et al.[4]
reported that other city in East Kalimantan, namely Balikpapan, has a slightly higher level of water
supply and services up to 22% of the total population. In general, local drinking companies (PDAM)
could not fulfill clean water needs both in quantity and quality[4]. Some of the obstacles PDAM to carry
out its function as a provider of drinking water services include limited installation capacity, updated
technology, human resources, and adequate raw water. Natural water availability fluctuations are
strongly influenced by the condition of the Mahakam river, which is the main river in East Kalimantan.
Flooding often occurs during the rainy season, inundating these cities and becoming a barrier for PDAM
to process very low-quality raw water into clean and drinking water. Domestic waste, garbage, and
liquid waste were reported as the main sources of water pollution in the Karang Mumus river, one of the
Mahakam River[5]. Based on East Kalimantan Government Regulation No. 2 / 2011 about Management
of Water Pollution, the level of Fecal Coliform, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Biological
Oxygen Demand (BOD) along the river were already out standard[6].
Apart from conditions influenced by natural factors and human activities, the Mahakam River is the
main source of raw water for various purposes. This study examines the river's potential as raw water to
support drinking water and sanitation services availability in Samarinda as one of the buffer areas for
the new Capital City of Indonesia.

2. Methodology
2.1 Site location
The research activities were conducted from January to June 2020 in Samarinda city and Cibinong
District. The water sampling site was located on the bank of the Mahakam River inside the area of PT.
Saga Trade Murni. Geographically, the Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates of the site are in
0°31'29.4"S 117°09'21.5"E. Figure 1 describes the location map of the sampling site.
2.2 Water Quality Measurements
2.2.1. In-situ Parameters.
Several parameters were measured directly on-site (in-situ parameters) using Water Quality Checker
(WQC), turbidimeter, pH, and TDS. These parameters consist of temperature, salinity, turbidity, and
conductivity. Meanwhile, the river's water level during low tide was measured directly using a meter
marker on the river bank.

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1062 (2022) 012032 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1062/1/012032

Figure 1. Water sampling site on the Mahakam river bank inside PT. Saga Trade Murni area

2.2.2. Chemical Parameters.

The titration method measured non-metallic parameters in the Laboratory of Research Centre for
Limnology in Cibinong – West Java. These parameters include total organic matter (TOM), total N,
nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, sulfate, total P, ammonia, and hardness [7].

2.2.3. Biological Parameters.

The colony count method measured E. coli and Coliform representing microbial pollutant indicator in
the water to have total its quantity. This method has several main components: filtered water samples
with a volume of 100 ml and 50 ml, 0.45 sterile filter device, tweezers, nm porous cellulose membrane,
MFC, and M. endo as a growth medium for E. coli total Coliform [7].

2.2.4. Jar Test of Coagulation and Flocculation.

A coagulation and flocculation test of raw water is needed to know its potential to be processed into
clean and drinking water. This test was conducted using Jar Test Type VELP FP4 completed by 4 glass
backers of 1-liter volume. Aluminum sulfate coagulant was added inappropriate amount into raw water
at the beginning (t = 0 min), followed by 2 minutes of 100 rpm rapid stirring to homogenize the solution
and 10 minutes of slow stirring for permitting floc formation and deposition processes. Removal
efficiency (Q) of any parameters can be calculated using formula 1 as below [8].
𝐶𝑜 − 𝐶𝑡
𝑄= 𝑥 100
𝐶𝑜
With Q, Co and Ct represent removal efficiency in %, concentration/condition for raw water, and
concentration/condition for clean water respectively.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Field and In-situ Parameters Assessment
Several parameters were observed directly in the field to assess the quality and availability of Mahakam
river water, consisting of pH, temperature, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) turbidity, ORP, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity, salinity, and water level fluctuation. Table 1 summarizes the results of recorded
parameters. It can be seen that pH, TDS, temperature, and salinity were 6.35 – 6.80, 27.1 – 28.4 oC, 200
– 300 mg/L, 0.05 – 0.1 ppt respectively, and still in the range of standard in accordance to The Regulation
of the Minister of Health No. 492 of 2010 [9]. Meanwhile, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, and conductivity
were in the range of 2 – 3 mg/L, 101 – 167 NTU, and 34.5 mS/cm, respectively; these parameters
exceeded or did not meet the standard.

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MLICONFERENCE-2021 IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1062 (2022) 012032 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1062/1/012032

Water turbidity is an important parameter to consider for public water provision. By definition,
turbidity expresses the optical properties of a liquid sample, causing scattered light rays and absorbed
through it. Dissolved and suspended matter present in the water, such as silt, clay, plankton, organic
acids, dyes, finely divided organic matter, and other microscopic organisms, are the main cause of
turbidity[10]. In general, turbidity level will give complications of screening step and reduce disinfection
effectiveness and aesthetics[7]. Efforts will be needed to reduce the water turbidity of the Mahakam
river from 101 – 229 NTU to meet the standard.

Table 1. Results of field and in-situ parameters of Mahakam river water quality

Parameter Average Value Standard Limit [9] Unit

pH 6.35 – 6.80 6.5-9.0 -

Temperature 27.1 – 28.4 Air temperature ± 2 oC oC

TDS 200 – 300 1000 mg/L

Turbidity 101 – 229 5 NTU
ORP 241 – 277 - mg/L
DO 2–3 7 mg/L
Conductivity 34.5 – 40 0.5 mS/cm
Salinity 0.05 – 0.1 0.5 ppt
Water level fluctuation 1.5 – 2 - m

Dissolved oxygen (DO) represents oxygen concentration in the water, generally coming from the air
or plant photosynthesis. This oxygen plays an important role in aquatic life, and undesirable compounds
removals such as Mn, Fe, and ammonia oxidation into nitrate. The level of DO in the Mahakam river
was in the range of 2 – 3 mg/L, meaning that it was under the minimal condition for fish to survive in
such water at least 5 mg/L. Under 5 mg/L of DO, several bacteria can evolve while most fish will die.
Dissolved oxygen increases along with organic waste content in the water decreases [11]. Table 1 also
showed that the level of conductivity in the Mahakam river was recorded relatively high in the range of
34.5–40 mS/cm. This conductivity illustrated the water’s ability to conduct electricity. The more ionized
soluble salts, the higher the conductivity. The dissolved ions composition and amount, temperature, and
salinity generally affect conductivity in the water. Electrical conductivity can indicate dissolved metals
quantity in the water[12]. An appropriate treatment method will reduce the conductivity level of raw
water towards the standard.
Besides water quality, one other important field parameter that should be considered is the water
level fluctuation of the Mahakam river. This parameter is closely related to raw water availability in
such a determined location. This study observed changes in river water level during field measurement
along the day in the range of 1.5 – 2 m. The water level fluctuation seems to be affected by a tidal wave
coming from the estuary of the Mahakam River. This fact should be taken into account when designing
a water treatment plant in the future.

3.2 Chemical Parameters Analysis

Chemical analysis of water taken from field location in Mahakam river was conducted at Research
Centre for Limnology laboratory in Cibinong. Table 2 summarizes the results of laboratory analysis
related to chemical parameters. This table shows that non-metallic parameters consisting of Nitrites 1.5
– 2.0 mg/L, Nitrates 2-3 mg/L, Ammonia 1.2 – 1.4 mg/L, Phosphates 0.1 – 0.2 mg/L, and sulfates 40 –
50 mg/L were in the ranges of standards according to Minister of Health Regulation No. 492, the Year
2010[10]. Total N 3-5 mg/l, total P 0.15 – 0.20 mg/L, and Total Organic Matters (TOM) 40 – 50 mg/l
seemed to be in the same condition of the normal range. Meanwhile, the concentration of Mn 0.3 – 0.4
mg/l and Fe 0.4 – 0.5 mg/l in the water were slightly above standards. These facts will be helpful to
select the appropriate technology for processing into clean water.

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1062 (2022) 012032 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1062/1/012032

Table 2. Results chemical parameters analysis of water from Mahakam river

Parameter Average Value Standard Limit[10] Unit
Nitrites 1.5 – 2.0 3 mg/L
Nitrates 2–3 10 mg/L
Ammonia 1.2 – 1.4 1.5 mg/L
Total N 3–5 - mg/L
Phosphates 0.1 – 0.2 0.2 mg/L
Total P 0.15 – 0.20 0.2 mg/L
TOM 40 – 50 50 mg/L
Sulfates 30 – 40 400 mg/L
Mn 0.3 – 0.4 0.1 mg/L
Fe 0.4 – 0.5 0.3 mg/L

Chemical substances above the threshold values in drinking water may affect human health after a
certain exposure period. Ammonia NH3, Nitrate NO3-, and Nitrite NO2- are possible forms of nitrogen
existing in the environment. As part of protein components, these molecules have important roles for all
living. Two different nitrogen sources include synthesized fertilizer and natural nitrogen organic forms
in the soil produced by residues of plant and animal decays[13]. Another important compound for living
organisms is phosphorous in polyphosphate, orthophosphate, or organic phosphate. The main
component of this molecule in water is phosphates (PO43-)[14], and it can be considered as a pollutant
in a specific environment where the concentrations are higher than normal conditions[12]. The possible
entries of phosphorous ions into the aquatic environment are soap and fertilizer industries through the
wastewater of household and industrial activities[15]]. Natural organic matter is generally related to the
natural process consisting of organic matter decomposition and the metabolic reaction of algal [16]. The
formation of disinfection by-products may be caused by Total Organic Matter (TOM) presence in water
distribution systems permitting microbiological regrowth[17]. Mahmud et al. reported that a high
content of TOM in the water would strengthen hydrophobic and aromatic characteristics influencing
watercolor [18,19]. Related contaminants such as heavy metals contain characteristics of cumulative
toxic and carcinogenic. Meanwhile, alkalinity, acidity, iron, sulfides, hardness, sodium chloride,
bacteria, and viruses are several common parameters associated with the problem of household water
quality [20].

3.3 Biological parameter

The presence of total coliform and E. Coli in the water environment generally indicates the possibility
of disease organisms in the same place. In this sense, knowing its existence will help understand the
environmental health level [21]. The results of biological parameters analysis are summarized in Table
3. Mahakam River water seemed to be contaminated microbiologically based on standard regulation [9],
containing Coliform and E. Coli in the range of 80 – 110 col/100 ml and 40 – 50 col/100 ml, respectively.
As prolific organisms, coliform presence does not necessarily correspond to sanitation-based health and
contamination risks of wastewater directly, but how these organisms enter the water system would be
important to consider [22]. Meanwhile, E. Coli, which originated from humans’ or animals’ intestines,
indicates a strong likelihood of entering the water system [22][23].

Table 3. The Results of the Biological Parameters Analysis

Parameter Average Value Standard Limit [10]
Unit
Coliform 80 – 110 0 Col/100 ml
E. Coli 40 – 50 0 Col/100 ml

3.4 Coagulation-Flocculation Jar Test

Jar testing in the laboratory is an important step to process different raw water to improve its quality and
meet the standard of clean or drinking water. In this case, the turbidity parameter represents the most

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1062 (2022) 012032 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1062/1/012032

useful tool to oversee the potency of such raw water in terms of eligibility and availability for following-
up. Turbidity is generally related to dissolved and suspended matter present in the water composed of
different compounds organic and un-organic substances. The recorded level of turbidity has negative
relation with water quality. The lower the level of turbidity, the higher the quality of water [9].
One of the common methods used to reduce water turbidity is through particle deposition triggered
by adding a coagulant under a certain amount. Sutapa reported that coagulants of aluminium sulfates
and Poly Aluminium Chloride (PAC) could reduce peat water turbidity of Sala river in Bengkalis
District up to 99.63% [7]. The addition of 160 mg/L of coagulant permitted to improve water quality
represented by the decrease of turbidity, color as well as chemical parameters including iron (Fe) and
manganese (Mn) [24,25].

3.4.1 Pattern of water turbidity

Understanding the variation pattern of water turbidity during the coagulation-flocculation process will
help determine optimal conditions, especially the amount of coagulant added for water quality
improvement. Figure 2 recorded the turbidity variation of raw water taken at two times, namely high
tide and low tide in the Mahakam river. The settlement process without coagulant addition of different
compounds in raw water tended to decrease turbidity levels from 185 and 229 NTU to 66 and 76 NTU
respectively during 60 minutes. It is important to note that the addition of coagulant will be needed to
improve the water quality of the Mahakam river.

250

200
Turbidity (NTU)

High Tide Low Tid e

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Time (Minutes)

Figure 2. Turbidity variation of raw water without coagulant addition

Figure 3 shows the jar test results of raw water coming from the Mahakam river. Coagulant PAC
was used in this experiment in different concentrations ranging from 1 to 30 mg/L. Raw water had an
initial turbidity level of 101 NTU. It means that in conditions without coagulant, water turbidity levels
exceeded the threshold of clean water according to the standard 5 NTU. The turbidity level decreased
significantly, reaching 20 TCU until 9.58 NTU with the addition of coagulant starting from 4 mg/L to
30 mg/L respectively within 60 minutes of precipitation time. The decreased turbidity seems to be
related to the hydroxide floc positive charge's ability to absorb different substances before floc
precipitation[26]. Based on Figure 3, optimal turbidity reduction may be achieved by PAC coagulant
with the amount of at least 10 mg/L.

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1062 (2022) 012032 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1062/1/012032

120

100
Turbidity (NTU)

80

60

40

20

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Coagulant Concentration (mg/L)

Figure 3. Variation of water turbidity due to coagulant addition

3.4.2. Optimal Time of Precipitation

The optimal dose of coagulant obtained from the previous stage will be used for the jar test to determine
the settling time required by the floc during the coagulation-flocculation process. PAC coagulant of 10
mg/L was introduced into 1000 ml of raw water to conduct the experiments. The results of turbidity
variation patterns were shown in Figures 4a and 4b for two types of raw waters corresponding to high
tide and low tide periods, respectively. A similar trend was obtained, with a significant turbidity
reduction occurring just after the addition of PAC coagulant. The initial values of turbidity were 185
NTU (Figure 4a) and 229 NTU (Figure 4b) and dropped up to 45 NTU and 76 NTU in 1 minute, within
the range of 10 – 13 NTU in 5 minutes, and reached quasi-stable values of 5 – 6 NTU in 15 minutes.
These facts indicated that in the optimal condition of coagulant concentration applied to raw water, it
needs at least 15 minutes of precipitation time. This settling time is precious for making a clean water
treatment plant design in the future. Resident time of raw water inside the water treatment plant is
generally 60 minutes [27].

250

200
Turbidity (NTU)

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (minutes)

(a)

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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1062 (2022) 012032 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1062/1/012032

250

Turbidity (NTU) 200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Time (Minutes)

(b)
Figure 4. Turbidity variation during jar test of precipitation time for two raw water samples:
(a) high tide period; (b) low tide period

3.4.3. Turbidity Removal Efficiency

Coagulant efficiency represents the capability of a coagulant to reduce the turbidity of such raw water.
As described in the previous paragraph, PAC coagulant decreased turbidity up to 5 NTU in the range of
15 minutes. Figure 5 shows the removal efficiency (Q) results using formula 1 for two types of raw
water. Both raw water types seemed to have a similar trend in achieving efficiency values during jar
tests, starting from 75 % and 67 % in 1 minute and reaching 95 % in 7 minutes for high tide and low
tide raw water types, respectively. A little difference can be observed in the range time of 1 to 4 minutes
where raw water sample during high tide has higher efficiency than its low tide raw water sample. It
was probably related to initial values of turbidity.

High Tide Low Tide

100
90
80
70
60
Q (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Time (Minutes)
Figure 5. Turbidity efficiency removal for two types of raw water samples of
high tide and low tide periods

Macromolecules are the main components of PAC as an inorganic polymer coagulant. This coagulant
has several properties: high formation of flocs, rapid sedimentation rate, strong absorption rate, and
adhesion force. These characteristics influence efficiency and quickness ability as coagulant agents [28].
Furthermore, the coagulation mechanism is related to the destabilization of colloidal particles to create
particles aggregation previously stabilized. Colloidal stability depends on the colloid size and electric
charge affected by chemical content in dispersion media[7].

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4. Conclusion
This study explained that the Makaham river flowing through the city of Samarinda experienced daily
high and low tide of water levels with a difference of up to 2 m. Meanwhile, the water turbidity varied
between 185 to 229 NTU during the tidal movement. Based on standard regulation, Mahakam river
water was categorized as C - D quality, with sufficient quantity and continuity. There was the possibility
to improve the water quality of Mahakam river using PAC coagulant towards clean and drinking water.
The optimal condition of the coagulation-flocculation process needed at least 10 mg/L of PAC addition
to having a removal efficiency of turbidity up to 95 % in 15 minutes. A complete water treatment system
will probably be necessary to produce clean water or drinking water following the standards.

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Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge PT. Saga Trade Murni and Research Centre for Limnology – BRIN for the
support during this research and the publishing financial support from Coral Reef Rehabilitation
Management Program – Coral Triangle Initiative (COREMAP-CTI). The acknowledgments should also
be addressed to Eva Nasfisyah, AMd. for the water quality analysis and field experiences assistance.

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