s40430 019 1574 5

Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:71
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40430-019-1574-5
TECHNICAL PAPER
Diagnostics of mechanical and electrical faults in induction

motors using wavelet‑based features of vibration and current
through support vector machine algorithms for various operating
conditions
Purushottam Gangsar1,2 · Rajiv Tiwari1
Received: 2 February 2018 / Accepted: 31 December 2018 / Published online: 12 January 2019
© The Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering 2019
Abstract
Fault diagnosis of induction motors (IMs) is always a challenging task in the practical industrial field, and it is even more
challenging in the case of inadequate information of IM working conditions. In this paper, a new methodology for fault detec-
tion has been proposed for IMs to detect various electrical and mechanical faults as well as their severities, where the data are
unavailable at required operating conditions (i.e., speed and load) based on wavelet and support vector machine (SVM). For
this, the radial, axial and tangential vibrations, and three-phase current signals are acquired from IMs having different faults.
The acquired time domain signal is then transformed to time–frequency signals using continuous wavelet transform (CWT).
Ten different base wavelets are used to investigate the impact of different wavelet function on the fault diagnosis of IMs.
Statistical features are extracted based on the CWT, and then appropriate feature(s) are selected using the wrapper model.
These features are fed to the SVM to detect whether a defect has occurred. The fault detection is performed for identical speed
and load case using a number of mother wavelets. To analyze the robustness of the present system, diagnosis is attempted for
various operational conditions of IMs. The result showed that the feature(s) selected using the Shannon wavelet diagnose,
the fault categories of IM more accurately as compared to other wavelets, and remarkably found to be robust at all working
conditions of IMs. The work is finally extended to perform the fault diagnosis when limited information is available for the
training. From the results, it is observed that the proposed methodology does not only take care of the practical problem of
unavailability of data at different operating conditions, but also shows good performance and takes low computation time,
which are vital requirements of a condition monitoring and diagnostic system.
Keywords Induction motor (IM) fault · Continuous wavelet transform (CWT) · Multi-fault diagnostic · Support vector
machine (SVM) · Intermediary working condition
Abbreviations BP Back propagation

ABCA Artificial-bee-colony algorithm BR Bowed rotor
AI Artificial intelligence BRB Broken rotor bar
ANN Artificial neural network CACO Chaotic ant colony optimization algorithm
BF Bearing fault CF Crest factor
CWC Continues wavelet coefficient
CWT Continues wavelet transform
Technical Editor: Wallace Moreira Bessa, D.Sc. CV Cross-validation
DAG Direct acyclic graph
* Rajiv Tiwari
DAQ Data acquisition system
rtiwari@iitg.ac.in
DWT Discrete wavelet transform
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute FDI Fault diagnosis and isolation
of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam 781039, India FL Fuzzy logic
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Shri G S Institute FFT Fast Fourier transform
of Technology and Science, Indore, Madhya Pradesh 452003, FNN Fuzzy neural network
India
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Page 2 of 25 Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:71
GA Genetic algorithm in IMs would make sure fast repair, also it would facilitate
IM Induction motor better scheduling and preparation of future maintenance and
LIBSVM A library for support vector machine repair approaches [2].
MCSA Motor current signature analysis The statistics confirm that 50% of total breakdowns of
SLBS Single-level basis selection IMs take place because of the bearing damages and 40%
MFS Machine fault simulator occur because of the damage in stator winding, and rest 10%
MLP Multilayer perception because of rotor and shaft damages [3]. Though shaft and
MR Misaligned rotor rotor damages seem to be less important than the damage
ND No defect condition of induction motor of bearing and stator, the majority of the bearing damage is
OVA One versus all initiated by the rotor eccentricity, shaft misalignment and
OVO One versus one other rotor related faults, like broken rotor bar or end ring.
PSO Particle swarm optimization Most of the stator winding damage is caused by the interturn
PUF Phase unbalance fault fault, unbalance supply and sometime hitting the unbalanced
PUF1 Phase unbalance fault level-1 or/and misaligned rotor. The deterioration of winding insula-
PUF2 Phase unbalance fault level-2 tion generally starts from the interturn defect that generates a
RBF Radial basis function large current in neighboring coils and finally burns away the
RMS Root mean square winding insulation. This propagates the turn-to-turn faults
RUWPT Recursive un-decimated wavelet packet to a coil-to-coil, phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground fault,
transform resulting in the complete motor failure. It is, therefore, cru-
RWE Relative wavelet energy cial to monitor and timely identify all these faults (irrespec-
SOM Self-organizing map tive of their failure rate) related to these mechanical and
SVM Support vector machine electrical components of IM and to isolate the motor before
SWF Stator winding fault further damage or complete motor failure occurs [2, 3].
SWF1 Stator winding fault level-1 For fault diagnosis and isolation (FDI) of IMs, many
SWF2 Stator winding fault level-2 approaches have been developed and are broadly catego-
SVs Support vectors rized into two main categories: the model- and signal-
UR Unbalanced rotor based methods [3]. In the model-based method, it utilizes
VFD Variable frequency drive a mathematical model to explain the normal motor opera-
WPT Wavelet packet transform tional condition. However, this method is based on many
WT Wavelet transform assumptions to take care of the nonlinear and stochastic
machine dynamics, which do not consider the disturbances
and the uncertainty in the models. In signal-based method,
1 Introduction appropriate features obtained from acquired signals are uti-
lized to classify the various operational conditions of IM.
Over 50% of the total electrical energy generated globally To extract useful features, different approaches are applied
is utilized by motors, primarily induction motors (IMs), such as time, frequency or more advanced time–frequency
which consumed around 60% of the industrial electricity approach, such as wavelets. The selection of domain and rep-
[1]. Deployment of IMs or squirrel-cage motors in all types resentative features depends on the type of signals and the
of manufacturing and process industries is increasing day needed information. The signal-based method is preferred
by day owing to their low cost, ruggedness, high power to than the model-based method because it does not require
weight ratio and adaptability to a wide variety of operational many assumptions and complex mathematical models [4].
conditions. During operation, IM is exposed to several unde- The signal-based method uses many monitoring techniques
sirable stresses, namely the electrical, mechanical, thermal such as the electrical current, mechanical vibration, mag-
and environmental. Henceforth, the motor performance is netic flux and power monitoring, temperature, chemical,
subjected to several constraints, such as the mechanical and wear and electrical discharges. Though, some of the moni-
electrical faults, eventually leading to a rapid wear of com- toring methods are incursive and not capable of providing
ponents and finally catastrophic IM malfunctions, consecu- huge knowledge about motor operating conditions [5].
tively enormous industry losses in terms of the downtime Thomson and Orpin [6] presented that the main cause of
and production cost, and sometimes severe human injuries. the electrical and mechanical problems in IMs can be estab-
Hence, for timely fault diagnosis of IM, especially for the lished using an integrated monitoring strategy via the cur-
components that begin to degrade and to avoid the probabil- rent and vibration spectrum analyses. Different faults gener-
ity of catastrophic failure of IM, many fault detection tech- ate a specific vibration and current spectra, which provide
niques have been introduced. An early indication of faults the fault harmonic components related to a particular fault.
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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:71 Page 3 of 25 71
However, for complex systems that involve various com- frequency domain features based on the neural network and
ponents, it is a challenging task to estimate characteristic the FL. The amplitude corresponding to the fault frequency
frequencies of faults. Even though characteristic frequencies component obtained from the FFT is considered as an input
are available, measured signals from motors are extremely vector in AIs. Though, the fault detection is difficult when
non-stationary and the frequency spectrum analysis may not spectral leakage occurs especially under the low motor slip.
be suitable for such practices [7, 8]. The model-based and Zhao et al. [21] and Deng et al. [22] performed the motor
conventional signal-based methods require an expert to eval- bearing fault diagnosis by integrating the empirical mode
uate the motor conditions; however, due to rapid increase decomposition (EMD), fuzzy information entropy, improved
of IMs in the industries, fulfilling the demands of required PSO and least square SVM. The EMD and fuzzy informa-
experts becomes almost impossible. Therefore, recently tion entropy are applied for extracting the characteristics of
industries are looking for the intelligent fault diagnostics of faults using vibration signal, and an improved PSO is applied
motors. These diagnostics reduce the direct human–machine for the parameter optimization of SVM. They showed that
interaction. These are the information-based methods that do the proposed methodology is very effective for diagnosing
not require any detailed information regarding the model and bearing fault.
characteristics of IMs [2]. The non-stationary and complex signals with high noise
In the past few decades, several intelligent diagnos- make an intelligent diagnosis of faults in IMs less effective
tic systems have been developing rapidly to automate and because time and frequency domain assume the signal to be
improve the reliability and sensitivity of the FDI technique. periodic. To handle such signals, the wavelet, a time–fre-
These diagnostic systems consist of signal-based methods quency analysis, was developed and finding application in
and classification tools such as the artificial neural network practice recently [23]. The wavelet transform split a signal
(ANN), fuzzy logic (FL), genetic algorithm (GA) and Bayes- into the scaled and shifted versions of the mother wavelet,
ian classifier [9–11]. Nowadays, a new diagnostic system like the Fourier transform, in which a raw signal divides
based on the SVM is showing its effectiveness for FDI of into sine waves of several frequencies. This makes wavelet
the mechanical and electrical machines because of its better capable of revealing local as well as global information of
classification capability [12, 13]. However, these systems a signal. It has the ability of extracting significant charac-
still have several challenging tasks to accomplish in regard teristics, like breakdown points, trends, higher derivative
to its efficiency, reliability, computational time, sufficient discontinuities and self-resemblance, which describe a
database and robustness. To compare the classification tool signal [24]. Therefore, the wavelet provides more sensitive
performance, Silva and Pederiva [14] presented the fault means to intelligent fault diagnostics than do the time and
diagnosis of IMs based on the ANN, FL and SVM. They frequency domains.
finally concluded that the SVM gives enhanced prediction Since the popularity of wavelet has been increasing in the
results in comparison with the FL and ANN. Samanta [15] study of dynamic signals for the fault detection. Therefore,
presented the fault diagnosis of gearbox based on the SVM the issue of wavelet selection has been getting attention in
and the ANN. They concluded that the SVM performed bet- this field. Yan [25] presented the wavelet selection crite-
ter as compared to the ANN even in case of few database and rion for the non-stationary vibration analysis in the fault
also the SVM takes comparatively less computational time. diagnosis of rolling bearings. The criterion based on the
For effective generalization using the SVM, the optimiza- energy, correlation, Shannon entropy and information theo-
tion of its parameter is one of the necessary tasks. A num- retic measures is checked for their suitability in the signal
ber of optimization techniques such as the particle swarm decomposition and extracting the fault signatures. Finally,
optimization (PSO), genetic algorithm (GA), artificial-bee- they successfully developed two criteria, i.e., the energy-to-
colony algorithm (ABCA), chaotic ant colony optimization Shannon entropy ratio and the MinMax information measure
(CACO) algorithm and hybrid swarm intelligence optimiza- for the signal decomposition. Rafiee et al. [10] presented a
tion have been used for the optimization of SVM parameters method for the selection of mother wavelet using the fault
[16–18]. The data preparation is another significant issue, diagnostics. The gear fault identification was performed in
which consists of the feature extraction and its selection. a complex gear box system using the GA and the ANN. In
The practical reliability of the diagnostics depends upon another work, Rafiee et al. [26] presented that the Daube-
the extraction of representative features corresponding to chies 44 wavelet is the most appropriate wavelet for both
health conditions of IMs. Gangsar and Tiwari [19] used time gear and bearing fault diagnoses.
domain properties of the current and vibration signals for Nowadays, a combination of wavelet and SVM has been
diagnosing several defects in IMs based on the SVM. In this preferred for the machine fault diagnosis. For example,
work, statistical features, namely the kurtosis, skewness and Kankar et al. [27] presented the fault identification in ball
standard deviation, were used for the fault diagnosis. Fili- bearings based on the CWT and the AIs (i.e., ANN, self-
petti et al. [20] performed the fault detection of IMs using organizing map (SOM) and SVM). Six different wavelets
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were considered in the study. Finally, they concluded that the current envelope. The harmonic frequencies and their
Meyer and complex Meyer wavelet with the SVM gave the amplitudes were used for the ANN input. They concluded
best performance for fault diagnosis of bearings. Chatto- that if the present method was appropriately applied, the
padhyay and Konar [28] used features of the continuous and BRB fault detection could be possible for various loads.
discrete wavelets for the fault diagnosis of BRB based on Sadooghi and Khadem [34] investigated the effect of fault
the RBF and multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural networks, type and their intensity, and load factors on the vibration and
and the SVM. To examine the impact of wavelets on the the SVM-based fault detection in rotating machines. They
feature extraction, four wavelets from Daubechies family are showed that the load factor leads to more nonlinearity in
selected. Finally, they concluded that the db8 showed the vibration signals than the fault type and their intensity fac-
best classification accuracy. Also, they showed that classifi- tors. They showed that the fault type and their intensity do
ers performance was promising even in the presence of noise not required nonlinear analysis to handle; however, the load
of high level and with a lower sampling rate of 5.12 kHz. In factor nonlinear analysis is compulsory in the fault detection.
another work, Konar and Chattopadhyay [24] performed the By reviewing a number of published research work on
fault diagnosis of bearings in IMs based on the CWT and the fault diagnosis of IMs, it is found that most of the research-
SVM, and concluded that selection of wavelet was crucial ers considered maximum three to four types of faults in
for the intelligent fault diagnosis. They showed that there is IMs; however, it is critical to consider and timely detect all
a lot of scope for fault detection based on the wavelet and possible faults that occur in the mechanical and electrical
the SVM. Vishwakarma et al. [29] showed the effectiveness components of IMs so that the chances of further damage or
of energy-based features of the Daubechies wavelet and the complete motor failure due to the occurrence of any specific
SVM to detect the fault in bearing of IMs. fault can be reduced [30, 33–36]. In practical application,
Deng et al. [30] introduced a novel fault detection system different severity levels of the fault may be developed, so
using integrating the empirical wavelet transform (EWT), it is very important to consider faults under progression to
fuzzy entropy and SVM for bearing faults. In this study, the detect the faults at the incipient stage, which is very rare
EWT method is used to extract amplitude-modulated fre- in literature [34, 37]. A single intelligent FDI system for
quency-modulated (AM-FM) components with supporting simultaneous detection of any possible faults in the electrical
Fourier spectrum from the original vibration signal. After and mechanical components and the level of their severity is
that the fuzzy entropy of AM-FM components is calculated still uncommon in the literature. In all the aforementioned
for generating the feature or input vectors of the SVM. They works, a higher sampling frequency has been used to acquire
concluded that the technique effectively diagnoses bearing the signals; however, it is very significant to choose adjusted
faults. However, there is still possibility to improve the EWT sampling frequency and data points that can improve fault
method by finding a suitable approach to adaptively seg- diagnostic and detection time, and reduce the cost of imple-
ment Fourier spectrum and selecting of optimal filter banks. mentation [33, 38]. Based on existing literature, it could be
Zgarni et al. [31] introduced a method called the support summarized that several mother wavelets are available that
vector data description (SVDD) in the case of MSVM and can be used in the intelligent fault diagnostic. In spite of a
used it for the fault detection of BRB. They used hyper lot of study on wavelets, the choice of the mother wavelet
sphere for constructing the decision boundaries. Finally, the and their features, which is a considerable issue of intelligent
SWPT was applied for the feature extraction and the SVDD fault diagnostic, is still open for discussions [39]. The work
was used for the fault detection. They concluded that the communicated up to now in the literature has restricted to
proposed method was more effective in comparison with diagnose the faults at the specific operational condition of
the MSVM. IM and several researchers manifested that it is much dif-
The effect of fault condition (i.e., fault type) and operat- ficult to diagnose the IM faults at low load conditions [40].
ing conditions (i.e., load and speed) on machine fault diag- Moreover, the accuracy of fault diagnosis can be reduced
nosis is still a big challenge for the researchers. In a study, due to the occurrence of fluctuation of rotor speeds during
Palacios et al. [32] performed the fault diagnosis of IM for data acquisition under loading of IMs. The nonlinearity of
various loading and power supply conditions using methods, the vibration and current signals increases with the IM load-
like the f-naive Bayes, k-nearest neighbor, SVM, decision ing. Thus, considering the influence of motor operational
tree, ANN and repeated incremental pruning to produce conditions on intelligent fault diagnosis is still an open chal-
error reduction. They showed that by suitably analyzing the lenge [34]. One of the main problems of diagnosis with AI
current signal and establishing a classifier methodology, the systems is that they are trained and tested using a symptoms
fault diagnosis can be performed for different working con- database available by measurement in the industry. However,
ditions of IMs. Bessam et al. [33] performed the ANN-based it is not always possible to have a database at all operational
fault diagnosis of BRB, especially for the light loading. In conditions of IMs. For taking care of this situation, Gang-
this study, the Hilbert transform was applied for extracting sar and Tiwari [41] have considered fault diagnosis of IM
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when training and testing data used at different operational y

Class A Hyperpalne
conditions. In this work, the WPT and the SVM have been
(W)
explored and found to be effective even in case of interme-
diate operating conditions. Still there is a lot of scope in
this area, and other methods, like the CWT and the discrete
wavelet transform (DWT), can be explored for the same. Support
In this context, an intelligent fault diagnostic of IMs has Vectors
been proposed using the CWT and the SVM on the basis
of vibration and current signals. Firstly, the experimental
data have been acquired from IMs with different mechanical Margin
and electrical faults and a healthy motor for various ranges
Class B
of operational conditions. The signals are measured with a
low sampling rate of 1000 Hz. Then, CWT is employed to x
break up the time domain signal into 27 sub-signals, i.e.,
128 scales in the 7th decomposition level. The criteria of
Fig. 1 The separation of two classes by an optimal separating hyper-
relative wavelet energy (EWE) are adopted here to deter- plane
mine the most relevant wavelet scale. Ten different mother
wavelets are considered in this work. Next, several statistical
features are extracted from continuous wavelet coefficients each binary problem. At last the binary SVMs are combined
that are obtained at best scale and further fed as an input to rebuild the solution of the multiclass problem based on
to the SVM. The cross-validation (CV) is used to optimize the outcomes of the different classifiers. Different coupling
the SVM parameters, C and γ, that are required for efficient strategies, such as one versus all (OVA), one versus one
training of the classifier model. For the selection of effec- (OVO) and direct acyclic graph (DAG), have been devel-
tive feature(s) and appropriate wavelet for proposed fault oped to build a multiclass SVM using binary classifiers
diagnosis of IMs, a simple and less time taking method for [44]. For k-class problem, the OVO implements k(k − 1)∕2
selection of features, i.e., the wrapper model, is employed. binary SVMs, i.e., one classifier for each pair of classes and
After selecting appropriate feature(s) and wavelet, the fault then voting strategy is applied to get the global classifica-
detection is performed for several operational states of IMs tion results and finally it selects the class with maximum
to examine the stability of present methodology. In addition, votes. The OVA constructs k binary SVM classifier, where
the fault diagnosis is extended to the intermediary speed training of each classifier is performed to separate one class
and load cases or handling the practical problem of unavail- from the rest and then the classifier, which shows maximum
ability of data at all operational conditions. As symptoms accuracy, is selected. The DAG is a modification of the
database is not always available for each IM working condi- OVO. The training of DAG is similar to the OVO; however,
tion, it can be considered as a work of practical significance. it employed a rooted binary DAG for the testing, which is
having k(k − 1)∕2 internal nodes and (k − 1) leaves [28, 29].
The performance of the multiclass SVMs was compared by
2 Support vector machine Hsu and Lin [44] and came up with the result that as com-
pared to other strategies the OVO performed more effec-
The SVM is a supervised AI approach based on the statisti- tively. Therefore, in this study, the OVO approach is used
cal learning theory, which is utilized for the pattern acknowl- for the multiple fault classification of IMs. Here, LIBSVM
edgment and the regression task [42]. It is advantageous [45] software tool is used to carry out the multiclass SVM.
especially for small sample or database cases, i.e., the case
of fault predictions. The SVM is basically a binary classifier.
The binary SVM is used to separate two possible classes in 3 Experimental setup
a space as shown in Fig. 1. In this space, when a new data
point is mapped, the SVM predicts that in which category it To collect the information for fault detection, the experi-
will fall. [43]. The more about the theory of basic SVM is mental test bed with a custom-made machine fault simula-
added in the “Appendix 1.” A binary SVM deals with two tor (MFS) of spectra Quest and IMs with different seeded
classes or fault problems. However, for the multi-fault classi- faults are demonstrated in Fig. 2. The test bed comprises
fication of IMs, a multiclass SVM is required. The multiclass three-phase, 0.373 kW, 50 Hz, 2-pole IMs, a variable fre-
SVM can be achieved by disintegrating a multiclass problem quency drive (VFD) speed controller, a magnetic clutch,
into a number of two class problem [44]. Now, training of three current probes, a triaxial accelerometer, a data acqui-
classifiers is performed to solve the problems allocated to sition (DAQ) system and a signal monitor. The VFD was
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Fig. 2 a Experimental test bed

in the laboratory and b IM with
various seeded faults
(a)
Rheo- Rheo-
stat-1 stat-2
PUF
SWF BRB
MR BF
BR UR
(b)
used to change the speed of the motor, and the magnetic different IMs. In addition, the phase unbalance fault (PUF)
clutch was used to apply an external load to the IM by a under progression or two severity levels of it (i.e., PUF1
gearbox attached to the shaft using the belt-pulley drive. and PUF2) were generated in an IM by adding a series
The triaxial accelerometer was attached to the motor at resistor (or rheostat) in the short circuit path. The same
shaft end to acquire vibrations in the axial and two orthog- technique was used with a separate IM for realizing the
onal transverse directions. It is important to measure stator winding fault (SWF) under progression (i.e., SWF1
vibration in three orthogonal directions because different and SWF2). A total of eight IMs were used to artificially
faults generate a specific signature in three directions. The create the ten different faulty conditions including a no
current sensors were clamped to three easily accessible defect (ND) condition.
cables of IM to acquire current signals in all three phases. Vibration and current data were acquired at a low sam-
One-phase current may not be adequate to precisely recog- pling frequency of 1000 Hz with 10,000 sampling points,
nize the IM faults, particularly if the fault does not occur in order to maintain a high-frequency resolution of data.
in analyzed phase. Gangsar and Tiwari [19] showed that A dataset consisting of 26 samples with each sample hav-
when the vibration signal is used in conjunction with the ing 10,000 data points was recorded. The information was
current signal to diagnose the mechanical and electrical obtained from every IM defective state that was tested for
faults, simultaneously, the prediction rate improves sig- three different loadings [T1 (no load)-0 N-m, T2 (light
nificantly as compared to the case when vibration or cur- load)-0.113 N-m and T3 (high load)-0.565 N-m] and seven
rent signal is used alone. The DAQ was used to record the different speeds ranging from 10 to 40 Hz in an interval
vibration and current data. One electrical fault, namely of 5 Hz. All datasets for different faults and working con-
the broken rotor bar (BRB), and four mechanical faults, ditions are tabulated in Table 1. The exhaustive datasets
namely bearing fault (BF), bowed rotor (BR) unbalanced were stored in DAQ for further signal processing.
rotor (UR) and misaligned rotor (MR) were seeded in five
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Table 1 Experimental datasets Fault condition Machine operating condition Sampling rate/number of sampling points
for different fault and operating
conditions Load torque Speed (Hz)
ND T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40 1 kHz/10,000 (0.1 Hz frequency resolution)

BRB T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
PUF1 T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
PUF2 T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
SWF1 T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
SWF2 T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
BF T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
UR T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
BR T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
MR T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40
4 Wavelet‑based feature extraction scale denotes to the low frequency of a signal and vice versa.
Symbol τ is a translation parameter which is related to time
The current signals of three phases and vibration signals information that decides position or location of the windows,
of three orthogonal directions for all the defective motors as the window shift through the signal, and 𝜓 ∗ (t) denotes
and a healthy motor are acquired for further processing. the window function and is known as the mother wavelet.
The change or variations in the vibration and current signals The wavelet is analogous to the Fourier transform, but the
from different faults cannot be predicted directly looking wavelets family substitutes the sine and cosine functions by
into these signals, due to the high noise and machine unbal- a basis function. The wavelet comprises of two parameters,
ances, especially at the early stage of fault. Thus, a signal i.e., the scale and the translation, so it transforms the signal
processing method is needed to handle such noisy and large into a two-dimensional space of time and scale unlike the
data, and it can be done by extracting the useful features. Fourier transform where the signal is in one dimension.
However, assuming system linearity and signal stationar- Total ten different CWTs are considered as presented in
ity (i.e., the idealization and simplification of signals) may Table 2. The CWT using ten different mother wavelets is
lead to inappropriate and incorrect assessment of IM faults. practiced to time domain signals. These signals are decom-
Consequently, it can reduce the reliability of the intelligent posed into 27 sub-signals, i.e., 128 scales in the 7th decom-
diagnosis system. The IM is a nonlinear dynamic drive and position level. It returns wavelet coefficients corresponding
is sensitive to the supply current, external load, speed and to all scales. Each data point (i.e., 10,000 points of one data-
type of defects. To take care of complex and non-stationary sets) consists of the wavelet coefficients for each scale. That
signal for more effective diagnosis, the CWT-based feature means for a particular dataset a matrix of 128 × 10, 000 is
extraction method has been considered in this work. It is a obtained. Figure 3 shows the wavelet coefficient (absolute
crucial method that shows both time and frequency compo- value) corresponding to 128 scales of the Haar, Coiflet and
nents of the signal. The CWT converts time domain signal
into the time–frequency domain. The basic CWT theory has
been discussed in several studies [23, 39]. For a signal, x(t) , Table 2 Wavelet family and their order considered in this work
the CWT is achieved by a convolution action between the No. Wavelet family Real/complex valued Best order
signal and complex conjugate of family of wavelet;
1 Haar (haar or db1) Real db1
+∞
2 Daubechies (db) Real db4
∫
𝜔(s, 𝜏) = x(t)𝜓 ∗ (t)dt (1) 3 Meyer (meyr) Real meyr
−∞ 4 Mexican hat (mexh) Real mexh
5 Coiflet (coif) Real coif 5
where 6 Symlet (sym) Real sym 15
� � 7 Gaussian (gaus) Real gaus 7
1 t−𝜏
𝜓 ∗ (t) = √ 𝜓 8 Shannon (shan Fb-Fc)1 Complex shan 1–0.1
s (2)
s 9 Complex Morlet (cmor Complex cmor 1–0.1
Fb–Fc)
where s is a scale which is related to the frequency informa- 10 Complex Gaussian (cgau) Complex cgau8
tion, that either compresses or dilates the signal. The high
Fb, bandwidth parameter; Fc, wavelet center frequency
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(a) Haar wavelet (Vibration) (b) Haar wavelet (current)

128 128
200 200
90 90
Scale number
Scale number
150 150
60 60
100 100
30 30 50
50
1 1
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Data points Data points
(c) Coiflet5 wavelet (vibration) (d) Coiflet5 wavelet (current)
128 128
200 200
90 90
Scale number
Scale number
150 150
60 60
100 100
30 50 30 50
1 1
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
(e) Shanon wavelet (vibration) (f) Shanon wavelet (current)
128 128
200 200
90 90
Scale number
Scale number
150 150
60 60
100 100
30 50 30 50
1 1
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Fig. 3 Wavelet coefficient (absolute value) plots of vibration (x-axis) and current (phase-1) of BF for 40 Hz and T3
Shanon wavelets of the vibration and current signals. Cal- E(m)

culating the wavelet coefficients for each scale involves a pm = (3)
Eoverall
large space and time (huge amount of data). Moreover, if ∑
scales are selected randomly (or not properly) the subsequent where m pm = 1 , now the overall energy is given by
scale may emphasize one original aspect of the waveform; ∑∑| |2 ∑
however, the other aspect can be inevitably missed. A rela- Eoverall = |Cm,j | =
| |
E(m) (4)
m i n
tive wavelet energy (RWE)-based scale selection approach
is used for this work. where Cn,j indicates jth wavelet coefficients of nth scale, m
According to the RWE criterion, an appropriate wave- indicates the number of wavelet coefficients, where m = 1,
let scale is one, which is having maximum relative energy …, n,. The energy at each resolution level is the total energy
[27, 46]. The RWE is a time-scale density, which is applied of detail signal and given by
to identify a particular phenomenon in the time–frequency
n
domain. The RWE is the probability distribution of energy ∑ | |2
E(m) = |Cm,j | (5)
and described by |
j=1
|
13
Now the energy is determined for all the scales. Then, the 5 Classification results and discussions
RWE is calculated for each scale by using Eq. (3). Figure 4
shows the RWE plot of scale selection of BF on 40 Hz and A flowchart of the proposed intelligent fault diagnostic
T3. The scale having maximum RWE is selected for each system based on the SVM is shown in Fig. 6. The one-
wavelet. Now corresponding to the best scale, the continuous versus-one SVM is adopted here to classify ten different
wavelet coefficient (CWC) is obtained for all datasets. Now IM faults. Combined statistical features of the current
features of yhr CWC related to the best scale are extracted. A and vibration data using the CWT are considered as the
feature extraction procedure is used for the data preparation input to the SVM. As in all other classification techniques,
to be given as an input to the fault classifier. This procedure the SVM has two processes: the training and the testing.
can reduce the computation time and the actual amount of The training is done to obtain the optimal functions that
data needed for the fault diagnosis. However, there is no separate the faulty conditions. This can be achieved by
prior knowledge in regard to which wavelet features would selecting optimal parameters of the kernel, γ and the SVM
be more appropriate for the present application. So, a num- parameter, C. Fivefold cross-validation (CV) method is
ber of statistical features such as higher statistical moments employed to determine the optimal parameters. In fivefold
up to eight (µ1–µ8), kurtosis (К), skewness (χ), standard CV, the training dataset is divided into five identical sub-
deviation (σ), peak to peak (Rpp), peak to RMS [i.e., the sets. Now the training of classifier is done with any four
crest factor, (CF)] and mean to standard deviation (Rmsd) are subsets and further verified with the unfinished set. The
considered in this study [47]. Figure 5 shows the variation of similar process is carried on until every dataset is utilized
statistical features of all datasets for the Haar wavelet coef- one by one in the training and the testing. The grid search
ficients of the BF on 40 Hz and T3. However, it is impos- is applied with CV to select C and γ. Figure 7 shows the
sible to distinguish the various faults of IMs by observing CV accuracy of the classifier for the Haar and Shanon
the extracted wavelet features because these features may wavelets on 40 Hz and T3. Now for the maximum CV
contain superfluous or imprecise information. A classifier, accuracy, the optimal pair of (C, γ) is achieved for each
i.e., the SVM is well suited for the multiple fault prediction. feature and operating condition of IMs. At last, utilizing
Now, these fourteen features are served as an input vector to the ideal pair of these, a best SVM model is prepared for
the SVM for the feature selection and further fault diagnosis.
(a) Haar wavelet (vibration) (b) Haar wavelet (current)

0.04 0.04
RWE
RWE
0.02 0.02
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 128 0 20 40 60 80 100 128
Scale number Scale number
(c) Coiflet wavelet (vibration) (d) Coiflet wavelet (current)
0.1 0.1
RWE
RWE
0.05 0.05
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 128 0 20 40 60 80 100 128
(e) Shanon wavelet (vibration) (f) Shanon wavelet (current)
0.015 0.015
0.01 0.01
RWE
RWE
0.005 0.005
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 128
Fig. 4 Relative wavelet energy (RWE) plot of scale selection for BF for 40 Hz and T3
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71
Fig. 5 Features from Haar -3 (a) Vibration features -3 (b) Current features

wavelet coefficients of BF at x 10 x 10
2 5
40 Hz speed and T3 load 0 0
µ1
-2 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
100 43
90 42
µ2
80 41
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
10 0.5
0 0
µ3
-10 -0.5
0 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
x 10 2800
2.5
2 2600
µ4
1.5 2400
0 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
x 10
1 100
0 0
µ5
-1 -100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
6 5
x 10 x 10
10 2.2
8 2
µ6
6 1.8
0 7 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 4 5 10 15 20 25 30
x 10 x 10
1 1
0 0
µ7
-1 -1
0 9 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 7 5 10 15 20 25 30
x 10 x 10
6 1.6
4 1.4
µ8
2 1.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
70 20
60 19.5
Rpp
50 19
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
4 1.6
3
CF
1.5
2 1.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
-4 -4
x 10 x 10
2 5
Rmsd
0 0
-2 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
10 6.8
9.5 6.6
σ
9 6.4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 -3 5 10 15 20 25 30
x 10
2.6 1
2.4 0
χ
2.2 -1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
4.2 1.52
4 1.51
κ
3.8 1.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Data set number Data set number
each feature or feature set and operating conditions. After wavelet selection for effective fault diagnostics, because
building an optimal model, the final testing is done to pre- of its limitation in implementation in real-time systems.
dict the unknown data that are not used in the training
phase. Total 80% of whole datasets are used to train the 5.1 Diagnostics for same speed and load condition
model and rest, i.e., 20% are used for the testing. In this
intelligent fault diagnostic system, the wrapper model is After performing successful training of SVM classifier, the
utilized to first choose the effective feature(s) and then fault diagnosis is executed when the evaluation of classifier
the wavelet function. This representation is a clear, time- is done at similar speed and load as the training. For the
saving and effective approach of the features and wavelet fault detection, the feature selection is a crucial step to select
selection since it considers just the casted accuracy of a useful features and avoid the redundant or irrelevant features
classification tool as an execution measure. There is no with minimum information loss. The feature selection is a
need to go for complex models of the features and the real challenge to assess, which features are more sensitive to
13
Speed; Machine fault simulator with test IM

Load; (Healthy/Faulty)
Data acqusition under 1kHz and 10k samples

(Raw time domain vibration and current signals)
7 real valued wavelets
128 scales, in 7th level
Extraction of CWT from raw data 3 Complex valued wavelet
Calculation of RWE of all scale Selection of scale which Calculation of CWT coefficient
for each CWT maximizes RWE for each CWT corresponding to best scale
14 Features
Extraction of statistical features
from selected CWT coefficient
SVM parameters
Total data sets
(Extracted features)
Grid search Training data set Testing data set
SVM classifier with 5- fold cross

validation
Optimal SVM Optimal trained SVM model

No parameters ? Yes
Prediction accuracy
Yes Optimal with considered No

Optimal prediction accuracy feature and CWT ?
No
Wrapper model for feature and wavelet selection
Fig. 6 Flowchart of the proposed methodology for the prediction of IM faults
faults and their severity, especially at an early stage, because of one defect misclassified as other faults. Tables 3 and 4
many factors affect the effectiveness of the feature. The goal present the confusion matrix for individual fault prediction
for the feature selection of the intelligent fault diagnosis is using a feature, i.e., the µ1 at 40 Hz speed and T3 load,
to enhance the prediction performance of a classifier. The based on the Haar and Shannon wavelets, respectively. The
wrapper model is used in the present fault diagnosis to select overall prediction is 64% for the Haar wavelet and 84% for
the useful features. the Shannon wavelet. Moreover, the overall prediction per-
To select the efficient features, fourteen features from formance found from the confusion matrix for the feature
each wavelet are examined, one at a time, which constitutes selection at 40 Hz and T3, using all considered wavelet func-
the input vector of the classifier. The classifier’s prediction tion, is shown in Table 5. It shows that the overall perfor-
performance reported through a confusion matrix, which mance of the SVM corresponding to the µ2 and σ features
shows both the individual and overall accuracies for multiple of all considered wavelet is 100%, except for one case, i.e.,
faults. The confusion matrix shows how much information the Mexican hat wavelet with σ (98%). But for the other
13
71
Fig. 7 The training accuracy (a) (b)

for T3, a 40 Hz, Haar wavelet, 2
10 15 0 25 100
µ1, b 40 Hz, Haar wavelet, µ2, c 5 30
35 5 30
30 40
40 Hz, Shanon wavelet, µ1 and 50 80
0 CV acc.=41.5 % 0
60
70
80
90
d 40 Hz, Shanon wavelet, µ2 log 3 γ
-5 20 log 3 γ -5
100
60
10
0 CV acc.=100 %
-10 -10 40
10
-15 -15 20
5 10 15 5 10 15
log 3 C log 3 C
(c) (d)
60 80 40 100
5 CV acc.=83.2 % 70
75 5 50
60
70
80
90
100
0 7705 80
75
0 80
70 100
65 75
log 3 γ -5 log 3 γ -5 CV acc.= 100 % 60
60 10
-10 65 -10 0
65 40
60
-15
55 55 50 -15
5 10 15 5 10 15
log 3 C log 3 C
Table 3 Confusion matrix for Prediction accuracy (in %)

individual fault prediction at
40 Hz and T3 based on Haar ND BRB PUF1 PUF2 SWF1 SWF2 BF UR BR MR Classified as Avg.
wavelet and µ1
100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ND 100
0 80 0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 BRB 80
0 20 40 20 0 0 0 0 0 20 PUF1 40
0 0 20 60 0 0 0 20 0 0 PUF2 60
0 0 0 20 80 0 0 0 0 0 SWF1 80
0 0 0 40 0 40 20 0 0 0 SWF2 40
0 0 0 0 0 0 40 0 40 20 BF 40
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 0 0 UR 100
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 40 60 BR 40
0 0 0 0 0 0 20 0 20 60 MR 60
Overall 64
Table 4 Confusion matrix for Prediction accuracy (in %)

individual fault prediction at
40 Hz and T3 based on Shannon ND BRB PUF1 PUF2 SWF1 SWF2 BF UR BR MR Classified as Avg.
wavelet and µ1
100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ND 100
0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BRB 100
0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 PUF1 100
0 0 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 PUF2 100
0 0 0 0 60 0 0 0 40 0 SWF1 60
0 0 0 0 20 80 0 0 0 0 SWF2 80
0 0 0 0 0 0 80 20 0 0 BF 80
0 0 0 0 0 0 40 60 0 0 UR 60
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 40 BR 60
0 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 20 60 MR 60
Overall 80
13
Table 5 Experimental results CWT Overall prediction accuracy (in %)

of SVM with different CWT
for feature selection at 40 Hz µ1 µ2 µ3 µ4 µ5 µ6 µ7 µ8 Rpp CF Rmsd σ χ К
and T3
1 haar 64 100 80 100 70 76 66 10 96 54 56 100 62 10
2 db44 40 100 56 94 46 56 38 10 92 42 54 100 42 84
3 meyr 48 100 54 94 36 60 34 10 98 50 44 100 38 56
4 mexh 66 100 80 92 72 90 38 58 86 68 68 98 54 50
5 coif5 74 100 62 94 52 78 42 10 94 68 56 100 42 16
6 sym15 60 100 62 94 70 68 36 10 90 48 68 100 54 38
7 gaus7 32 100 72 100 70 84 68 84 88 30 50 100 62 26
8 shan1-0.1 80 100 84 94 92 44 10 10 54 42 72.5 100 68 10
9 cmor1-0.1 80 100 96 100 94 68 58 10 56 54 82 100 80 10
10 cgau8 60 100 56 100 66 96 52 86 24 56 58 100 86 36
Avg. 60.4 100 70 96.2 66.8 72 44.2 29.8 77 51 60.8 99.8 58.8 33.6
Bold value shows the highest classification accuracy as compared to other parameters in the same table
considered features, accuracy drops down up to 75% except chosen as the base wavelet that shows highest prediction
for µ4 (96.2%), which is not acceptable in intelligent defect accuracy. It is noted that the main objective of fault diagno-
diagnostics. It is noted from outcomes that the two wavelet sis is to achieve perfect prediction. To analyze the influence
features, i.e., µ2 and σ, present better characteristic of all IM of wavelets on the prediction performance, two effective
defects as compared to other examined features. Therefore, features, i.e., σ and µ2 of the wavelet function as selected
the two features are chosen for the present fault detection from the previous section, are considered first individually
procedure of IMs. then in combination for the fault detection. The experimen-
In the present work, ten mother wavelets are considered tal prediction outcome of the SVM for all the considered
to study and analyze different wavelets in case of fault diag- wavelet functions at three selected speeds and a load T3 are
nostics. For any defect detection, it is also very important to shown in Table 6.
choose the most suitable wavelet that can extract the relevant Experimental study demonstrates that all wavelets with
information of all the faulty conditions from considered sig- these features gives more than 93% prediction accuracy and
nals. According to the wrapper model, a suitable wavelet is can be utilized for IM defect detection, though the goal of
Table 6 Experimental results CWT Overall prediction accuracy (in %)

of SVM for CWT selection at
three speeds and T3 load using Feature T3 load Avg. CWT Feature T3 load Avg.
two features
10 Hz 25 Hz 40 Hz 10 Hz 25 Hz 40 Hz
haar σ 100 96 100 98.67 sym15 σ 98 86 100 94.67

µ2 98 96 100 98.00 µ2 98 96 100 98.00
σ + µ2 98 96 100 98.00 σ + µ2 98 96 100 98.00
db44 σ 98 96 100 98.00 gaus7 σ 98 100 100 99.33
µ2 98 92 100 96.67 µ2 98 96 100 98.00
σ + µ2 98 92 100 96.67 σ + µ2 98 94 100 97.33
meyr σ 96 86 100 94.00 shan1-0.1 σ 100 100 100 100.00
µ2 98 92 100 96.67 µ2 94 100 100 98.00
σ + µ2 98 92 100 96.67 σ + µ2 94 96 100 96.67
mexh σ 100 100 98 99.33 cmor1-0.1 σ 94 100 100 98.00
µ2 100 98 100 99.33 µ2 92 90 100 94.00
σ + µ2 100 96 98 98.00 σ + µ2 92 88 100 93.33
coif5 σ 98 88 100 95.33 cgau8 σ 98 100 100 99.33
µ2 96 92 100 96.00 µ2 100 98 100 99.33
σ + µ2 98 92 100 96.67 σ + µ2 98 92 100 96.67
13
71
fault diagnosis is to achieve perfect prediction. For this, a effective training of SVM, the fault prediction is executed
comparison of prediction performance of all the wavelets using the test data. The outcome illustrates that the SVM
is added in Table 6, it shows the average performance of has predicted all electrical and mechanical faults perfectly
the Haar, Daubechies, Meyer, Coiflet, Symlet and complex that is with 100% accuracy, at all operational states of IMs.
Morlet wavelets is lower than the Mexican hat, Gaussian, In addition, two different severities of PUF and SWF are
Shannon and complex Gaussian wavelets. The complex also considered for the fault diagnosis in this work. Severity
Morlet with σ − µ2 shows the lowest accuracy, i.e., 93.33% levels of one fault are considered simultaneously and also
among other wavelets; however, the accuracy improves by with other fault conditions of IMs. Table 7 shows that these
4–5% when only the σ is considered. That means µ2 of com- severity levels of the faults are also perfectly classified, i.e.,
plex Morlet does not represent all the faults correctly. The without any misclassification even at all operational condi-
Meyer and Coiflet wavelets show the lowest prediction per- tions. The perfect prediction of IM faults and its severity
formance with 4–6% misclassification. The Symlet wavelet levels is obtained at all chosen speeds and loads, because
also shows less accuracy, i.e., 94.67% with σ; however, its there is no overlap of feature (i.e., σ) distribution of the
accuracy improves by 4–5% when µ2 is considered alone vibration as well as the current signal. This can be observed
or in combination with σ. The Daubechies wavelet shows in scatter plots of feature distribution at 40 Hz speed and T3
98% accuracy with σ; however, by considering µ2 only or load in Figs. 8 and 9. These figures show that the selected
with σ, accuracy reduced by 1.5%. The Haar wavelet shows wavelet and its feature are capable of clustering different IM
the average prediction up to 98% with σ, and also with µ2 faults. Additionally, the selected wavelet feature combina-
and their combination. That means these two features of tion is capable of clustering different levels of severity of
the Haar wavelet show almost same performance and any the faults. From these figures, it is observed that the features
of them can be used for the fault diagnosis; however, still of vibration signals are completely separable for all ten IM
1.5–2% misclassification occurs. The Mexican hat and com- faults. Though little overleaping occurred between features
plex Gaussian with σ and µ2, Gaussian and Shannon with of current signals of some defects, this does not influence the
σ show nearly 99% prediction accuracy. That means with defect forecast by the SVM. Finally, result showed that the
σ, these four wavelet functions represent all IM faults with Shannon wavelet with σ yielded the perfect prediction at all
good accuracy; however, some misclassifications are there. loads as well as speeds. The prediction of IM faults based on
In addition, µ2 of the Mexican hat, complex Gaussian and the present methodology does not depend on motor opera-
Gaussian also show 99%, 99% and 98% prediction accuracy, tional conditions. Moreover, the better detection is obtained
respectively; however, the accuracy reduces by 1–3% when with CWT features than time domain features [41]; this may
the combination of µ2 and σ is considered. be because of capability of joint time and frequency demon-
Prediction results show that the Shannon wavelet with σ stration of CWT. However, the diagnosis results with CWT
gives 100% performance that means it provides perfect fault are approximately similar to the result with WPT [41]. In
prediction, whereas for the same wavelet, by considering µ2 this case, the average CPU times for preparation and evalu-
only or in combination with σ the prediction performance ation are 3.8 s and 0.87 s, respectively
has decreased by 2–4% especially at low speeds. Compar-
ing the performance of considered ten mother wavelets with 5.2 Diagnostics for intermediate speed condition
selected feature(s), the Shannon wavelet with σ is found to
be stable and consistent at selected operational conditions After performing the fault detection in similar speed as well
(i.e., three speeds and a load) of the motor. This wavelet fea- as load conditions, now the diagnosis is performed to the
ture combination is found to capture all ten fault conditions intermediary speed case. In order to implement diagnosis
most effectively. From the investigation, it can be concluded for this case, the SVM classifier has to be built by training
that the Shannon wavelet with σ has emerged as a most suit- at two considered motor speeds and evaluated at the inter-
able wavelet feature combination for the present application. mediary speed for which the SVM is not prepared. Simi-
However, it is very important to check the robustness of this lar to the similar speed as well as load condition, first, the
wavelet feature on different operational conditions of IMs. selection of the effective feature is executed for the case
Thus, the fault diagnostics are now performed based on σ when the SVM is trained at 30 Hz and 40 Hz motor speeds,
of the Shannon wavelet for a wide range of operational con- and tested at 35 Hz speed. However, the SVM is trained
ditions of IMs. The diagnostic results are shown in Table 7. and tested at the same motor load, T3. It is known that the
First, the training of SVM is performed using the training type of feature(s) appropriate for one case can vary from the
data. Training accuracies are nearly 100% at each opera- other. The selection of appropriate feature(s) for a specific
tional condition. That means the classifiers are perfectly case can be considered as a combination of hit and trial, and
learned the input data from different IM faults and precisely application of experience. Hence, fourteen features of the
reproduced the model without any training errors. After the Shannon wavelet only are used for the feature selection, as
13
Table 7 Prediction performance Training–test- Training Individual prediction accuracy (in %) Over.

in same speed and load ing speed accuracy
condition based on Shannon (Hz) (in %) ND BRB PUF1 PUF2 SWF1 SWF2 BF UR BR MR
wavelet and σ
T1 (no load)
10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
15 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
20 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
25 99.5 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
30 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
35 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
40 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
T2 (light load)
10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
15 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
20 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
25 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
30 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
35 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
40 99.5 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
T3 (full load)
10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
15 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
20 99 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
25 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
30 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
35 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
40 99.5 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Fig. 8 Feature distribution (σ) 5

of Shannon wavelet coefficient ND
of vibration at 40 Hz and T3 BRB
load 4.5 PUF1
PUF2
SWF1
SWF2
4
BF
UR
BR
Z axis
3.5 MR
2.5
2
10
5 8 9 10 11
2
0 3 4 5 6 7
Y axis
X axis
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71
11
10.5
10
9.5
ND
BRB
Phase 3
9 PUF1
PUF2
8.5 SWF1
SWF2
BF
8 UR
BR
7.5 MR
7
0
5
10 18 20 22
15 12 14 16
Phase 1 20 6 8 10
Phase 2
Fig. 9 Feature distribution (σ) of Shannon wavelet coefficient of current at 40 Hz and T3 load
Table 8 Experimental results of SVM for feature selection based on small, so this does not affect much in the fault prediction
Shannon wavelet at 35 Hz intermediate speed and T3 at no load. The average performance is reduced by 8–9%
Statistical Average prediction Statistical Average predic- in the case of light and full loads as compared to no-load
features accuracy (%) features tion accuracy (%) condition. In addition, the individual performance is 100%
at no load for all fault conditions except two cases, i.e., MR
µ1 94 µ8 22.52
and SWF2 with 80% prediction at intermediate test speed
µ2 71.6 Rpp 53.33
of 15 Hz and 35 Hz, respectively. However, at the light and
µ3 62.28 CF 37.62
full loads, two levels of stator winding fault could not be
µ4 76.68 Rmsd 68.67
predicted successfully for all intermediate speed cases. For
µ5 56.14 Σ 89.23
the high load, there is no overlap of the features of vibration
µ6 42.6 Χ 36.72
of IM faults except the SWF1 and SWF2 as can be observed
µ7 33.74 К 48.52
by Fig. 12. This figure shows little variation in vibration
features between these two faults. Moreover, Fig. 13 shows
that the current feature obtained from different IM faults
shown in Table 8. It shows that at the very first instant, i.e., gather closely that means large overlapping of feature occurs
µ1 or mean of Shannon wavelet gives the best fault predic- at high load as compared to no load. In spite of the overlap-
tion performance. Other features are not able to predict the ping, the average performance is high enough, i.e., more
IM faults effectively. Thus, µ1 is chosen for the further fault than 90% under loading conditions, and can be considered
detection for the intermediary speed condition. practically acceptable.
Now, the detection process is conducted at the no, light In overall, the fault diagnostic for the intermediate case
and full loads of IMs as tabulated in Table 9. It indicates depends upon the external loading on IM, unlike the same
that the average overall accuracy is 99.2% at no load. This speed diagnostic case. However, the average performance
is obtained because there is no or little overlapping of fea- is obtained more than 90% regardless of the loading and
tures from the vibration signal as well as the current signal intermediate speed conditions. The explanation behind the
for all the IM defects at no load as shown in Figs. 10 and decrease in forecast execution under loading is because
11, respectively. However, the feature of some faults over- of the reality that the unexpected rotor speed fluctuation
laps in vibration signals, but the degree of overlap is very (2–3 rpm) cannot be avoided. Therefore, here, the features
13
Table 9 Prediction performance in intermediate speed condition based on Shannon wavelet and µ1 feature
Train speed (Hz) Test speed (Hz) Individual prediction accuracy (in %)
ND BRB PUF1 PUF2 SWF1 SWF2 BF UR BR MR Overall
T1
10, 20 15 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 80 98
15, 25 20 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
20, 30 25 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
25, 35 30 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
30, 40 35 100 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 100 98
Avg. 100 100 100 100 100 96 100 100 100 96 99.2
T2
10, 20 15 100 100 100 100 40 40 100 80 100 100 86
15, 25 20 100 100 100 80 80 60 100 100 100 100 92
20, 30 25 100 100 60 100 60 100 100 60 100 100 88
25, 35 30 100 100 80 100 100 100 80 100 100 80 94
30, 40 35 100 100 60 100 60 100 100 100 100 100 92
Avg. 100 100 80 96 68 80 96 88 100 96 90.4
T3
10, 20 15 100 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 100 100 98
15, 25 20 100 100 100 100 100 40 100 100 80 100 92
20, 30 25 100 80 100 100 80 40 100 100 40 100 84
25, 35 30 100 100 100 100 60 40 80 100 100 100 88
30, 40 35 100 80 100 100 60 100 100 100 100 100 94
Avg. 100 92 100 100 76 64 96 100 84 100 91.2
-3 ND
x 10
BRB
5
PUF1
PUF2
0 SWF1
SWF2
BF
-5 UR
BR
Z axis
MR
-10
-15
-20
4
2
0
-2 -4 -5
x 10
-3
-1 -2 -3
-4 2 1 0
3 -3
x 10
X axis Y axis
Fig. 10 Feature distribution (µ1) of Shannon wavelet coefficient of current at 30, 35 and 40 Hz, and T1
13
71
ND
BRB
PUF1
PUF2
SWF1
0.025 SWF2
BF
0.02 UR
BR
0.015
MR
0.01
Phase 3
0.005
0
0.02
-0.005 0.01
-0.01 0
-0.04 -0.01
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01 -0.02 Phase 2
0
Phase 1 0.01 -0.03
0.02
-3 ND
x 10
BRB
5
PUF1
PUF2
SWF1
0 SWF2
BF
UR
-5 BR
MR
Z axis
-10
-15
-20
-10
-5
0
-3 -4 -5
x 10
-3
0 -1 -2
5 3 2 1
-3
X axis x 10
Y axis
Fig. 12 Feature distribution (µ1) of Shannon wavelet coefficient of vibration at 30, 35 and 40 Hz, and T3
13
ND
0.025
BRB
0.02 PUF1
PUF2
0.015 SWF1
SWF2
0.01 BF
Phase 3
UR
0.005 BR
MR
0
-0.005
-0.01
0.01
-0.01
Phase 1
-0.02
-0.03 -0.025 -0.03 -0.035 -0.04

-0.005 -0.01 -0.015 -0.02
0.01 0.005 0
Phase 2
are obtained from the different faults at fluctuating speed. 5.3 Diagnostics for intermediate load condition
In addition, the fault prediction is 9–10% less (under load-
ing condition) in comparison with similar speed and load The fault detection is executed at the intermediate load con-
condition. At the first glance it may seem that performance dition. For this, the SVM classifier is trained at two different
in this case is inferior to the same speed and load case. loads and tested at the intermediate load level to which the
However, it is to be noted that this case is considered with classifier is not trained. However, for all cases, the train-
the testing performed at different (or intermediate) speed ing and evaluating are performed at similar speed. Here, σ
as training, while former case is presented with the testing feature of the Shannon wavelet is used for fault detection
executed to similar speed and load as the training. In this because this Wavelet feature was performed better at similar
case, features from three distinct speeds are utilized for speed and load condition as well as the intermediate speed
preparing and evaluating, hence more chances of feature condition. Now only one condition of intermediate load is
overlapping as shown in Figs. 10, 11, 12 and 13. However, considered here.
in the same speed case, features obtained at a single speed The outcome of the fault detection in this case is tabu-
are used so variation in feature due to steady changes of lated in Table 10. It shows that overall accuracy changes
speeds does not affect much and the chances of feature from 90% (for 10 Hz) to 100% (for higher speeds). The
overlap are less as shown in Figs. 8 and 9. Thus, predic- minimum average of the individual accuracy is 85.7% for
tion performances in this case seem to reduce as in rela- UR because this defect condition is not predicted at lower
tion to the similar speed and similar load case. The fault speeds, i.e., at 10 Hz (40%) and 15 Hz (60%). Besides this
prediction can be additionally enhanced if the restricted fault, all faults are successfully classified, except ND at
range of the training speeds or more numbers of speeds 20 Hz (66.6%), SWF2 at 30 Hz (60%) and BR at 10 Hz
are considered in the intermediary speed case. In addition, (60%). It can be seen that the average of overall perfor-
the prediction performance of the present methodology mance can be achieved up to 96.4%. That means all fault
with the CWT is approximately similar to WPT [41] for conditions and their severities can be predicted successfully
light load conditions; however, it is increased up to 6% at all speeds, even for the intermediate load case. This is
approximately for the high load condition. In this case, the obtained because there is no or little overlapping of features
average CPU times for preparing and evaluating time are from the vibration as well as the current for all IM faults as
6.5 s and 0.97 s, respectively. shown in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively. These scatter plots
13
71
Table 10 Prediction Train Test speed (Hz) Prediction accuracy (%)

performance in intermediate speed
load condition based on (Hz) ND BRB PUF1 PUF2 SWF1 SWF2 BF UR BR RM Overall
Shannon wavelet and σ feature
Training at T1 and T3, and testing at T2
10 10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 40 60 100 90
15 15 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 60 100 100 96
20 20 66.6 100 100 100 80 100 100 100 100 100 94.7
25 25 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 80 98
30 30 100 100 100 100 100 60 100 100 100 100 96
35 35 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
40 40 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Avg. 95.2 100 100 100 97.2 94.3 100 85.7 94.3 97.2 96.4
5.5 ND
BRB
5 PUF1
PUF2
4.5 SWF1
SWF2
4 BF
UR
Z-axis BR
3.5
MR
2.5
2
20
10
Y-axis 0 10 12 14 16 18
2 4 6 8
X-axis
Fig. 14 Feature distribution (σ) of Shannon wavelet coefficient of vibration signal at 20 Hz and T1, T2 and T3 load
are obtained at 20 Hz speeds. Some overlapping occurs overall accuracy is 100% at higher speeds that means the
between some fault features; still, the prediction accuracy prediction is performed perfectly at higher speeds unlike
achieved was up to 94.7%. The explanation behind effective the similar speed and load condition, and the intermediate
prediction in this situation is that the specified features (σ speed case, where the prediction was independent of speeds.
feature of the Shannon wavelet) could make different faults The prediction performance is reduced by nearly 3.5% as
separable, even the fault manifestation altered in the current compared to the same speed and 3% as compared to the
and vibration signals with the different load (i.e., no, light no-load condition of the intermediate speed case. However,
and high). It is observed in feature clusters of the vibration it is increased by 5–6% as compared to the low and heavy
and current signals in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively. From load conditions of the intermediate speed case. Moreover,
these plots, it is observed that a distinct IM defect gener- the prediction performance with the CWT is approximately
ates approximately same features at variable load torque. similar to the WPT [41] for this case. In this case, the aver-
This justifies the successful fault defection prediction even age CPU times in training and evaluating time are 5.9 s and
in the intermediary load condition. It is also noticed that the 0.9 s, respectively.
13
Fig. 15 Feature distribution (σ) 11.5 ND

of Shannon wavelet coefficient
BRB
of the current signal at 20 Hz 11
and T1, T2 and T3 load PUF1
10.5 PUF2
SWF1
10 SWF2
BF
9.5
Phase C
UR
9 BR
MR
8.5
7.5
7
0
10 20 25
20
5 10 15
Phase A
Phase B
To present the competence of the proposed diagnostics, information from the vibration and current signals for the
this work is compared with some recent literature on the faults prediction in IMs. The observation made from the
basis of machine and types of faults considered, sampling experimental results that the proposed diagnosis based on
rate, and types of wavelet transform and function, statis- σ feature of the Shannon wavelet not only isolate different
tical feature considered, classifier used and its efficiency, faults but also diagnose the faults under progression, per-
as shown in Table 11. From this work, it is noted that the fectly. This characteristic is very important to predict the
prediction of various electrical and mechanical defects in fault at an incipient stage. The proposed fault diagnosis
IMs and their severity has been done successfully at any could identify ten different IM fault conditions, simulta-
considered motor operational conditions using the Shannon neously. It is observed from the results that the proposed
wavelet and the SVM. Furthermore, while the prediction defect detection does not rely on the operational conditions
is attempted at the intermediate speed and load cases, the of IMs that means it can perfectly diagnose the faults at any
prediction performance is found to be very good and encour- motor speeds and level of load torques. Such robust fault
aging. The proposed diagnosis succeeds in detecting various prediction could indicate more acceptability of the proposed
IM faults, even for the limiting information about operating diagnostics for the practical application. The fault diagnosis
conditions cases or cases where the information is difficult to is then attempted for the intermediate operating conditions.
collect. The prediction performance exhibited via the experi- The prediction accuracy is still encouraging under no load
mental outcomes recommends that the proposed methodol- as well as for a loaded condition of IM. That means the
ogy can signify a powerful fault diagnostic system in IMs. proposed fault diagnosis succeeds in detecting various IM
faults, even for the limited information about operating con-
ditions cases or cases where the information is difficult to
6 Conclusions collect. The average CPU time for the fault diagnosis is very
less, i.e., 4–5 s for the case of same speed and load and 8–9 s
In this work, an attempt has been made to perform multi- for the case of intermediate operating conditions, which is
fault diagnosis and isolation in IMs based on CWT features the vital requirement of an online fault diagnostic.
and the SVM, where a combination of various mechanical There is a wide scope for the research in this field. The pre-
and electrical faults has been diagnosed under various IM sent work has directly used the acquired data without denois-
operational conditions. The vibration and current signals are ing of raw vibration and current signals. However, the same
acquired at a lower sampling rate of 1000 Hz and used for study can be considered after denoising the acquired signal and
feature extraction based on the CWT. The effect of ten dif- check the robustness of the present methodology. In addition,
ferent base wavelets on the prediction performance has been it will be interesting to use the training data that is generated
investigated. Though all the wavelets showed good predic- by mathematical models of IMs and the testing data from data
tion performance, the Shannon wavelet is found to be the acquired using an experimental test rig. However, it will be
most appropriate wavelet for the extraction of the significant a great challenge to make an accurate mathematical model
13

Table 11 A comparison between present work and some recent literature

71
References Machine/sampling rate Types of faults Wavelet transform/wavelet Feature considered Classifiers/accuracy
13
Chebil et al. [9] Bearing, 12 kHz Outer race, inner race, ball DWPT/Symlet6 RMS, variance, norm Bayesian, 95.83%
fault
Page 22 of 25
Du et al. [48] Bearing, 12 kHz Outer race, inner race, ball Wavelet leaders Multifractal, scaling exponent, SVM, 99.2%
fault log cumulant features, wave-
let packet energy
Bordoloi and Tiwari [11] Gear, 20 kHz Chipped tooth, missing tooth, CWT (Mexican hat, Meyer) Standard deviation, skewness, SVM, 98.7% Morlet, 97.6%
worn tooth and WPT kurtosis WPT
Rafie et al. [10] Bearing and gear, 40 kHz Faulty bearing, and slight CWT/324 mother wavelet from Standard deviation, variance, ANN, best prediction with db44
worm, medium worm, broken family like Haar, Morlet kurtosis, and 4th central
tooth in gear Daubechies, Meyer, etc. moment
Murlidh-aran et al. [49] Centrifugal pump, 24 kHz Cavitation, impeller fault, bear- CWT/Daubechies, Coiflet, Mean, kurtosis, standard devi- SVM, 99.84%
ing fault bi-orthogonal, reverse bi- ation, variance, histogram
orthogonal, Symlets, Meyer,
Morlet, Gaussian
Yaqub et al. [12] Rotary machine, 12 kHz Bearing fault, mass unbalance, WPT/Daubechies 5 – SVM, 92.54%
misalignment
Seshadrinath et al. [7] IM, 25.6 kHz Interturn damage, interturn DWT, DTCWT/ Normalized energy SVM and k-NN, 96.5% with
damage under progression, DTCWT-SVM
bearing fault
Chattopadhyay and Konar [28] IM, 5.12 kHz Broken rotor bar, stator fault, CWT/Daubechies 8 RMS SVM, 97.14%
voltage unbalance, bearing
fault, bowed and unbalance
rotor
Keskes and Braham [38] IM, 224 Hz Broken rotor bar RUWPT/Meyer mother RMS SVM, 99%
wavelet
Bessam et al. [33] IM BRB – (Amplitude and harmonic) ANN, successful
Hilbert transform
Deng et al. [30] Motor bearing Outer race, inner race, ball Empirical wavelet transform Fuzzy entropy value SVM, 96%
fault (EWT)
Zgarni et al. [31] IM, 1 kHz BRB Stationary wavelet packet SVDD SVDD-SVM, 100%
transform
Gangsar and Tiwari [19] IM, 10 kHz Broken rotor bar, stator wind- – Time domain features (stand- SVM, for same speed and same
ing fault (2-severity level), ard deviation skewness and load case: 93% (max)
phase unbalance (2-sever- kurtosis)
ity level), bearing fault,
unbalance rotor, bowed and
misaligned rotor
Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:71
for each possible fault in IMs. Furthermore, the work can be
Intermediate load case: 96.4%

intermediate load case: 97.7%
SVM, Shannon, for same speed

and load case: 99.52%, inter-
extended to study the impact of different order of the wavelet
mediate speed case: 94.3%,
mediate speed case: 99.2%,

and load case: 100%, Inter-
SVM, Dmey, for same speed family (Db1 to Db44, coif1 to coif4, shan1 to shan50, etc.)
on (Db1 to Db44, coif1 to coif4, shan1 to shan50, etc.) fault
Classifiers/accuracy
diagnostics of IMs.
Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Dr. Dhruba Jyoti

Bordoloi, Technical Officer at IIT Guwahati for his support during
experimentation.
Appendix 1: Support vector machine

crest factor, mean to standard
crest factor, mean to standard

ness, kurtosis, peak to peak,
ness, kurtosis, peak to peak,

standard deviation, skew-
standard deviation, skew-

Eight statistical moments,
Eight statistical moments,
The basic SVM is a binary classification problem. The clas-

sification can be done by mapping first the input vectors into
Feature considered
one or more feature spaces either linearly or nonlinearly; then,

SVM constructs a hyperplane or set of hyperplanes between
deviation
deviation
the two classes in feature space [41]. Then, the optimal hyper-
plane is selected which maximizes the margin that exists
between the boundary and the nearest data point in each class
of the two classes. The margin is chosen as a trade-off between
Symlets, Gaussian, complex
Gaussian, complex Morlet,
the margin level and the generalization error. The optimal

chies, Meyer, Mexican hat,
CWT/Haar, Coiflet, Daube-
Wavelet transform/wavelet
hyperplane is selected as it has low generalization error. SVM

WPT/Haar, db44, coif5,
basic principle is demonstrated in a two-dimensional plane

as shown in Fig. 1. It shows the separation of data from two
sym15, Dmey
different classes: class A (rectangle) and class B (circle). The

Shannon
SVM aims to place a linear boundary between the data of two

classes in such a manner that it maximizes the margin. The
nearest samples that are used to define the margin are called
as support vectors (SVs) [42].
Broken rotor bar, stator wind-
Broken rotor bar, stator wind-

The input vector from two classes can be separated by,

ing fault (2-severity level),
ing fault (2-severity level),

phase unbalance (2-sever-
phase unbalance (2-sever-

{ }
p = (x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), … , (xn , yn ) , x ∈ Rm , y ∈ (−1, 1)
(6)
misaligned rotor
misaligned rotor
The SVM classifier function is,

Types of faults
f (x) = w𝜙(x) + b, (7)

where xi represent the training vectors, yi represents label of
xi , m represents the no. of samples, w represents the normal
vector, and parameter b represents the offset of the hyper-
Machine/sampling rate
plane. The function, 𝜙(x) , is the mapping function that is

used to transfer the data from input space to higher-dimen-
sional space. The f (x) is basically a nonlinear function for
original data; however, it is linear for the transformed data.
IM, 1 kHz
IM, 1 kHz
To find optimal hyperplane, the optimization problem has

to be solved:
m
1 �
min ‖w‖2 + C 𝜉i (8)
Gangsar and Tiwari [41]
w,b,𝜉 2
i=1
Table 11 (continued)
Subjected to
yi f (xi ) = yi (wxi + b) ≥ 1 − 𝜉i ,
Present work
i = 1, … , m (9)
References
where 𝜉 ≥ 0, represents slack variables that permit mis-

classification for some data points so that the calculation
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Journal of the Brazilian Society of Mechanical Sciences and Engineering (2019) 41:71

Diagnostics of mechanical and electrical faults in induction

Abbreviations BP Back propagation

when training and testing data used at different operational y

Fig. 2 a Experimental test bed

ND T1/T2/T3 10/15/20/25/30/35/40 1 kHz/10,000 (0.1 Hz frequency resolution)

(a) Haar wavelet (Vibration) (b) Haar wavelet (current)

Shanon wavelets of the vibration and current signals. Cal- E(m)

(a) Haar wavelet (vibration) (b) Haar wavelet (current)

Fig. 5 Features from Haar -3 (a) Vibration features -3 (b) Current features

Speed; Machine fault simulator with test IM

Data acqusition under 1kHz and 10k samples

SVM classifier with 5- fold cross

Optimal SVM Optimal trained SVM model

Yes Optimal with considered No

Fig. 6 Flowchart of the proposed methodology for the prediction of IM faults

Fig. 7 The training accuracy (a) (b)

Table 3 Confusion matrix for Prediction accuracy (in %)

Table 4 Confusion matrix for Prediction accuracy (in %)

Table 5 Experimental results CWT​ Overall prediction accuracy (in %)

Table 6 Experimental results CWT​ Overall prediction accuracy (in %)

haar σ 100 96 100 98.67 sym15 σ 98 86 100 94.67

Table 7 Prediction performance Training–test- Training Individual prediction accuracy (in %) Over.

Fig. 8 Feature distribution (σ) 5

-0.03 -0.025 -0.03 -0.035 -0.04

Table 10 Prediction Train Test speed (Hz) Prediction accuracy (%)

Fig. 15 Feature distribution (σ) 11.5 ND

Table 11 A comparison between present work and some recent literature

for each possible fault in IMs. Furthermore, the work can be

Intermediate load case: 96.4%

SVM, Shannon, for same speed

mediate speed case: 94.3%,

mediate speed case: 99.2%,

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to Dr. Dhruba Jyoti

Appendix 1: Support vector machine

crest factor, mean to standard

ness, kurtosis, peak to peak,

standard deviation, skew-

Eight statistical moments,

The basic SVM is a binary classification problem. The clas-

one or more feature spaces either linearly or nonlinearly; then,

the margin level and the generalization error. The optimal

hyperplane is selected as it has low generalization error. SVM

basic principle is demonstrated in a two-dimensional plane

different classes: class A (rectangle) and class B (circle). The

SVM aims to place a linear boundary between the data of two

Broken rotor bar, stator wind-

unbalance rotor, bowed and

The input vector from two classes can be separated by,

ing fault (2-severity level),

phase unbalance (2-sever-

ity level), bearing fault,

The SVM classifier function is,

f (x) = w𝜙(x) + b, (7)

plane. The function, 𝜙(x) , is the mapping function that is

To find optimal hyperplane, the optimization problem has

where 𝜉 ≥ 0, represents slack variables that permit mis-

Abbreviations BP Back propagation

Fig. 2 a Experimental test bed

Fig. 5 Features from Haar -3 (a) Vibration features -3 (b) Current features

Fig. 6 Flowchart of the proposed methodology for the prediction of IM faults

Fig. 7 The training accuracy (a) (b)

Table 3 Confusion matrix for Prediction accuracy (in %)

Table 4 Confusion matrix for Prediction accuracy (in %)

Table 5 Experimental results CWT Overall prediction accuracy (in %)

Table 6 Experimental results CWT Overall prediction accuracy (in %)

Table 7 Prediction performance Training–test- Training Individual prediction accuracy (in %) Over.

Fig. 8 Feature distribution (σ) 5

Table 10 Prediction Train Test speed (Hz) Prediction accuracy (%)

Fig. 15 Feature distribution (σ) 11.5 ND

Table 11 A comparison between present work and some recent literature