3 s2.0 B9780128212042001124 Main

Electric vehicles
Paulo G. Pereirinha, Coimbra PolytechnicdISEC, and INESC Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

© 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Introduction 350
History and evolution of EV 351
Different types of electrified vehicles: from hybrid to purely electric 354
Start-Stop 355
Mild hybrid 355
Full hybrid 356
Plug-in hybrid 356
Plug-in range extender EV 356
Electric vehicle 357
Vehicle dynamics, road load forces and power 357
Main components of electric vehicles and advantages of EVs 360
Energy storage systems: batteries (and others) 362
Definitions relating to batteries and energy storage systems 362
Classical and lithium-ion battery chemistries 364
Some challenges, evolution and future 366
Fuel cells 369
Motors (and drives) 369
Past and present electric motors (and drives) 369
Some trends for electric motors (and drives) 372
Chargers and charging 373
Types of chargers, charging modes, plugs & sockets-outlets, cables and standards 374
Charging networks and apps 376
EV charging management, vehicle-to-grid, vehicle-to-home 377
EV market, regulations, and EV models 378
EV market evolution: sales and forecasts 378
Regulations, OEM announced targets and EV models 380
Challenges and trends. Conclusion 381
References 382
Abstract
This introductory article summarizes Electric vehicles (EVs) and related technologies mostly for non-specialists but also
briefly addressing the state of the art, challenges, and trends in most relevant aspects. The history of EVs, the different types of
electrified vehicles from hybrid to pure EVs, the dynamic model of a vehicle and its link to traction power and environmental
impacts, and the main components of EVs are discussed. In particular, the batteries (and very shortly, fuel cells), electric
motors (and drives), EV chargers and charging systems are discussed. Current EV market, regulations and EV’s models, and
some conclusions are also presented.
Introduction
Electric vehicles (EVs) are increasingly seen as a key contribution to sustainable mobility due to their superior energy efficiency and
lack of local emissions.
With ups and downs over more than a century, EVs have evolved to become today a sophisticated product, able to compete on
equal terms and, in many cases with advantages, with internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Today, in 2022, we are at
a turning point in the history of road vehicles, in which EVs are finally beginning to occupy a larger place. Indeed, in 2021, the
EV’s market share in new vehicles sold globally (battery electric vehicles, BEVs, plus plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, PHEV) reached
8.3% (EV-Volumes, 2022), having, in some cases, had impressive shares, as in the reference cases of Norway (86%), Iceland (72%),
and Sweden (43%) (IEA, 2022a).
Although it is very difficult to summarize the EVs in a article like this, the main aspects related to this technology are presented
below. After this introduction, some historical aspects and the evolution of technology since the first EVs to the beginning of the
modern EVs are presented in History and evolution of EV section. In Section Different types of electrified vehicles: from hybrid
350 Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronic Power Engineering, Volume 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821204-2.00112-4

Electric vehicles 351
to purely electric, the different types of electrified vehicles will be discussed, from hybrid to purely electric. Next, in Vehicle
dynamics, road load forces and power section, the dynamic model of a vehicle is presented, allowing to perceive the impact of
each parameter on the energy needed to move it and the corresponding environmental impacts. The main components of EVs
will be presented, as well as the reasons for the advantages of these over ICEVs, in Main components of electric vehicles and advan-
tages of EVs section. Them, a summarized individual presentation of the EV’s main components follows: in Energy storage
systems: batteries (and others) section, the energy storage systems (battery; also fuel cell); in Motors (and drives) section, the elec-
tric motors (and drives or power controller); and in Chargers and charging section, the EV chargers and charging systems. Finally,
Section EV market, regulations, and EV models discusses the EV market, some regulations and EV models. To conclude, in Chal-
lenges and trends. Conclusion section, some challenges and trends, as well as some conclusions are presented.
It should be kept in mind that this is an introductory article mainly for non-specialists and so easy access sources, such as internet
pages or open access scientific articles, were often privileged instead of books or articles from paid access scientific journals. For
example, Wikipedia is sometimes used, especially when referring to milestone EV’s models, as can give a historical and comprehen-
sive view. The main challenges and perspectives for the future in each of the addressed topics are also presented. As it is a highly
technical area that is constantly evolving, some reference works to deepen the subject, as well as some websites where to look
for updated information on EVs are indicated where appropriated.
History and evolution of EV
Contrary to what many will think, the first EVs with practical use are more than a century old. Indeed, shortly after Michael Faraday
demonstrated the principle of the electric motor in 1821 (Magnet Academy, 2014; Marsh, 2021) and discovered the electromagnetic
induction in 1831, demonstrating the relationship between the magnetic field and electric current, other inventors started to think
about using an electric motor to move the wheels of a vehicle. In 1835, Stratingh built and demonstrate a small model car in Gro-
ningen, Holland, using an electric motor powered by a Volta pile, and, in 1839, Robert Davidson managed to build the first electric
locomotive (Doppelbauer, 2014). However, it took some decades to have practical electric motors and useable batteries. Important
steps were the invention of the “ring” direct current motor by Antonio Pancinotti, Professor at the University of Pisa, Italy, in 1861,
that led to the first direct current (DC) motor constructed by the Belgium Zenobe Gramme, in 1869. This motor could provide more
than one worsepower (746 W) and could also work as generator. Shortly after, circa 1875, Siemens company was already producing
DC motors with drum armature and commutator with similar features to the modern electric DC motors (Westbrook, 2001; Dop-
pelbauer, 2018). Regarding the batteries, the invention of the lead acid battery (lead plate/sulfuric acid/lead plate) by the Belgium
Gaston Planté in 1859 was fundamental. In 1873, R. Davidson has shown in Edinburgh that it was possible to drive a road vehicle,
a four wheel-truck, that used a primary (or non-rechargeable) iron/zinc battery. However, only in 1881 G. Trouvé used for the first
time a secondary (i.e., rechargeable) Planté battery to power a 160 kg tricycle at around 12 km/h using two modified Siemens
motors. After some other experiences, it was around 1896 that the first practical electric vehicles appeared, namely the ones
produced by Electric Road Wagon providing a taxi service in New York using electric hansoms (ElectricVehicles News, 2022a; West-
brook, 2001). In the next two decades, the EVs’ technology and market evolved rapidly, led by some race competitions, including
also the new ICEVs, and due to the city usability advantages of the EVs. By the summer of 1897 there were 13 taxis for hire in New
York and 15 in London. In 1900, there was a similar market distribution between steam vehicles, EVs and ICEVs, and of the sold
circa 4200 vehicles, around 40% where steam-powered, 38% EVs and 22% ICEVs (gasoline) (Husain, 2010). In 1899, the Belgian
Camille Jenatz and “La Jamais Content” (The Never Satisfied), a torpedo shaped EV, represented in Fig. 1, were the first man and
vehicle to pass both the 60 mph and the 100 km/h marks.
EVs continued to develop in the next years, having their (first) golden age from 1900 to 1912 with vehicles from Detroit Electric
(Conceptcarz, 2022), like the one in Fig. 2, and from Baker Electric, among others.
This can be seen as an introductory chapter of almost any textbook on EVs like the ones above cited, in Chan (2013), or, for
example, in the websites (Wilson, 2018; Electric Vehicles News, 2022a), with free access and many images of the EV. However,
soon, the EV technology, even if easier to start and drive, more silent and cleaner than that of ICEVs, started to decline. This was
due to several reasons, that can be summarized as:
- The developments on ICEVs and the price: due to mass production, the gasoline Ford T, costed $850 in 1909, while EVs would
cost typically more than $2000, and in 1921 less than $300, while the last new EV model to be built in the USA, by the Automatic
Transmission Company of Buffalo, costed $1200. The advantages of the EVs could not overcome the price difference, leading to
decreasing marker share.
- The invention of the starter motor in 1911 and used first by Cadillac in 1912, which made the ICEV easier to start, avoiding the
need of hard and dangerous hand cranking.
- The discovery of cheap oil in Texas, decreasing the operating costs of ICEVs.
- The lack of extensive electrical network, especially in rural areas.
- The appearance of roads between cities, which demanded vehicles with higher autonomies. This would demand very heavy,
bulky and expensive batteries for EVs.
- The time needed to charge an EV.
352 Electric vehicles
Fig. 1 Camille Jenatz in “La Jamais Contente”, first automobile to reach 100 km/h in 1899. Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Jamais_contente.jpg#/media/File:Jamais_contente.jpg Public Domain.
Fig. 2 A 1911 Detroit Electric on display at the California Automobile Museum. Photo by Jim Heaphy. Cullen328, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0, via Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1911_Detroit_Electric.jpg#/media/File:
1911_Detroit_Electric.jpg CC BY-SA 3.0.
- The 1914–1918 Great War that demanded that the vehicles could be supplied quickly and in remote locations. ICEVs proved to
be useable and reliable in those difficult conditions.
Some of the reasons pointed above were challenges that only today are being satisfactorily overcome, like the price, the autonomy
and the charging time, as will be discussed further on.
Due to the above mentioned reasons, from mid 1920s, the gasoline and also the newly appeared diesel (for medium and heavy-
duty) ICEVs took the market and EVs almost disappeared except in some niche applications (like the milk delivery in London, some
industrial trucks and during II World War due to lack of fuel) (Westbrook, 2001; Larminie and Lowry, 2012; Hayes and Goodarzi,
2017; Wilson, 2018).
Some serious research and development on EV only restarted in the 1960s, due to the growing concerns with pollution caused by
ICEVs, but always with a very small number of EVs. For example, in the mid-1960s, General Motors (GM) started a $15 million
program leading to the Electrovair and Electrovan prototypes, and in 1968 General Electric and Ford developed experimental
EVs with nickel-iron and nickel-cadmium batteries, respectively (Westbrook, 2001). But, aside the very important development
of alternating current (AC) drives, this period has only confirmed the difficulty on producing EVs with acceptable cost, range,
and performance. In the 1970s, especially after the Oil Shock that, in 1973, almost overnight quadrupled the price of oil as a result
of the OPEC embargo, EVs started to be thought as an important alternative, leading to a series of small and cheaper vehicles, like
the Sebring-Vanguard Citicar from 1974 and the Comuta-Car of which were produced 4444 vehicles, a record in USA since World
War II, maintained up to 2013 (Electric Vehicles News, 2022b). Meanwhile, some background very important research continued in
power electronics, allowing transistor inverters and to replace electric DC motors by AC induction motors (IM) and permanent
magnet synchronous motors (PMSM) by 1988 (Westbrook, 2001). Also research on battery chemistries and technologies
continued, namely with traction purpose tubular lead-acid batteries.
Fig. 3 General Motors EV1. By EV1A014_(1).jpg: RightBrainPhotography (Rick Rowen)derivative work: Mariordo (talk) - EV1A014_(1).jpg, CC BY-
SA 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid¼14727110.
In the 1990s a new era for the EV seemed to start, following increasing urban pollution concerns, in particular in Los Angeles and
other USA cities, and the sales mandate in autumn of 1990 by the California Air Resources Board. GM developed a state of the art EV
prototype, the Impact, that lead to the first “modern” EV, the EV1 (Fig. 3), with “mass production” (1117 units, from 1996 to 1999).
It was a revolutionary vehicle with a high-power IM, aluminum body, very aerodynamic and with an inverter (i.e., the motor
drive) using new Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) (Electric Vehicles News, 2022c, p. 1; Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017). The
first generation, up to 1999, used lead-acid batteries, while a second generation of the 1999 model, but up to 2003, started to
use improved lead-acid batteries from Panasonic, and later Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) batteries. EV1 was available only as
a leased vehicle but had a very loyal group of users, including famous Hollywood actors like Mel Gibson, Tom Hanks and Alexandra
Paul. However, by 2003, GM recalled all the cars and scraped almost all of them, against the will of the EV1 drivers, for some reasons
still under debate and that gave origin to the film “Who killed the Electric Car?” (Kindofdoon, 2007), but that were probably mostly
due to costs for the manufacturer, battery issues, and a lack of consumer demand and government support. There were also by this
period, some other smaller EV, in particular in Europe the Citroen Saxo Electric (Lane Motor Museum, n.d.) and the Peugeot 106
Electric (Automobile Catalog, n.d.), using SAFT nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries, but that did not have great success. Also, about
that time, Toyota introduced in Japan in 1997, and from 2000 outside, the Toyota Prius, a hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), which
combines in a very clever way a gasoline ICEV and a permanent magnet motor and that after several generations is still in the market
(Toyota Prius, 2022), including Plug-in HEV (PHEV) versions from 2011. It is worth to be noticed that, while a HEV charges its
battery with an internal electric generator motorized by the ICE, a PHEV has a bigger battery pack than the HEV model and can
be plugged-in to charge directly the battery from the electric grid. So, by the mid-2000s, it seemed that the pure EVs were to enter
again a dark age.
However, there was something happening that was going to change that. The main drawback of the EVs, since the XIX century
was the battery (high weight, low energy density, limited lifetime and number of charging and discharging cycles, high cost and time
to charge). In 1979, John Goodenough was credited the development of the first workable lithium-ion (Li-ion) cell and Sony
Corporation commercialized Li-ion cells for mobile phones and laptop computers from 1991, due to their much better character-
istics compared to the other battery chemistries (Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017). This made the Li-ion cells available in the market with
increasing quantities and decreasing prices. Then, two new actors for EV appeared in the market: Tesla and Nissan. Pioneers of GM
Impact, that originated EV1, formed AC Propulsion company that produced the tzero EV model (Fig. 4). Most of them used lead-
acid battery but at least one used Li-ion cells, reaching an amazing 3.7 s at 0–60 mph (Wilson, 2018).
Fig. 4 1997 Tzero electric vehicle which was the proof of concept vehicle template for the Tesla Roadster. By Pete GruberdOwn work, CC BY-SA
4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid¼51778349.
Fig. 5 Tesla Roadster Sport 2.5, the fourth-generation Roadster from electric carmaker Tesla Motors Inc. By Roadster_2.5_windmills.jpg: Tesla
Motors Inc.derivative work: Mariordo (talk) - Roadster_2.5_windmills.jpg, Copyrighted free use, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?
curid¼14709997.
This showed that EVs could be very sportive (FullyOwned, 2008) and attracted the interest of some Silicon Valley investors,
including Elon Musk. After some disputes, this technology was used by Tesla Motors, with the first generation of the game changer
sporty Tesla Roadster by 2007/8 (FullyOwned, 2008) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼0j7941VzH4I. Following models
already used Tesla’s own proprietary drivetrain like the one in Fig. 5. It had nearly 7000 Li-ion cells, being the first mass-market
EV to use this battery technology.
Tesla continued to present high performance models, with the luxury Tesla Model S from 2012 and the Tesla Model X from
2015, and the more affordable Model 3 (Tesla Model 3, 2022, p. 3) from 2017 and Model Y from 2020. Meanwhile, Nissan
also introduced a Li-ion battery more affordable EV in 2011, the Nissan Leaf (MotorWeek, 2011), in Fig. 6, which is still one of
the all-time most sold EV.
The EVs produced by Tesla and Nissan, as well as the promise of more stringent pollution regulations, forced the other legacy car
manufacturer to rethink and refocus on EVs. Renault introduced its Zoe Z.E (Renault Zoe, 2022) (and the electric microcar Twizy,
a quadricycle) in 2012, which up to today has had a relative success in Europe, and specially in France. BMW presented the BMW i3
in 2013 (BMW i3, 2022; IEEE VPPC 2014, 2015) and by 2016, GM produced the Chevrolet Bolt EV, sold in Europe as Opel Ampera-
e (Chevrolet Bolt, 2022) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Bolt. Other EVs with less success appeared also during this period,
namely the Mitsubishi I-MiEV (2010), sold in Europe as Peugeot iOn and Citroen C-Zero (Citroen C-Zero (2010-2018) review,
n.d.), and the Renault Fluence Z.E. (2011–2014, prepared to have battery swapping developed by the Better Place network (Wilson,
2018; Renault Fluence Z.E., 2022)). And, finally, we come to the present where EVs are about to become mainstream. This will be
presented further on, particularly on Section EV market, regulations, and EV models. But before, some other aspects need to be
presented.
Different types of electrified vehicles: from hybrid to purely electric
As could be deducted from previous section, between the ICEV and the pure EV exist a range of vehicles combining the character-
istics of both, by including at least one ICE and one electric motor (EM): the hybrids. Many detailed information on the technical
aspects (i.e., how the ICE and EM are connected and work together, its design and control, etc.) can, in general, be found in every
Fig. 6 2013 Nissan LEAF (ZE0 MY13) hatchback. Photographed in Fremantle, Western Australia, Australia. By EurovisionNimdOwn work, CC BY-
SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid¼74084832. CC BY-SA 4.0.
Fig. 7 From ICEV to EV: HEV with increasing levels of electrification. Courtesy of Prof. C. C. Chan, Outlook of electric vehicles and smart grids, IEEE-
VPPC’2010, IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, September 1–3, 2010 Lille, France.
book dedicated to EV and HEV, but in particular in Husain (2010), Chau (2015), Mi and Masrur (2017), Ehsani et al. (2018). Not
entering here in these details of the HEV powertrains types, it will be here just compared the different vehicles according to the
hybridization level, the functionalities and the corresponding fuel economy, using Fig. 7, from Professor C.C. Chan (Chan, 2010).
On the top of the figure, the rectangle is divided in two triangles showing the share of power between ICE (blue) and EM (green)
and just below is the respective typical classification of the HEV and EV. Then, in the lower rows, the main Functionalities and
typical Fuel Economy are presented. On the left, outside the rectangle, would be the classical ICEV.
Start-Stop
The first vehicle appearing is called “Start-Stop”. It is debatable if this should be considered an HEV. Usually, manufacturers and car
dealers call it “Micro-Hybrid” to say that is already an improvement over classical ICEVs and for marketing purposes. However, their
only special characteristic is that they are ICEVs with start-stop feature, i.e., it has a slightly more powerful electrical machine than
thatof the classical ICEV starter. It should be noted that in this type of car, this starter does not contribute to drive the vehicle as is not
connected to the wheels and is only used for the start-stop function. Nevertheless, since a good part of the time that a vehicle is in the
road the engine is idling (engine running with the vehicle not moving), the start-stop feature shuts down the ICE when the vehicle
stops, for example at a traffic light or traffic jam, restarting it as soon as the driver presses the clutch to select a gear and move on. This
simple feature allows a typical fuel economy of 2%–4%, and the corresponding decrease on the car gas emissions, depending on
where and how the car is driven: can be significantly higher in a big city with much traffic congestion and negligible in a car that
drives almost in extra-urban routes (without frequent stops idling, this feature is not relevant).
Mild hybrid
In this case, the ICE is the main propeller of the vehicle but usually it has a narrow disc-shaped PMSM attached to it that can assist
the ICE when extra power is needed for acceleration or hill climbing. The electrical machine cannot move alone the vehicle but is
used also as a generator to charge the traction battery. It allows mild regenerative braking, i.e., some of the energy that would be
dissipated in the mechanical brakes of a pure ICEV is recovered, being converted into electrical energy and returned to the traction
battery. This allows a typical fuel economy and reduction of gases emission between 10% and 20%, again depending on the driving
conditions. The typical and classical example of a mild HEV is/was the Honda Civic Ima (O’Donoghue, 2005) and a recent one is
the Mercedes EQ Boost system using a 48 V integrated starter generator that provides additional 21 HP to high performance cars
with a 3.0 L inline six cylinder, like the e450 sedan (Driving.ca, n.d.) and the AMG GLE53 (TDTVGarage, 2021) models.
Full hybrid
The first full hybrid and the historical reference is the Toyota Prius, with more than 6 million units sold globally from 1997 to
January 2017 (Toyota Prius, 2022). The electrical machine is more powerful than that of mild hybrids and can power the HEV alone
up in pure EV mode to speeds that some years ago where limited but now are over the highway speed limits (limited to 24 km/h in
the first generation of the Toyota Prius, then to 64 km/h (Toyota Prius, 2022; How Hybrid Cars Work, 2000) and currently higher).
Full hybrids can have more than one electrical machine: one that works mainly as motor and the other as the electrical generator but
that can change function. The ability to pure electric drive allow the ICE to be used in optimized engine cycle, namely using Atkin-
son cycle instead of Otto. Atkinson cycle is around 30% more fuel efficient but has lower power, preventing its usage at low speed,
which can be supplemented by the EM (deeper explanations can be found on Ehsani et al. (2018), Husain (2010), Mi and Masrur
(2017) and an interesting explanation can be freely find at Khattak (2017), https://www.pakwheels.com/blog/otto-vs-atkinson-
cycle-engines (Toyota Canada, 2016) https://youtu.be/WKKILW3Zj_Y, or Sherman (2016). It allows also to downsize the ICE,
which happened with the first models but the quest for more performant HEVs has eclipsed this advantage and their ICEs recover
similar sizes to the pure ICEVs. Usually it can perform full regenerative braking, i.e., recover all the mechanical energy during speed
reduction and on descents. The full HEV can perform fuel and emissions reduction of around 30%–50% in cars and 20%–40% in
trucks. Mild and full hybrids get the electrical power to recharge the traction battery from the electrical generator powered from the
ICE and from regenerative breaking. In (Toyotakw, 2021) an interesting animation of the Toyota Hybrid System, with the power of
the Prius (electric) motor, (electric) generator and (internal combustion) engine being efficiently combined by the (mechanical)
power split device depending on the driving phase (starting, low-speed, acceleration, normal driving, and deceleration) and the
corresponding electrical power flowing between the electric machines and the battery pack can be seen.
Plug-in hybrid
Plug-in Hybrid noted as PHEV, this is simply a full hybrid with a bigger battery and that can be charged directly from the electric
plug, for example a Toyota Prius Plug-In or its second generation Toyota Prius Prime (Toyota Prius, 2022; Toyota Prius Plug-in
Hybrid, 2022), in Fig. 8, which allows the vehicle to be driven in pure electric mode for longer distance (currently around
50 km, depending on the brand and driving cycle used to measure (EPA or WLTP).
One of the most recent models appearing in the market is the Mazda CX-60, that has 2.5 L, four-cylinder direct injection petrol
with 100 kW electric motor, and a 355 V, 17.8 kWh traction battery (Krivevski, 2022a; Padeanu, 2022).
Plug-in range extender EV

Next step to electrification of the powertrain are the plug-in range extender EV. In this vehicles, only the electric motor provides
mechanical power to the mechanical transmission to move the vehicle. The ICE is used, at its higher efficiency region, to power
an electric generator that generates the electricity used to supply the electric motor and or to be stored in the traction battery.
So, it has all the advantages of electric traction with a smaller battery. The ICE is used only when the battery initially charged by
pluging it, preferably at home, became at a low state of charge (SoC). The most famous is the Chevrolet Volt (Fig. 9), with
16 kWh traction battery, 1.4 L 4 cylinder ICE powering a 55 kW electric generator and an 111 kW electric motor powering the front
wheels (Voelcker, 2011).
A recent model appearing in the market is the new Nissan Qashqai e-POWER (a series HEV) which unfortunately is not a PHEV
(Krivevski, 2022b).
Fig. 8 2019 Toyota Prius Business Editionþ PHEV 1.8 taken in Leamington Spa. By VauxforddOwn work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.
wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid¼79857008.
Fig. 9 2012 Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid in Alexandria, Virginia, US. By Mariordo (Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz)dOwn work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://
commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid¼19840831.
Electric vehicle
Finally, there are the pure electric vehicles, that do not have ICE and rely only on electric traction motor and electric energy stored in
a big traction battery (current pure EV use traction battery with capacities between 24 kWh and more than 100 kWh).
To close this section, an open access recent article presenting the structure of different types of electrified vehicles, including
different configuration of HEV (parallel, series, series-parallel, PHEV, FCEV), with a comprehensive classification of power elec-
tronics converters, and a discussion on the non-isolated bidirectional DC-DC converter topologies used in EVs is Maroti et al.
(2022).
Vehicle dynamics, road load forces and power
To be able to compare vehicles, regarding the environmental impacts and the power needed to drive a vehicle, which must be
provided by its powertrain to the wheels, it is necessary to calculate the total tractive effort considering the dynamic, mechanical
and aerodynamic characteristics of the vehicle.
It should be noted that different symbols for the variables of the parameters of the vehicle dynamics model are used by different
authors (Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017; Husain, 2010; Larminie and Lowry, 2012; Mi and Masrur, 2017; Pereirinha and Trovão, 2012).
Considering a vehicle of mass m, (see Fig. 10), the road load forces Fr, the opposing forces to the vehicle motion, are given by Eq. (1):
Fr ¼ Frr þ Fad þ Fhc (1)
where the rolling resistance force (Frr) is mainly due to friction of the vehicle tires on the road, but can also consider the friction on
bearings and gear system; the aerodynamic drag force (Fad) caused by the friction of the body moving through the air; and the hill
climbing force (Fhc) that depends on the road slope. The Fad force is directly derived from aerodynamic theory ignoring the lateral
forces.
Fig. 10 Forces applied to a vehicle.

The Frr force is the sum of the rolling resistance force of each wheel, depending on the coefficient of rolling resistance (mrr) and of
the vehicle mass, as presented in the first term of the right side of Eq. (2). Sometimes, this first term is multiplied by cos q, but this is
not relevant for normal road slops, so here is omitted. The typical values for mrr may vary between 0.015, for conventional tires, and
0.005 for tires developed specially for EV (Larminie and Lowry, 2012).
The aerodynamic drag force is given by the second term on the right side of Eq. (2), where the symbol r represents the air density,
CD the drag coefficient, AF the frontal projection area, v the vehicle speed and vair the wind speed in the vehicle direction (Hayes and
Goodarzi, 2017). CD for a wide number of vehicles can be found at Automobile Drag Coefficient (2022). It must also be noted that
air density is variable, as a function of the atmospheric pressure, temperature and hygrometric conditions, and that the aerodynamic
drag is proportional to the square of vehicle speed (relatively to the wind). Thus the power that the motor must provide necessary to
overcome the aerodynamic component of Fr, Fad, increases with the cube of the speed. This, together with high acceleration request,
are the main reasons why high speed vehicles need very powerful electric motors (or ICEs).
The weight component of the vehicle relative to the rolling plane angle, expressed in the last term of Eq. (2), corresponds to
a force that opposes the motion when hill climbing, and is a function of the climbing angle q and the vehicle mass m. It is negative
when the vehicle goes downhill.
1
Fr ¼ mrr mg þ rCD AF ðv þ vair Þ2 þ mg sin q (2)
2
The first two terms on the right side of Eq. (2) show clearly that to decrease the road load force, the vehicle manufacturers can
play with the coefficient of rolling resistance, the weight of the vehicle, the drag coefficient and the frontal area. For example, BMW
took this into particular consideration when developing its i3 model in 2013, namely by reducing weight, using high strength, ultra-
lightweight carbon fiber reinforced polymer adhered to a lower aluminum module holding the chassis, and by rolling resistance
reduction, using special tires (BMW i3, 2022; IEEE VPPC 2014, 2015). One of the most important aspects is also having a low
CD. This has been improving in newer vehicles or in vehicles especially prepared for high efficiency: Nissan Leaf (2010: CD ¼
0.29), BMW i3 (2013: CD ¼ 0.29); Tesla Model S (2012: CD ¼ 0.24; 2021: CD ¼ 0.208), Porsche Taycan (2019: CD ¼ 0.22),
Mercedes-Benz EQS (2021: CD ¼ 0.20) and General Motors EV1 (1996: CD ¼ 0.19) (Automobile Drag Coefficient, 2022). Also,
to reduce Fr, the driver must ensure that the tires are properly inflated, so as not to raise too much the rolling resistance force,
and that he drives at a controlled speed, so as not to increase the aerodynamic force too much.
Eq. (2) can be used to calculate the road load forces if all parameters are known. An alternative way is to use the vehicle road load
coefficients obtained from the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency of the USA) coast-down testing (Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017).
In this case, Fr is given by a slightly different equation (that does not consider hill climbing forces), Eq. (3)
Fr ¼ A þ Bv þ Cv2 (3)
where A, B, and C are the coefficients obtained from the coast-down test. A is related to the rolling resistance and C to the aero-
dynamic drag. B is related to the rotational losses and uses to be relatively small. Using Eq. (3), and the data provided by EPA
database (US EPA, 2016) and in Hayes and Goodarzi (2017), including the conversion factors from lbf and mph to N and m/s, the
road-load forces for several vehicles can be calculated, as shown in Fig. 11. The Toyota Mirai, the main fuel cell electric vehicle
(FCEV) in the market, is also included.
Looking at left side of the graphic (speed close to 0 km/h), it can be seen that the heavy high-end BEV, Tesla (2155 kg, in the EPA
test), Mercedes AMG EQS (2948 kg) and Audi e-tron (2495 kg), have higher rolling resistance forces (Frr) than the lighter ones, the
1200 Nissan Leaf (BEV, 2015) Tesla Model S (BEV, 2014)

Toyota Prius (HEV, 2015) Lexus RX 450h (2015, HEV)
1000
Vehicle Road Load Force (N)
Chevy Volt 2015 (PHEV) Toyota Mirai (FCEV, 2016)
800 AMG EQS 4MATIC+ (BEV, 2022) Audi e-ton GT (BEV, 2022)
600
400
200
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Speed (km/h)
Fig. 11 Vehicle road load force for different vehicles. Adapted from Hayes and Goodarzi (2017) with further 2022 data from US EPA (2016).
Toyota Prius (1531 kg) Chevy Volt (1814 kg). The high Cd of the Lexus (2268 kg, Cd ¼ 0.33) is the main responsible for the higher
resistant forces at higher speeds, compared to heavier but much more aerodynamic models (Tesla Model S and Audi e-tron GT with
Cd ¼ 0.24; and Mercedes AMG EQS, with Cd ¼ 0.20, which is the most aerodynamic production car ever).
Being the power P needed to propel the vehicle at a speed v with a force F, equal to the product of these, then the vehicle road
load power, Pr, is given by Eq. (4)
Pr ¼ Fr v (4)
and is shown in Fig. 12 for the same vehicles up the approximate maximum speed. The previous conclusions relatively to the road
force are enhanced for the power as the aerodynamic component of the power depend on the cube of speed.
However, it should be noted that the Fr and Pr needed to propel the vehicle presented in these figures, are at constant speed and
applied to the wheels. The vehicle motor must provide this power and force to the wheels, but also the power and torque needed to
accelerate the vehicle, to overcome the gear and transmission mechanical losses, and to accelerate the turning masses.
So, to power the vehicle, the total tractive effort Fte, must overcome this road load force Fr and, according to Newton’s second law,
also provide a linear acceleration force, Fla, whenever it is intended to change the velocity of the vehicle. So, Fte is given by Eq. (5)
dv
Fte ¼ Fr þ Fla ¼ Fr þ ma ¼ Fr þ m (5)
dt
where a is the linear acceleration of the vehicle.
The torque to be applied to the wheels, TWh, so that the Fte is applied by the traction wheels to the road, depends on the radius of
the tires, r, and is given by Eq. (6):

dv
Twh ¼ Fte r ¼ Fr þ m r (6)
dt
Finally, the motor torque, Tm, considering the wheel radius r, the transmission gearbox ratio, i, the gear and transmission system
efficiency, hg, and the motor angular speed, um, is given by Eq. (7):
r dum
Tm ¼ F r þ JT (7)
hg i dt
The total moment of inertia associated to the vehicle (JT), in the motor referential, is given by Eq. (8), and is equal to the sum of
the moments of inertia of the electric motor (Jm), the wheel and rotating parts of the gear and transmission in the motor referential
(Jr), and the one associated with the vehicle mass, the last term of Eq. (8).
m r 2
JT ¼ Jm þ Jr þ (8)
hg i
The mechanical power that the electric motor needs to supply, Pm, is then calculated by Eq. (9).
Pm ¼ Tm um (9)
120 Nissan Leaf (BEV, 2015) Tesla Model S (BEV, 2014)

Toyota Prius (HEV, 2015) Lexus RX 450h (2015, HEV)
100
Vehicle Road Load Power (kW)
Chevy Volt 2015 (PHEV) Toyota Mirai (FCEV, 2016)
80 AMG EQS 4MATIC+ (BEV, 2022) Audi e-ton GT (BEV, 2022)
60
40
20
0
50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230
Speed (km/h)
Fig. 12 Vehicle road load power for different vehicles. Adapted from Hayes and Goodarzi (2017) with further 2022 data from US EPA (2016).
For simplified calculations, an ideal mechanical transmission can be considered, i.e., hg equal to 1 in Eqs. (7) and (8), namely to
study the vehicle power and energy need from a high-level energy management and energy sources comparison points of view.
This model, with variants of presentation, can be used to calculate the motor power and the required energy, as can be found for
example in Larminie and Lowry (2012), Mi and Masrur (2017), Hayes and Goodarzi (2017), Husain (2021) with detailed examples
and Matlab scripts.
However, it is important to notice, that to correctly size the energy storage system, all the energy chain with the corresponding
losses need to considered. That is, the efficiency of each of the components has to be considered (Pereirinha and Trovão, 2012).
Therefore, the required battery electric power (Pbat), considering the total efficiency of the electric drive, i.e., the efficiency of the
power electric converter, hpec, and the traction motor, hm, is calculated by Eq. (10).
Pbat ¼ hpec hm Pm (10)
Furthermore, to evaluate the total energy supplied by the electric grid and paid by the user, the battery efficiency and the charger
efficiency have also to be considered, to account for their power losses.
Main components of electric vehicles and advantages of EVs
Different organization and names for the components of an EV can be found in the literature. In Fig. 13, the main components and
their grouping are presented mostly according to (ISO/TR 8713, n.d.),1 with slight names’ adaptation.
In this figure, the BEV is a Battery Electric Vehicle, whose power source or RESS (rechargeable energy storage system, the system
that stores energy for delivery of electric power and which is rechargeable, usually a battery, but that can be also a supercapacitor) is
charged by an external AC electric power source (through a plug and socket) using an on-board charger. For fast charging and ultra-
fast charging, the on-board charger is bypassed and the battery (RESS) is directly charged by an external charger, which provides high
DC power that usually goes from 50 kW to more than 350 kW (addressed in Chargers and charging section). The RESS is also
recharged while driving when regenerative braking occurs, and powers also the auxiliary electric systems (vehicle lights, air condi-
tioning, etc.). While driving, the energy stored in the RESS/battery is supplied to the power electronics converter which, according to
control signals, powers the traction (electric) motor. This is usually in AC, as most motors are AC type, but can be in DC if the EV
uses a DC motor. The power electronics converter plus the traction motor constitutes the electric drive, which together with the
drivetrain (mechanical transmission/gearbox and driveshaft) constitutes the electric powertrain. Sometimes, the powertrain is
also called electric drive unit, EDU. The power source and the powertrain constitute the EV propulsion system. Finally, the EV
AC
External electric External Charger
Charger
power source Charger
losses
AC DC
Charger DC RESS (bat.) DC Power electr. conv. Tracon motor Drivetrain Driving
Charger bat pec m gb wheels
AC
(or DC)
DC
Charger RESS (bat.) Power elec. Motor Drivetrain

losses losses converter losses losses
losses
Electric drive
Electric powertrain
EV propulsion system
Auxiliary electric
systems Electric vehicle / BEV
Fig. 13 Main components and systems in modern electric vehicles.
1
There is a 2019 version of this standard, which is under revision in 2022.
propulsion system plus the driving wheels, the on-board charger, and the auxiliary systems constitute the electric vehicle, which in
almost cases is a BEV. The efficiency of the different components is also represented, as well as the corresponding losses.
Two other aspects should also be pointed out: the arrows connecting the RESS to the wheels are bidirectional, because the vehicle
mechanical energy can be converted into electrical energy, through regenerative breaking, and recharge the battery (or supercapa-
citors; but not fuel cells); and that the arrows connecting the external electric power source to the RESS are represented unidirec-
tional as this is the most common case. However, if the vehicle is prepared for working in Vehicle-to-Grid, V2G, mode,
returning energy to the grid or to a house (Vehicle to Home, V2H), as is the case of Nissan Leaf and more recently of other models,
then those arrows would also be bidirectional.
It is also important to understand that a global efficiency is obtained multiplying the efficiencies in the energy chain. For
example, the efficiency of the energy that is used within the vehicle, which is usually called tank-to-wheel (TTW) efficiency,
hTTW, is calculated by using Eq. (11):
hTTW ¼ hbat hpec hm hgb (11)
If it is wanted to consider also the efficiency of the energy chain from the primary energy source until that energy is stored inside
the vehicle, which is commonly referred to as well-to-tank (WTT) efficiency, hWTT, by analogy with ICEVs, all efficiencies along the
energy pathway must be considered, i.e., take into account all the losses. Depending on the traction system (spark ignition for gaso-
line vehicles, compression ignition for diesel vehicles, electric vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles), it will depend on the primary energy
source (gas, oil, wind, biomass, .) and on the energy carrier (gasoline, diesel, biodiesel, hydrogen, electricity, ethanol).
So, along the entire energy chain, there are losses. Thus, grouping the entire energy chain, from obtaining the primary fuel, the
percentage of energy that reaches the wheels is called well-to-wheel (WTW) efficiency, hWTW, and can be obtained by the product of
all the path efficiencies or, simply by the product hWTThTTW.
Different values can be found in the literature for these efficiencies, hWTT, hTTW, and hTTW (Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017; Husain,
2010; Larminie and Lowry, 2012; Pereirinha and Trovão, 2012).
In Table 1, some scenarios of typical possible values are presented. The values presented for BEV 1, correspond to a BEV powered
by electricity generated from renewable sources, for BEV 2, correspond to a BEV powered by electricity produced by an efficient
combined-cycle power plant (that can reach efficiencies up to 62%, but 55% was considered), and for BEV 3 correspond to a lower
efficiency (33%) single cycle steam power plant for electricity production and in general, the different components in the energy
chain have lower efficiency than for BEV 1 and BEV 2.
The values of the different efficiencies are also presented in Fig. 14. It can be clearly seen that with a bad choice of solutions,
a BEV may not have an energy (and therefore neither greenhouse gas emissions) advantage over an ICEV, as in the case of BEV
3 vs. ICEV 1. This is the argument often used by EV opponents. However, with an intelligent choice of electric energy production,
increasing the penetration of renewable energies, and in particular when using only renewable energies, EVs can be much more effi-
cient than ICEVs: for example, BEV 2 is twice as efficient as ICEV 1, and BEV 1 is 4 times more efficient than ICEV 1 and 4.7 times
more efficient than ICEV 2. These values can increase even more in situations where EVs can recover an important share of energy
through regenerative braking, namely when driving in cities and in mountainous regions, since in ICEVs this energy is wasted, being
dissipated in the brakes. In the last line of Table 1 (hWTW-R) a recovery of 10% of the energy used in the EV was considered.
It is important to note that the exact hWTW values for each specific vehicle depend not only on the vehicle, but on the source of
electrical energy (generated from renewable, fossil) or fossil fuel, on the transport and distribution of fuel/electricity and on the type
of charging in the case of EVs (fast or slow), which have a direct influence on the hWTT, and also on the type of driving (economy-
Table 1 WTT, TTW and WTW efficiency comparison for different powertrains.
ICEV 1 diesel ICEV 2 gasoline BEV 1 (renew. EG) BEV 2 (good EG) BEV 3 (normal EG)
Effic. % Effic. % Effic. % Effic. % Effic. %
Oil extraction and refining 90 90 97 95

Transport and distribution to tank 97 97
Engine 20 17
Electricity generation 100 55 33
Electricity transport and distribution 94 94 92
Batteries charger, hCharger 92 90 85
Battery, hbat 95 95 90
Motor controller/power electr. conv., hpec 94 90 85
Electric/traction motor,hm 90 90 85
Drivetrain/mech. transmission,hgb 97 97 97 97 96
Well-to-tank eff., hWTT 87% 87% 86% 45% 25%
Tank-to-wheel eff., hTTW 19% 16% 78% 75% 62%
Well-to-wheel eff., hWTW 17% 14% 67% 34% 15%
Regenerative breaking energy (þ10%) 110 110 110
Well-to-wheel eff. w/reg., hWTW-R 17% 14% 74% 37% 17%
Well-to-Tank eff., ηWTT Tank-to-Wheel eff., ηTTW

Well-to-Wheel eff., ηWTW Well-to-Wheel eff. w/ Reg., ηWTW-R
87%
87%
86%
78%
75%
74%
67%
45%
37%
34%
25%
19%
17%
17%
17%
16%
15%
14%
14%
DIESEL GASOLINE RENEW. EG GOOD EG NORMAL EG
ICEV 1 ICEV 2 BEV 1 BEV 2 BEV 3
Fig. 14 Example of Well-to-Tank, Tank-to-Wheel, Well-to-Wheel, and Well-to-Wheel with regenerative breaking, for different powertrains.
ecological, sporty, low speed or high speed), the location (city, countryside, highway, mountain), and even the weight carried in the
vehicle (number and weight of passengers, weight of cargo), which have a direct influence on the hTTW. The same applies to the
emissions resulting from a particular vehicle and even more to different vehicles. For example, the WTW emissions of EV depending
on the energy-mix used to produce electricity in different States in the USA can be found in (US DOE, n.d.).
So, in order to be able to directly compare different vehicles, it is therefore necessary to use the same comparison standards. To
analyze consumption and emissions inside the vehicle, TTW, it can be used the Worldwide Harmonized Light Vehicle Test Proce-
dure, WLTP (WLTPfacts.eu, n.d.), which is mandatory in Europe since September 2017 (and that, gradually, has already replaced the
old New European Driving Cycle, NEDC), or the EPA Federal Test Procedure, FTP, used in the USA (US EPA, 2015).
Finally, there is a third level and more complete analysis, which includes not only the fuel chain and the use in the vehicle
(WTT þ TTW ¼ WTW), but its entire life cycle, i.e., also the emissions, the effects on the environment and human health, and
the energy consumption associated with the manufacture of all the components of the vehicle and the entire logistics chain until
its installation in the vehicle, the vehicle assembly, the vehicle maintenance and also its recycling after the end of life. This is called
“Life Cycle Assessment”, LCA (or sometimes “Life Cycle Analysis”). This methodology is standardized by ISO 14040 standards series
(ISO 14040, 2006) and many applications to EV can be found in the literature, like in Messagie et al. (2014), Van Mierlo et al.
(2017), Gorner (2020), Koroma et al. (2022).
To summarize, quite different results can be obtained for WTT, TTW, WTW and LCA for EVs, HEVs, PHEVs and ICEVs (Woody
et al., 2022), due to reasons already presented. Nevertheless, to summarize, it can be said that BEVs are at least 2 or 3 more efficient
and with the same decrease in Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions relatively to ICEVs, at least for Europe and USA, as can be seen in
Fig. 15 Bieker (n.d.).
Indeed, also the IEA recognizes that EVs are two-to four-times more efficient than conventional ICEVs, contributing significantly
to reduce GHG, and the absence of tail pipe emissions help to solve air pollution problems, among other advantages (IEA, 2021).
Energy storage systems: batteries (and others)
Of all the EVs’ components during this more than 120 years of history, the most critical has been the energy storage system, also
called energy source, which are mainly batteries.
Definitions relating to batteries and energy storage systems

Before introducing the batteries there are some important definitions regarding batteries and other RESS that must be presented. The
following are textual quotes from the standard ISO/TR 8713: 2019 (ISO/TR 8713, 2019), with slight text rearrangements and small
additions:
Fig. 15 Life-cycle GHG emissions of average medium-size gasoline ICEVs and BEVs in Europe, USA, China, and India. Source: International Council
on Clean Transportation, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
sa/3.0/.
• Capacity, Cd“total number of ampere-hours (Ah) that can be withdrawn from a fully charged RESS under specified condi-
tions”. In most current vehicles is expressed in kWh, by multiplying the rated voltage in V by the capacity in Ah.
• Rated Capacity, Cd“supplier’s specification of the total number of ampere hours that can be withdrawn from a fully charged
battery pack or system for a specified set of test conditions such as discharge rate, temperature and discharge cut-off voltage”. In
most vehicles is expressed in kWh, by multiplying the rated voltage in V by the capacity in Ah.
• Rechargeable Energy Storage System (RESS)d“rechargeable system that stores energy for delivery of electric energy for the
electric drive” “(example: Battery, capacitor, flywheel)”.
• Specific Energyd“amount of stored energy related to the battery pack or system mass”. Notes: “The mass of battery pack or
system includes the mass of the temperature conditioning system if any up to the point of a reversible attachment of the coolant
lines or air ducts and the coolant mass”. “Specific energy is expressed in watt hours per kilogram (Wh/kg)”. It is also sometimes
called “gravimetric energy density”.
• Energy Densityd“amount of stored energy related to the battery pack or system volume”. Notes: “the battery pack or system
includes the cooling system, if any, to the point of a reversible attachment of the coolant lines or air ducts, respectively”. “Energy
density is expressed in watt hours per liter (Wh/L)”. It is also sometimes called “volumetric energy density”.
• RESS State of Charge, RESS SOCd“residual capacity of RESS available to be discharged.” Note: “RESS state of charge is normally
expressed as a percentage of full charge.” It is usually simply called State of Charge, SOC.
Another important quantity is the “Discharge Rate”. This, according to the International Electrotechnical Commission, IEC, in its
International Electrotechnical Vocabulary, available at www.electropedia.org, represents the “electric current at which a battery is
discharged. Note: The discharge rate is calculated as the rated capacity divided by the corresponding discharge time which results
in an electric current.” However, this is often given as a function of the rated capacity: for example, “discharge at 2C”. If the rated
capacity is 100 Ah, a discharge rate of 2C means discharging at a current of 200 A.
When using the term battery, a distinction should also be made between the cell, a module, and a battery pack. A battery cell, or
simply a cell, is the basic individual component where the electrochemical energy storage occurs, composed basically of an anode
(negative electrode), a cathode (positive electrode), a separator in between them to avoid the electrodes to touch each other, and an
electrolyte to allow the ions to travel between the electrodes. This set is enclosed in a casing for mechanical protection. A number of
cells can be grouped together, in series and parallel, constituting a module, which can also include electronic modules and compo-
nents of the cooling/heating system. Finally, the battery pack consists of a set of modules (or of many cells, if they are not assembled
into modules), plus all other necessary functional and safety components included in the same external casing: the Battery Manage-
ment System (BMS), the temperature management system (TMS), connection and isolation contactors, insulation monitoring
system, control and power wiring (high voltage harness), short circuit protection, etc. The battery pack is also called traction battery
or battery system.
Classical and lithium-ion battery chemistries

As can be conclude from Section History and evolution of EV, the most commonly used batteries in EVs along their history are of
four main chemistries: lead-acid (Pb), Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) and, more recently, Lithium-ion.
Table 2 shows a summary of typical values of the main characteristics of each of these chemicals.
Lead-acid batteries are still being used in some low cost or specific electric vehicles like golf cars where lower autonomy or weight
are not very relevant, or especially if weight is wanted, as in forklifts. NiCd batteries were used in some EVs around year 2000 but,
due to its toxicity, were replaced by NiMH. NiMH have been used mainly in HEV but the most recent versions of these are already
using Li-ion batteries. Finally, almost all modern EVs (since the 2008 Tesla Roadster and the 2011 Nissan Leaf) use Li-ion batteries.
There are different Li-ion chemistries, as will be presented further on, but first it is important to see a schematic representation of
a typical lithium-ion battery (in this case, of Lithium Iron Phosphate), as can be seen in Fig. 16. The different main components at
different microscopic scales (Anseán González, 2015) are:
• the negative graphite electrode, on the left side, with the copper electrical current collector;
• the positive electrode, on the right side of the cell, in this case made of iron phosphate, with the current collector in aluminum;
• the separator that prevents the electrodes from touching and short circuiting, being permeable to the electrolyte;
• the electrolyte that allows the circulation of lithium ions from the positive electrode (cathode) to the negative electrode (anode)
during charging and vice versa during discharge, but that is electrically insulating, not allowing electrons to circulate inside the
battery, being forced to circulate externally, establishing an electric current that will feed the load (in the case of the figure,
discharge);
• at the right side of the figure, the graphite particles can be seen, at the negative electrode, with an average dimension of 5 mm and
the structure of graphite layers, with a distance of about 0.3 nm between them and the lithium ions that are intercalated between
the graphite layers during the charge and that return to the positive electrode during discharge (as in the figure), intercalating
into the iron phosphate structure, becoming Lithium Iron Phosphate, LiFePO4.
So, during the discharge process, Liþ ions cross the electrolyte from the anode to the cathode. Since the electrolyte is electrically
insulating the electrons are forced to pass through the external electric load, from the anode (negative electrode, which is oxidized),
to the cathode. Here the electrons are accepted and the cathode material is reduced. During charging, the reverse process occurs. The
overall electrochemical reaction, for a graphite anode and a lithium iron phosphate cathode in stoichiometric or balanced propor-
tions, can be written as follows, during discharge as in Eq. (12):
LiC6 þ FePO4 > Li1x C6 þ Lix FePO4 (12)
The basic functioning of the battery cell is determined by this reaction, from which results its theoretical voltage, capacity and
energy.
Table 3 shows the main variants of chemistries currently used in lithium-ion battery cells. Briefly, the two “limit chemistries” can
be said to be:
• Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO), LiCoO2ddespite low power density and short life cycles, typically less than 500 cycles, they have
the highest energy density and are therefore used in portable computers, tablets and mobile phones. However, they have the
Table 2 Comparison of typical characteristics of classical battery cell chemistries.
Unit Lead-acid (deep-cycle) NiCd NiMH Lithium-ion
Cell voltage: ratted (typical min/max) V 2 (1.75/2.45) 1.2 (1.0/1.5) 1.2 (1.0/1.5) 2.4–3.8 (*/*)a
Specific energy Wh/kg 30–50 35–80 55–120 100–300
Energy density Wh/L 50–90 50–70 160–420 125–600þ
Specific power W/kg 100–200 100–150 100–500 500–5000
Maximum discharge C rate 6–10 C 20 C 15 C 80 C
Useful capacity DOD%b 50–60 50 50–80 >80
Charge efficiency % 60–80 60–80 70–90 >95
Self-discharge %/month 3–4 15–20 15–30 2–3

Temperature: charge discharge C 20 to 50 0–45 0–45 0–45
20 to 50 20 to 65 20 to 65 20 to 60
Cycle life Number of cycles 200–400 300–1000 300–1000 500–2000
Memory effect No Yes Yes (<NiCd) No No
Microcycle tolerance Deteriorates Deteriorates Yes Yes
Robustness (over/under voltage) Yes Yes Yes Needs BMS
a
Depend on particular Lithium-ion chemistry-ion chemistry. On most cells with cobalt and manganese, protection circuit cuts off below about 2.2–2.5 V and above 4.2–4.3 V; for
lithium-iron-phosphate, below 2.5 V and above 3.6–4.2 V. b DOD: Depth of Discharge. Equal to 100%-SOC.
Adapted mainly from JMBS (2017) and Battery University (2020).
Fig. 16 Schematic representation of a typical lithium-ion battery during discharge, with the main components at different microscopic scales
(Anseán González, 2015).
Table 3 Comparison of typical characteristics of the main Li-ion chemistry variants at cell level.
Specific energy Energy density Typical power Cycle life Thermal runaway Nominal a (max/min) Typical temp. range Market
(Wh/kg) (Wh/L) (C-rate) (ideal) onset voltage (V) (ambient) arrival
LCO 175–240 400–640 1 C 300–1000 150 C 3.6 (2.5/4.2) 20 to 60 C 1991

NCA (EV) 130–260 490–670 2–3 C 500 150 C 3.6 (2.5/4.2) 20 to 60 C 1999
LFPb (EV/ 90–150 190–300 5 C cont. 10 C 2000 270 C 3.2, 3.3 (2.0/3.65) 20 to 60 C 1996
PHEV) pulse
LFPc (HEV) 70–110 100–170 30 C cont. 40 C 2000 270 C 3.2, 3.3 (2.0/3.65) 30 to 60 C 1996
pulse
NMC (EV/ 100–220 260–400 3 C cont. 6 C 1000– 210 C 3.6, 3.7 (2.5/4.2) 20 to 60 C 2008
PHEV) pulse 2000
NMC (HEV) 70–100 150–200 10 C cont. 40 C 1000– 210 C 3.6, 3.7 (2.5/4.2) 20 to 60 C 2008
pulse 2000
LTO 70–130 170–230 10 C cont. 60 C 3000– Not susceptible 2.4 (1.5/2.85) 30 to 75 C 2008
pulse 7000
LMO (EV/ 100–240 240–360 3–10 C 300–700 250 C 3.7, 3.83.6, (2.5/4.2) 20 to 60 C 1996
PHEV)
a
Rated voltage.
b
Optimized for energy: for EV and PHEV.
c
Optimized for power: for HEV.
Adapted mainly from JMBS (2017) and Battery University (2020).
serious drawback of being less thermally stable than phosphate-based chemistries, and therefore more susceptible to thermal
runaway, fire and explosion, when subjected to severe abuse. This makes them unsuitable for use in electric-powered vehicles;
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), LiFePO4dhas good thermal and chemical stability, allowing a high number of cycles (over 2000
cycles, but up to 7000) and high power densities, particularly in cells optimized for power to use in HEV. The main drawback is
that its energy density and specific energy are lower than that of other lithium-ion chemistries. However, they represent
a significant improvement over LCO in terms of cost, safety and toxicity.
The remaining variants in Table 3 are attempts to try to mitigate the drawbacks and approximate (or surpass) the best features of
each of the previous two:
• Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (NCA), LiNiCoAlO2dSlightly safer and with a higher number of life cycles than LCO;
more expensive, are typically used in some Tesla vehicles.
• Lithium Manganese Oxide Spinel (LMO), LiMn2O4dcell voltage is higher and thermally more stable than LCO (except at
higher temperatures in the case of lithium-based electrolytes), but with a density of energy about 20% lower;
• Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese Oxide (NCM or NMC), LiNixCoyMnzO2dcan be optimized to give high specific energy and/
or high specific potency and is considered safer and more cost-effective than LCO and the LFP, with a reasonable life expectancy;
currently, is the most used chemistry in EVs.
• Lithium Titanate Oxide (LTO), Li4Ti5O12din these cells, the graphite negative electrode is replaced by lithium titanate. This is
compatible with all the above positive electrode materials, but is typically used in combination with Manganese-based mate-
rials. They feature superior discharge rate and power over a wide range of operating temperatures. They are considered a safer
alternative to the graphite electrode due to the higher potential vs. Li/Liþ and thus having a certain degree of intrinsic overload
protection. They have high efficiency and long cycle life. Nevertheless, lithium titanate batteries tend to have a lower energy
density than graphite-based systems and are more expensive.
A little more detailed description of the characteristics of these lithium variants can also be found in BU-205 (2010) and in more
depth in Ehsani et al. (2018), Husain (2021), among others.
A video of the prototype production of the BMW Group fifth-generation e-drive train (with the electric motor, the power elec-
tronics and the transmission combined in the same frame) and the battery cells, module and pack, can be seen at GommeBlog.it:
Car and Performance (2017).
Some challenges, evolution and future

One of the main challenges related to batteries is the degradation of cells, which can essentially be due to two interconnected causes:
use (including abuse) and the passage of time (calendar aging). Fig. 17 presents the main degradation processes that can occur in
lithium-ion cells, which can be grouped into loss of lithium inventory, loss of active material and changes in polarization resis-
tances, as is explained in much deeper detail, for example, in Anseán González (2015).
So, a very important aspect in the battery performance, safety and life time is the battery management system, BMS, which basi-
cally has to measure the voltages, currents and temperatures, ideally, of the individual cells, but almost always at module level, to
ensure that the recommended, maximum and minimum values of different parameters are respected. The BMS is composed of hard-
ware and software and usually also calculates the SOC, the State of Health (SOH) and communicates with the vehicle higher control
level (vehicle control unit, VCU), giving the battery status, the current and power available and also performing the battery cell
balancing (discharge individual cells or transfer energy between them, so that all the cells are at the same SOC. This tries to prevent
that some individual cells are overcharged or over discharged during charging or usage, which would degrade them very quickly). It
can include or coordinate with an independent Battery Thermal Management System, which is also fundamental to keep the cells
temperature within an ideal and narrow temperature range and as uniform as possible within the battery pack (He et al., 2022) to
Fig. 17 Schematic representation of possible degradation in lithium-ion batteries (Anseán González, 2015).
Fig. 18 Development of gravimetric energy density (“specific energy”) at cell level between 2010 and 2030 (König et al., 2021).
Fig. 19 Development of volumetric energy density (“energy density”) at the cell level between 2010 and 2030 (König et al., 2021).
prevent temperatures that will accelerate the degradation of the cells, and, in any case, to not allow temperatures that will start
thermal runway that will definitive damage the cells, the battery pack and, in the worst cases, start a fire and destroy the vehicle
(Surya et al., 2022).
Another challenge is the energy density and specific energy of the cells and of the battery pack, as it will influence the quantity of
energy that can be put in the available volume and the battery and vehicle weights, which should be as low as possible. It is impor-
tant to note that, whatever the shape of the cells (cylindrical, pouch or prismatic), their energy density and specific energy have been
increasing in an approximately linear manner over the last 10–15 years, and the trend is expected to continue, as can be seen in
Figs. 18 and 19.
This translates into a corresponding increase in energy density and specific energy, at pack level, for the EV models that have been
placed on the market, as can be seen in Figs. 20 and 21.
More detailed and relevant information about the energy density and other aspects can be found free of charge at the extract from
the report (Total Battery Consulting, 2019).
Regarding the future, several other cell chemistries have been announced at least in the last two decades, which, in spite of the
possible higher energy density and specific energy, have not yet overcome practical problems and reached the market, as Lithium-
Sulfur, Lithium-Air cells and Sodium-Ion. Meanwhile, the trend has been the increase in the energy density of Li-ion variants, both
at cell level and at pack level (Crider, 2022), namely by manufacturing process improvement, and but also by trying to use only
nickel and manganese in the cathode, in cells without cobalt (Ulrich, 2022), or to replace the liquid electrolyte by dry electrodes,
leading to dry or solid-state batteries (Lu et al., 2022; Morris, 2022).
As the number of EVs reaching the road and foreseen in the near future is increasing, other challenges related to the batteries are
the raw materials, cell components, and cells supply. And recycling them after their end-of-life, which besides decreasing the
Fig. 20 Development of gravimetric energy density (“specific energy”) at the pack level between 2010 and 2020 for different BEVs (König et al.,
2021).
Fig. 21 Development of volumetric energy density (“energy density”) at the pack level between 2010 and 2020 for different BEVs (König et al.,
2021).
environmental impacts of the EV batteries can be a very important source of material for new cells. This would be a long topic but
that is interestingly presented for example in Boyer (2022), Shah (2022) and that is starting to scale up (Colthorpe, 2022), as
increasing quantities of batteries to recycle start to appear, since the first modern EVs, the first Tesla Rodster and Nissan Leaf models,
are now more than 10 years old.
Currently, the batteries most used in EVs are ternary power lithium batteries, that are secondary (i.e., rechargeable) lithium
batteries using three main components, nickel-cobalt-manganese, NCM (or aluminum, NCA), due to the higher energy density.
However, they are usually limited to 400 or 500, with 10%–90% SoC charge-discharge cycles, before reaching the end-of-life for
EV application (70% useful capacity compared to the rated capacity) (Grepow, 2020; Mylion, 2022; OSM Energy, 2021). That
means that a vehicle with an autonomy of 500 km has a total driving distance between 200,000 km and 250,000 km before the
end of life. This value can be increased if deep/full charge-discharge cycles are avoided (for example using 30%–70% SoC in
most days’ utilization) as well as very fast charge and very aggressive driving, or can decreased if not. On the other hand, LFP
batteries have usually 2000 cycles lifetime and are intrinsically safer, but with lower energy density, the vehicle autonomy is smaller.
Nevertheless, as battery research and manufacturing keeps improving, if the energy density of LFP keeps increasing, this technology
that is cheaper, safer, and uses more common materials is a strong candidate to be used in more EV models. Indeed, one of the
biggest world battery manufacturers, the Chinese BYD, has announced in March 2020, its Blade Battery with an energy density
at battery pack of around 140 Wh/kg (BYD, 2021; Dong, 2022; Lima, 2021), very high safety, affordable, high life cycle (3000 cycles
estimated) which equips one of the most sold EV in the world in 2021, as can be seen in EV market evolution: sales and forecasts
section, but is also being used in other BYD models. Recent news mention the development of a second-generation BYD Blade
battery that will have a 180 Wh/kg energy density at pack level (Kothari, 2022a). So, it is not surprising that even Tesla is considering
shifting to LFP at least for the “less-high-end EVs” (Standard Range vehicles), especially in models produced in China but also glob-
ally (Kane, 2021; Lee-Jones, 2021; Malik, 2022), while continuing betting in their new (announced) 4680-type cylindrical battery
cells (Field, 2020; Kane, 2022a).
Lithium titanate has around 10,000 cycles and accepting very high charge-discharge rates (10 C–60 C), but due to higher costs
and lower energy density, is typically used only for opportunistic charges in electric buses with small capacity batteries and very high
charging power (circa 500 kW) using pantographs at bus stops (Carrilero et al., 2018).
To conclude this subsection, an extraordinary path has been taken in EV’s batteries since the first Tesla Roadster (2008) and Nis-
san Leaf (2011). There is still a long way to go in order to have cells and batteries closer to the ideal: cheap, with a high number of
life cycles and calendar life, totally safe, light and with high energy density, allowing ultra-fast charging without significant degra-
dation, with widely disseminated raw materials and with very low environmental impacts, both in the manufacturing process and in
the recycling process. However, what is important to retain is that the battery packs have already reached a level of maturity and
security that most manufacturers give 8 years or 160,000 km warranty for the traction battery of the EV being sold today and
soon they might pass the vehicle normal lifetime.
Next, another possible RESS system, the fuel cell system, is shortly presented.
Fuel cells
Even though fuel cell electric vehicles, FCEVs, have been for long presented as the ultimate solution for sustainable mobility, the
issues related to the production, transportation and storage of hydrogen, the availability cost of supply infrastructure (hydrogen
supply stations), the fuel cell itself, and the lower energy efficiency compared to BEVs leading to a higher fuel cost, are starting
to reduce interest in using FCEVs for common passenger vehicle applications. Specially, when BEVs have been shrinking the two
main advantages typically announced for FCEVs: longer range and faster refueling. Nevertheless, there have been two main relevant
FCEVs, offered in some particular regions (specially California and Japan), the Toyota Mirai and the Honda Clarity FCEV. Interesting
explanations about proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) and the Mirai can be found in Green Car Congress (2016),
Toyota USA (2014). However, the Honda Clarity FCEV has been announced to stop production by August 2021 (Hill, 2021). A
very interesting article, with a review on FCEVs, including topologies, power electronic converters and electric motors, the energy
management strategies, a presentation of the FCEVs produced by main car manufacturers, and a discussion on the fueling infrastruc-
_
ture is (Inci et al., 2021).
Some possible interest road applications may remain for long distance coaches and trucks and some city buses, with some
companies presenting fuel cell electric buses (H2.City Gold, 2019). Other transportation applications like trains (Siemens, n.d.),
aviation and ships are also possible users of FCs, possibly with other types of FCs.
Motors (and drives)
Electric motors and their drives are also fundamental components of EVs as they are responsible for converting the electric energy
into motion. First of all, it is important to recall that, generally, an electric machine is reversible, working as a motor, converting
electric into mechanical energy, or as a generator, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. In an EV (or in a HEV),
the traction machine works mainly as electric motor, but when the vehicle is reducing speed or going downhill the electric machine
works as generator, recovering kinetic (mechanical) energy that would be otherwise spent as heat in the breaks (or mechanical fric-
tion in the engine of an ICEV, keeping it in low gear).
Past and present electric motors (and drives)

There is not a unique classification of electric machines: for example, five different ones for EVs and HEVs, can be seen in Boldea
et al. (2014), Ehsani et al. (2018), Neapolitan and Nam (2018), Agamloh et al. (2020), Cai et al. (2021). One usual classification
would be starting to organize by the type of motion: rotating or linear. In mobility, these last ones are only applied to magnetic
levitation trains, MAGLEV, so the only relevant here are rotating machines. Also, they can be separated into alternating current
(AC) machines and direct current (DC) machines, but even this is not totally crystal clear as, for example, the so called brushless
direct current machines, BLDC, are not really DC machines: they are powered by nearly rectangular alternating current (Zhu and
Howe, 2007), producing a trapezoidal back-EMF (back electromotive force, which is a voltage). In Fig. 22 can be seen one possible
classification of the electrical machines used for EVs and HEVs, not coincident with any of those presented in the five references at
the beginning of this paragraph, but that represent the majority of the EMs currently in use. There are many other electrical machines
that are not represented here as they are not well suitable or used in EVs. The most used currently are painted in light blue.
The main advantage of classical DC machines (with commutator and brushes) is the ease of controlling the speed (Cai et al.,
2021), reason for which this type has been the dominant electric motor since the last years of the 19th century in the first EVs,
but also in electric trams and trains. The speed control was done using power resistances varying the voltage and consequently
Electric Machines for EV (and HEV)
AC DC
Asynchronous Synchronous Commutator &

brushes
Induction Variable PM Wound Field PM

reluctance rotor circuit
Three-phase Switched Brushless DC Series excit.

Squirrel cage (IM) reluctance (SRM) (BLDC)
Synchronous Interior PM Separated

reluctance (SynRM) (IPM) excitation
PMSM
PM Assisted SynRM Surface PM
(BLAC)
(PMaSynRM) (SPM)
Fig. 22 Possible classification of electric machines most suitable for EVs and HEVs.
the current applied to the rotor (armature) and stator (field) windings. However, after the emergence of power electronics and the
development of a wide range of converters (Chau, 2015; Mi and Masrur, 2017; Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017; ke et al., 2020; Maroti
et al., 2022), more efficient speed control has become possible for DC machines but, especially, many other electric motors could
start to be used in EVs. Indeed, the fundamental characteristics needed for a good electric machine for EVs are mainly high torque
and power densities, high starting torque and at low speeds, high power for cruising at high speed, a speed range higher than that
usually needed for industrial applications, high efficiency over a wide range of speed and torque (including low speed and low tor-
que), intermittent overload capability (typically two times the rated torque for short periods), high reliability and high robustness
for the hard EV usage, and, of course, acceptable cost for the vehicle segment (Zhu and Howe, 2007).
Today, although the most common machines used in conversion kits to convert ICEVs into EVs are the brushed series DC (Chan-
cey, 2022), these have high volume, low efficiency, high electromagnetic interference (EMI), and reliability issues that imply
frequent maintenance (Mi and Masrur, 2017). Wound rotor synchronous machines are not frequently used, but a notable exception
is the Renault Zoe (Neapolitan and Nam, 2018). So, in new EV produced by car manufacturers, the most common and important
electric machines, according to Zhu and Howe (2007), El-Refaie (2013), Chau (2015), Hayes and Goodarzi (2017), Ehsani et al.
(2018), Neapolitan and Nam (2018), Husain (2021), Cai et al. (2021), are:
• Three-phase squirrel cage asynchronous machines, commonly referred to as induction machines, IM;
• Brushless permanent magnet machines: either direct current (commonly known as BLDC, brushless DC machines), or alter-
nating current (known as BLAC, brushless AC machines, or more often as PMSM, Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines);
• Reluctance machines: these can be the classical Switched Reluctance Machines, SRM (Gan et al., 2018), or the more recent
Synchronous Reluctance Machines, SynRM, and the Permanent Magnet Assisted Synchronous Reluctance Machines (PMa-
SynRM), also known as Synchronous Reluctance Permanent Magnet, SRPM.
In Fig. 23 representations of examples of each of these three main technologies can be seen (Zhu and Howe, 2007).
Regarding the different variants of PMSM (Zhu and Howe, 2007; El-Refaie, 2013; Chau, 2015; Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017; Mi
and Masrur, 2017; Ehsani et al., 2018; Neapolitan and Nam, 2018; Husain, 2021), the magnets can be mounted:
• on the exterior surface of the rotor (called Surface PM: SPM, or surface mounted PMSM: SPMSM), or at the exterior of the rotor
but in cavities (called Inset PM or inset SPMSM),
• or inside the rotor (Interior PM, IPM).
Fig. 23 Some of the main technologies of electric machines used in traction. (left) IMdinduction machine. (center) SRMdswitched reluctance
machine. (right) PMSMdpermanent magnet synchronous machine (internal magnets) (Zhu and Howe, 2007).
Fig. 24 Motors/generators in previous generation reference road hybrid vehicles (El-Refaie, 2013).
In Fig. 24, examples of permanent magnet motors/generators in reference HEVs of the previous generation can be seen, with their
respective power and torque, type of stator winding, type of rotor and voltage of the direct current bus voltage.
For BEVs, the electrical machines have usually higher power and a different shape, with longer stators and rotors in the shaft
direction than those for HEV. Photos of the motors used in some of the reference EVs (and HEVs) are presented in Fig. 25, where
it can be seen that IM are used as the front motor of the Tesla Model 3 (2018) and in front and rear motors of Audi e-tron (2019),
and PM AC synchronous motors (PMSM) are used in BMW i3 (2014), Chevrolet Bolt (2017), Jaguar I-PACE (2019), Nissan Leaf
(2019), and as the rear motor of Tesla Model 3 (2017), as well as in the HEV Chevrolet Volt (2016) and the Toyota Prius (2016).
This can see in more detail in a free to access presentation (Munro, 2020a), that shows many interesting details like the motors’
specifications, the magnetic steel laminations used, the PM shapes and characteristics, and cooling details.
Regarding the advantages of each technology, it can be said that the IMs, which are the workhorse in industry, are a good option
for EV for the same reasons: they are robust, low cost, allow wide field weakening range (permitting high speed at roughly constant
Fig. 25 Photos of 10 leading EV motors. Courtesy of Munro & Associates Inc., (Munro, 2020a).
power), fault tolerant, and have high reliability (Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017; Mi and Masrur, 2017). However, as they have induced
currents in the rotor with the corresponding losses, they have lower efficiency and power/torque density than PM motors. To
increase the power/torque density of IM for EV, these can be liquid cooled, with oil or special cooling fluids (Munro, 2020a)
including cooling the rotor through an hollow shaft. In Kondor (2019), a very interesting animation on how the Audi e-tron IM
and gearbox work together can be seen, including the cooling of the IM. IMs use mainly vector-control or field-oriented-control
(FOC) and three-phase voltage source inverters (VSI) with silicon-insulated-gate bipolar transistor (Si-IGBT). One exception is
the Tesla Model 3 that uses silicon carbide metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (SiC MOSFETs) (Husain et al., 2021).
The PM motors, since do not have currents in the rotor, with the corresponding losses and generated heat, have inherently higher
efficiency, higher power density and higher torque density, allowing compact machines, being dominant now in EV applications.
Usually, they use neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets. However, PM machines have also some drawbacks, namely the high
cost due to PM materials (which can account for about 60%–65% of the total cost of a IPM (Cai et al., 2014)), and the thermal and
demagnetization issues that PM can have. Also, their usage at high speed poses some challenges due to the back-EMF (back electro-
motive force, a voltage that the PM generate in the windings, depending on the rotation speed, and that decreases the current in the
windings, so decreasing the motor torque). Currently, IPM is the machine chosen by most car manufacturers, because in addition to
the torque due to the PM, as in the SPM, they also have the reluctance torque, allowing more compact machines (Chau, 2015; Mi
and Masrur, 2017; Hayes and Goodarzi, 2017; Ehsani et al., 2018; Agamloh et al., 2020; Husain, 2021).
Finally, the reluctance machines have the advantage of not having PM neither windings in the rotor. This reduce the cost and the
losses, and concentrates the remaining losses in the stator, which is easier to cool than the rotor. The SRM, which looks like a stepper
motor (or can be seen as a stepper motor with continuous motion), has the advantage of a highly robust and temperature resistant
rotor but the drawback of torque ripple and some acoustic noise (Ehsani et al., 2018; Husain, 2021). The SRM has concentrated
windings in the stator, typically with three or four phases, and a different number of salient poles in the stator and rotor (for
example 6/4, 8/6, 12/8, 18/12, 24/16), with a double saliency structure. Since, unlike other AC machines, the current in a SRM
can be unidirectional, they can use the classic half-bridge converter among others. Their main application is on off-highway vehicles,
like mining trucks, where the robustness is particularly important and vibrations and acoustic noise are not relevant comparatively
to the ICE alternatives (El-Refaie, 2013; Chau, 2015; Ehsani et al., 2018).
The SynRM also uses reluctance effects but with a totally different type of rotor, with flux barriers to conduct the magnetic flux,
and a three phase distributed winding in the stator. However, its torque density, power factor and efficiency are lower than PMSM
(Boldea et al., 2014). By adding low cost ferrite permanent magnets to rotor, the machine is called permanent magnet assisted
synchronous reluctance motor (PMaSynRM) and its performance is much improved, being able to reach efficiency similar to
IPM with 50% cost reduction of material and with much improved thermal robustness (from below 180 C to 200 C), even
with slightly lower torque (Morimoto et al., 2014). An interesting video showing the constructive differences and electromechanical
characteristics of SRM and SynRM is (OSWOS, 2021). Tesla has developed a very interesting PMaSynRM (that can also be called
IPM-SynRM), used in Model 3 and Model Y, with a very cleaver control to decrease the back-EMF, as explained clearly in the videos
(Lesics, 2020, p. 3; WeberAuto, 2021). These Tesla models also have an IM as a second EM in the dual motor versions.
To finish this subsection section, some very interesting videos allowing to visualize and deeper understand some concepts are:
The Engineers Post (2022a), that presents the main types of electric motors used in EV and HEV, relating them to some EV models,
their working principles and discusses different powertrains with one, two, three or four motors.
OSWOS (2020) an overview of electric motors types (not only for EV) and (another) possible motor classification.
Kondor (2021) a presentation of the drivetrains of the Mercedes EQS platform and of the Audi e-tron, showing its battery system,
the motors and the powertrain system, and the charging system, including vehicle to home possibility (V2H) of the Mercedes, as
well as the motor water cooling and the 800 V electrical system of the Audi.
WeberAuto (2021) a presentation of the components of disassembled IM and PM motors and powertrains of Tesla Model 3 and
Model Y, showing the modularity and interchangeability of the different components, in particular of the gears and other
mechanical components.
Munro Live (2021) A teardown of Volkswagen ID.4 electric motor, including an analysis of the unique gearbox, with the inverter
and motor cooling system being also shown. The motor stator hairpin winding (rectangular wire with higher slot filling factor,
which means that around 60% of the slot space is copper, contrarily to the circa 46% in a round wire coil) and the magnets
arrangement and offset along the rotor for noise reduction and torque smoothness are also described and compared to those of
Nisan Leaf and Tesla’s Model Y and Model 3.
Some trends for electric motors (and drives)

The machines currently used already have a very high level of reliability and performance (sometimes above 96% in certain
operating areas of the torque-speed graph), so the margin for improvements is not very high. The main challenges are increasing
the performance across the entire torque-speed range, reducing volume and weight, fault tolerance, decreasing cost (in particular
for permanent magnet machines) and increasing the permissible operating temperature without degradation of performance.
The worries about rare-earth materials availability, important for EV’s components and in particular for permanent magnet
motors, have been increasing in the last years. This has put more stress on developing designs reducing the usage of rare-
earth PM materials (in particular dysprosium), designs that use nonrare-earth PM and designs that do not include PM at all
(Boldea et al., 2014; EL-Refaie, 2019; Luk et al., 2020; Agamloh et al., 2020; Husain et al., 2021). Another trend is the increase
of the maximal rotation speed of the different motor types (PMSM, SRM, IM) (Aiso and Akatsu, 2022).
A new approach that may become more common in the future are the PM in-wheel motors. These provide direct-drive, elimi-
nating the mechanical gears and transmission and the corresponding mechanical transmission losses. They allow two- or four-wheel
torque vectoring, given the vehicle better handling and an amazing grip. They have also the advantage of leaving more space for the
passengers and the batteries. However, the unsprung masses, and the exposure to dust, water and vibrations are significant chal-
lenges (El-Refaie, 2013; Husain et al., 2021; The Engineers Post, 2022b). There are axial-flux (including double rotor axial flux)
and radial-flux in-wheel motors, but these last seem to be more attractive from the manufacturing point of view (Husain et al.,
2021). A classification and a presentation of the different axial flux machines, as well as a comparison with the conventional
radial-flux machines is done in Shao et al. (2021). Here it is concluded that the axial-flux PM (AFPM) machines are an attractive
solution, in particular the double-sided machines, when high power density is needed with serious restrictions on the motor axial
length. However, the AFPM have much larger interaction between the stator and the rotor PM than the radial flux machines, which
demands an accurate thermal and mechanical design, and strict manufacturing and mounting to avoid problems like eccentricity
and asymmetry.
Also the power electronics controllers for each motor have already reached a very high level of development (Hayes and Good-
arzi, 2017; Ehsani et al., 2018; ke et al., 2020; Husain, 2021; Maroti et al., 2022). The main challenges are largely common to those
of electric machines: increasing performance across the entire torque-speed range, reducing volume and weight, fault tolerance,
decreasing cost and increasing the allowable temperature of use without degrading other components’ characteristics. There are,
however, other characteristics in which greater progress would be desirable, namely use with higher voltages and temperatures
and overload capacity: in an electric machine, a transient overload of 200%–300% of the rated power is normally acceptable, which
in the case of power electronics is not possible, since its thermal inertia is much lower than that of electric machines. This forces
power electronics converters to have a rated power (and weight and added cost) much higher than that of the electric machine
in order to take advantage of the motor’s overload capacity.
These improvements involve the development and use of wide bandgap (WBG) materials for power electronics components for
EVs: silicon carbide (SiC) (Zhang et al., 2011; Han et al., 2014) and gallium nitride (GaN) (Letellier et al., 2015). WBG power
devices have significant advantages over the usual Si power devices, namely in the maximum voltage, operating temperature,
thermal conductivity, switching frequency and switching losses. So, even if the SiC and GaN power devices are still significantly
more expensive, they allow more compact, lighter, simpler for higher voltages, and more efficient converters for AC motor drivers
and for DC-DC converters to supply the inverter, for on-board charger or others (Do et al., 2020; Stremel, 2020; Husain et al., 2021;
Cai et al., 2021; Ayari et al., 2022). This is very important in EV’s applications and can overcome the power electronic components
overprice, due to the smaller and cheaper passive components (capacitors and inductances), decreased cooling needs, increased
range, and reduced battery costs (ELE Times News, 2021). Due to the higher voltage and power (up to 3.3 kV, 800 A, some hundred
kHz) SiC tends to be more suited for high power converters and motor drivers. Due to the higher switching frequencies and lower
power (up to 900 V, 150 A, switching frequency in the MHz range) GaN tend to be used in lower power converters, DC-DC
converters and onboard chargers (Van Do et al., 2021). Tesla was the first company to use SiC MOSFET in an in-house inverter
design for the Model 3 in 2018. It uses 24 SiC MOSFET (8 per phase) in the inverter for Model 3 and Model Y, with a similar esti-
mated cost (in the Model Y) to the 2019 Si IGBT inverters of Nissan Leaf and Jaguar I-PACE, with significantly higher efficiency, and
lower weight and volume, as can be seen in Munro (2020b). Since then, other companies have also produced SiC inverters for EV
applications by other companies (Cai et al., 2021).
Currently almost all EV use a fixed ratio gearbox, being exceptions the BMW i8, Porsche Taycan and Audi e-tron, which use a two-
speed gearbox. The usage of a two- or multi-speed gearboxes allow to increase the vehicle maximum speed without passing the
electric motor maximum speed and chose the maximum efficiency working region of the powertrain (electric motor, power elec-
tronic converter and gearbox/transmission). In Fig. 26, it can be seen the combined electric machine that for the example presented,
the first gear is well suited for lower speeds and higher torques, but the vehicle speed is limited to 150 km/h and the efficiency is
decreases for the lower torque regions. The second gear is better suited for lower torque and allow the vehicle speed to increase up to
240 km/h, with a very high efficiency specially in the low torque regions. Other examples show that with a not very efficient electric
machine and inverter with an average efficiency of circa 77% the usage of a two speed gearbox increases the range to up to 16%, and
that a continuously variable transmission (CVT) can also provide significant efficiency improvement. When high efficiency motors
and inverters are already used, the margin for efficiency gains is smaller. Also it is important that the multi-speed gearboxes do not
introduce significant audible noise (Machado et al., 2021).
Chargers and charging
A crucial aspect for the increase of EVs’ market share is the existence of a wide EVs’ charging network, in particular fast charging, to
eliminate autonomy anxiety. Unlike ICEVs that are almost only charged at commercial gas stations, EVs can be charged at home, at
workplace or at public charging stations, even if in semi-public areas like retail parks or shopping centers.
Fig. 26 EV combined traction machine and inverter efficiency when operated in first and second gear. To the left of the shift line, operation in the
first gear is more efficient; to the right of the shift line, operation in the second gear is more efficient (in Machado et al., 2021), licensed under
a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. (For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Types of chargers, charging modes, plugs & sockets-outlets, cables and standards
As mentioned in Main components of electric vehicles and advantages of EVs section, EVs can be charged with an on-board
charger, which converts inside the vehicle the AC voltage to DC voltage to charge the battery, or using an external semi-fast, fast
or ultrafast charger. On-board chargers have lower power, are smaller, lighter and cheaper, normally having powers up to
7.4 kW in single-phase and 22 kW in three-phase, both for 32 A.
Regarding external chargers, there are different solutions:
- in AC, usually from 3.7 to 22 kVA (or even 43 kW, usually integrated in an external DC fast-charger) (ABB, 2022; Efacec, 2022;
MAGNUM CAP, 2022). As the battery has to be charged in DC, the AC has to be rectified by the EV’s internal charger;
- supply the EV directly with DC power, by externally converting the AC into DC, and bypassing the vehicle on-board charger. For
this, communication between the EV BMS and the charger is crucial and mandatory. These have powers from 50 kW up to about
350 kW, or higher (ABB, 2022; Efacec, 2022; i-charging, 2022; MAGNUM CAP, 2022; Siemens, 2022) as can be seen in Fig. 27. It
should be noticed that there are chargers with outputs both in DC and AC, like the ones in Fig. 27A and B.
- The two solutions above use cables and plugs, being called conductive charging. However, there are also some proposals for
wireless charging, i.e., through magnetic induction. At least for some applications like taxi or buses fleets this would bepartic-
ularly interesting as allows to charge easily and comfortably while waiting in a queue for clients, being able to move and charging
without needing to connect and disconnect plugs (Dragan, 2021; WiTricity, 2022).
Fig. 27 (A) Fast-charger (60–120 kW, up 920 V) and, (B) ultra-fast chargers (350 kW, up to 920 V, 500 A) from EFACEC (Efacec, 2022), (C) i-
charging chargers (50 kW to 600 kW, up to 1000 V, 500 A) (i-charging, 2022).
A very important aspect are the plugs and sockets-outlets, and the communication standards used to allow the EV charge. So far,
there is not a unique plug and socket-outlet to be used worldwide and there have been some difficulties on ensuring interoperability
between chargers, as there are a lot of standards covering EVs conductive charging as discussed for example in (Pereirinha et al.,
2016; Byczek, 2022).
There are mainly two international standards related with charging systems, with several parts each: the IEC 61851 series, Electric
vehicle conductive charging system, and the IEC 62196 series: Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle
inletsdConductive charging of electric vehicles.
IEC 61851–1 defines 4 charging modes for the chargers (also called electric vehicle supply equipment, E. These can be described
as follows (Arar, 2020; Ferrari, 2022).
• Mode 1: Slow charging from a household-type socket-outlet. Maximum 16 A current for single-phase (250 V max.) or three-
phase (480 V max.). It does not allow communication between the EV and the charge point. It is prohibited in some coun-
tries like the USA and England and has some restrictions in other countries like Germany or France.
• Mode 2: Slow charging from a household- or industrial-type socket-outlet with an in-cable control and protection device. Max.
32 A, for single-phase (250 V max.) or three-phase (480 V max.). It has restrictions in many countries.
• Mode 3: Slow or fast charging using specific EV plug and socket-outlet with control and protection function installed (max. 32 A,
for case B or 63 A for case C). It is the usual charging mode for wallboxes, public and commercial charging points and automatic
charging systems in AC. It guaranties the communication between the EV and the charger for security and control reasons.
• Mode 4: Fast charging up to 400 A, 1500 V, using an external charger. It converts the AC mains power to DC, supplying the EV in
DC.
This standard also defines three connection cases:
• Case Adcable permanently attached to the EV.

• Case Bdloose cable (not permanently attached to the EV neither to the electric vehicle supply equipment, EVSE).
• Case Cdcable permanently attached to the charging station.
IEC 62196–1, IEC 62196–2 and IEC 62196–3, define the general requirements, dimensional compatibility and interchange-ability
requirements for AC and DC plugs, socket-outlets and other accessories for conductive charging systems not exceeding 690 V AC
(50–60 Hz)d250 A; and 1500 V DCd800 A (IEC 62196–1:2022 CMV). IEC 62196–2:2016 (AC) and 62196–3:2014 (DC) present
different plug types:
• Type 1, single phase vehicle coupler, known as Yazaki or SAE J1772/2009. Used mainly in Japan and USA.
• Type 2, for single and three phase vehicle coupler and socket-outlet without shutters, according to VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 speci-
fications, which was known as Mennekes.
• Type 3, single and three phase vehicle coupler with shutters, like the SCAME plug from the EV Plug Alliance. This is no longer
used.
• Direct current coupler, known as CHAdeMO, used in Japan, from Japan Electric Vehicle Standard (JEVS) G105-1993 specifi-
cations, was the first one to be included. To allow both AC and DC charging of a vehicle, the Combo Charging Systems, CCS,
were later created, as can be seen in Fig. 28. CCS Combo1 or CCS1, for the USA, resulting from a Type 1 (Yazaki) connector
combined with a DC connector, and CCS Combo2, CCS2, for Europe, combining a Type 2 AC (“Mennekes”) with two DC pins.
For example, the charger in Fig. 27A can have different combinations of CHAdeMO, CCS and AC Type 2, being able to
simultaneously charge up to 3 EVs (2xDC þ 1xAC or 3xDC), and in Fig. 27B can charge simultaneously up to 2 EV in DC
(different CCS and/or CHAdeMO combinations) with a total power of 350 kW. Charger in Fig. 27C can charge one or two
vehicles with a combination of CCS2, CCS 1 or CHAdeMO, depending on the client request, and with a total power of 600 kW
(maximum 500 kW per output). Both chargers of Fig. 27B and C use liquid cooled cables to be able to withstand these huge
powers without the cable being too thick and heavy.
Regarding Tesla Motors, it uses its proprietary AC/DC charging system called SuperCharger, usually with a power up to 150 kW, or
250 kW for V3 (Tesla Supercharger, 2022), which in Europe is compatible with the CCS2. China has also its own plug socket known
as GB/T.
Fig. 28 Plugs (A) Type 1 J1772 (B) Type 2 AC (C) CHAdeMO (D) CCS1 (E) CCS 2. Courtesy of i-Charging.
In April 2020, the CHAdeMO Association presented a 3.0 version of its charging protocol, in a Japan-China alliance. This stan-
dard, called ChaoJi, proposes a new DC plug, with a power up to 900 kW, with 1500 V and 600 A.
Drawings of the plugs of the most used types of IEC 62196 are shown in Fig. 28.
Photos of these and other plugs and socket-outlets can be seen for example in Pereirinha et al. (2016), Berman (2020), Inter-
chargers (2022).
Other important international standards regarding charging are the series of:
IEC 61980-xdElectric vehicle wireless power transfer (WPT) systems; and
ISO 15118-xdRoad vehicles -Vehicle to grid communication interface.
Finally, at regional level, there are standards for USA, China and other parts of the world. These are briefly presented for example at
Byczek (2022), Pereirinha et al. (2016).
Charging networks and apps

The most efficient and with less impact in the electric distribution systems and electrical grid is conductive slow charging, at home or
workplace, and benefiting from reduced electricity tariffs. However, since one of the main concerns regarding EVs is the possibility to
charge quickly whenever is needed, and to overcome range anxiety, for wide EV adoption it is crucial the existence of a widely avail-
able charging network. According to a recent report from International Energy Agency, IEA, even if in most developed markets 50%–
90% of all charging sessions occurs at home, EV adoption is directly connected to the availability of a public charging infrastructure.
For example, a Chinese market analysis pointed out that it is four times more effective to invest in charging infrastructure to increase
EV adoption than to provide EVs purchasing subsidies. Consequently, this report provides policy makers with an overview of the
public charging infrastructure ecosystem and key recommendations for its successful development (IEA, 2022b).
According to this demand, the publicly accessible chargers (which means public chargers plus private but with publicly access
chargers) are expanding very quickly. In just five years, between 2015 and 2020, the number of publicly accessible slow and fast
chargers all over the world has increased seven times, to 1.3 million in 2020. Of these, around 380 thousand are fast EVSE
(more than 22 kW) and around 920 thousand slow chargers (below 22 kW). China alone accounted for more than 60% of the
world total publicly accessible chargers, with more than 80% of fast chargers and around 55% of all slow chargers. But these
numbers are expected to explode. At world level, the forecast from IEA for publicly accessible chargers for 2030 is 14 million
slow chargers and 2.3 million fast chargers in the Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS) and 20 million slow chargers and circa 4 million
fast chargers in the Sustainable Development Scenario (SDS) (IEA, 2021).
There is work going on also to install Megachargers, with power higher than 1 MW, to facilitate long-distance trucking, including
the preparation of an Ultra ChaoJi standard for 1.8 MW chargers and a new high power standard based on CCS, under the CharIN
initiative, called the Megawatt Charging System (MCS) (CharIN, 2022; IEA, 2021), and the IEC 61851-23-3 international standard
is in preparation with forecast publication date by December 2024 (IEC - TC 69, 2022).
Regarding the current status at each moment, it is very difficult to keep the pace. Some of the most relevant charging networks
are:
• Chargepoint: mainly in the EUA, but also increasing its presence on Europe, operating in 16 European markets (Charge Point,
2022a,b). According to (Pak, 2022) by the end of January 2022, had more than 174,000 active ports and 11,500 active DC ports,
and approaching 300,000 ports accessible through roaming integrations, namely with Allego, IONITY, EVgo (EVgo, 2022),
EVBOX, among others.
• Tesla had a global network of more than 30,000 Superchargers (Supercharger, n.d.), exclusive for Tesla and more than 4500 T
Destination Chargers, TDC, with lower power (usually up to 11 kW or 22 kW), typically at hotels, by May 2022. In some cases,
the TDC are only for Tesla, in other cases there is a mix of chargers only for Tesla and chargers for Tesla and others. Recently, Tesla
has also provided some Superchargers open to Non-Tesla EV in Europe, so far in Netherlands, France and Norway (Tesla - Find
Us, n.d.).
• In Europe, IONITY network was setup by main car manufacturers (BMW Group, Daimler AG, Ford Motor Company and
Volkswagen Group, and Hyundai Motor Group has joined in November 2020) to allow fast and long distance EV traveling.
IONITY had, by May 2022, more than 1700 high power 150 kW and 350 kW chargers (allowing to charge 50 kWh in 20 min
and 9 min, respectively, if the EV allows it), along highways in Europe, and expects to have almost 7000 ultrafast charging
stations spread by over 1000 locations across Europe. They use the CCS2 plugs and socket (Hyde, 2022; Ionity, 2022a,b).
• In the USA, a similar high power network is Electrify America, which uses CCS1 that can provide up to 350 kW and CHAdeMO
up 50 kW, in DC. In the USA, AC slow charger have powers from 3.3 kW to 19 kW, using Level 2 (L2) and Level 1 (L1) chargers,
which are typically used at home and workplaces and also in many public locations. Electrify America also provide some L2
chargers in selected locations, using a J1772 (Type 1) connector. By mid-May 2022, the Website of Electrify America indicated
758 stations live and 76 coming soon, with 2537 CCS and 743 CCS-CHAdeMO DC plugs, and 116 AC Level 2 charging points
(Electrify America, n.d.; Kane, 2022b).
• Allego (Europe): with almost 29,000 publicly accessible “charging ports” (i.e., charging sockets simultaneously available for
charging) by March 2022, either property of Allego or owned by third-party, distributed by AC charging (circa 26,900 charging
ports), fast charging (more than 1300 charging ports with 50 kW), and ultra-fast charging (613 charging ports with 150 kW–
350 kW (Kane, 2019)), already present in 15 European countries (Investors, 2022).
• Fastened (Europe): by mid May 2022 had around 200 fast charging stations, each with several CCS and CHAdeMO charging
points, and some stations also with AC Type 2 chargers, currently in the Netherlands, Germany, France, Switzerland and the
United Kingdom (Fastned, n.d.).
• China, is the biggest world EV market. By the end 2020, China had over 800,000 EV publicly accessible charging outlets, plus
around more 900,000 at home and workplaces. By September 2021, China had increased to 2.223 million “charging piles” (i.e.,
charging points/outlets) spread along nearly 70,000 charging stations across China. There were 9 operators with more than 1000
charging stations (McKerracher, 2021; World Record Academy, 2021).
• In march 2022, the UK government presented a plan to increase ten times the number of public EV charge points to 300,000 by
2030 (Flaherty, 2022).
In any case, it is very convenient to have software, either in the car navigation system or an App installed in a smartphone to find the
closer charging stations, and to have access to many relevant information and functions, for example the exact location, the power,
number and plug types, the availability of charging points, prices and possibility of booking the charging point. A comparison of
Apps for the USA can be found in Versaw (2022) and for Europe there are also specific Apps from charging networks (Allego has also
its Smoov App, as well as Fastned) or not specific, like PlugShare for all over the world (PlugShare, 2022) or Electromaps for Por-
tugal and Spain (Electromaps, 2022).
EV charging management, vehicle-to-grid, vehicle-to-home

It is also worth mentioning the impact of charging an important number of EVs on the local electric distribution network and to the
grid (grid-to-vehicle, G2V). As the number of EVs increase, the potential impact of this rises and intelligent load management may
be needed, especially during heat or cold peaks, where electricity usage for acclimatization increases sharply, or during the day, in
electricity peak consumption hours. This can be done through energy pricing incentives, charging time shifting and power reduc-
tion, warnings to EVs’ users, and so on. For example, by mid-2022, to help Texas (USA) electric grid to deal with the high electricity
consumption due to a heat wave that made six power generation facilities go offline, Tesla made an advice to is EV owners through
an in-car alert recommending to avoid charging during peak hours, in this case between 3 p.m. and 8 p.m. (Lambert, 2022a). There
is extensive work on charge (and also V2G) management, as can be seen for example in Aghajan-Eshkevari et al. (2022), in Al-Saadi
et al. (2022) regarding the optimization of heavy-duty EV charging, like buses and trucks, or in Onishi et al. (2020) about the inte-
gration of renewable energies and EVs’ demand response in parking lots, but the subject will not be more developed here.
A further step on electricity distribution system and electric grid management, is the possibility of returning energy from the
vehicle to the grid (Vehicle-to-Grid, V2G) and also to power houses (Vehicle-to-Home, V2H) and buildings (Vehicle-to-Building,
V2B), when convenient. These will allow the use of the vehicle or set of vehicles as another element of the electrical grid or of local
micro grids, within the scope of smart electrical grids. For that, both the EVs and the grid must be able to allow bidirectional power
flow, from the technical but also from the regulatory points of view. As further usage of the batteries for power supply tends to
increase (slightly) the battery degradation, the EVs’ owners available to engage in these programs have to be properly financially
rewarded. Besides “peak shaving” and “valley filling” of the electric load diagram, controlled G2V and V2G can also be used for
frequency and voltage regulation and to increase the renewable energy usage and balance. This is particularly interesting in isolated
systems like islands. For example, in Azores S. Miguel Island, a V2G project showed that with only 7 Nissan Leaf and 3 Nissan NV-
200 connected to the electrical network through 10 kW bidirectional chargers, it was possible to smooth the load diagram and, even
better, to perform frequency regulation, being concluded that using V2G the wave quality of voltage, frequency, THD, and unbal-
ance, respected the regulatory limits (Torabi et al., 2021; Galp, 2022; Perishable, 2022).
It is worth noting that Nissan has been able to provide V2G capability since the beginning of Nissan Leaf, as the standard of
CHAdeMO allows it from the origin. Regarding CCS Combo 2 (IEC 62196) there are plans to allow V2G, and so other manufac-
turers are also preparing their EVs for it. Indeed, many recent news about this can be found, for example relatively to Porsche (Doll,
2022), Volkswagen (Hanley, 2021a,b), GM (Hampel, 2022), Ford (Hill, 2022), Hyundai (Hanley, 2022) Audi (Casey, 2020), and
Proterra and BYD for electrical school buses for the USA (Morris, 2021, 2022) or double-decker ebuses in London (Halvorson,
2020).
Two particularly interesting references about electric mobility usage in the framework of Smart Grids and in particular V2G are
Jones et al. (2021), Barreto et al. (2022). Some more information about V2G projects around the world is available at V2G Hub
(2022).
To conclude, it is also worth recall the enormous international effort of standardization that has been and continues to be made,
to allow the evolution of EVs, including charging, V2G, for light passenger vehicles but also for heavy duty vehicles (Pereirinha et al.,
2016; Borbujo et al., 2020, 2021).
EV market, regulations, and EV models

EV market evolution: sales and forecasts
It has come a long way since the first EVs appeared around 1900, referred to at the beginning of this article. Since the appearance of
the first mass-produced EVs, around 2010, EV sales have increased dramatically, as can be seen in Fig. 29, relating to the worldwide
sales of light plug electric vehicles, PEV (meaning BEV plus PHEV). Despite the drops in 2019 and 2020, mainly due to stricter
criteria for granting subsidies for EV acquisitions in China and the COVID-19 pandemic, 2021 saw an extraordinary recovery,
regaining the trend line in global sales. Doubling the sales from 2020, 6.75 million PEVs were sold in 2021, about half of which
were in China (returning to the trend that was suspended in 2019 and 2020), representing an 8.3% market share, as can be seen in
Fig. 30. The percentage of BEVs in the total number of PEVs has also been rising, as the battery capacity and autonomy of the BEVs
have been increasing, without a significant increase in price, reaching 71% in 2021 (EV-Volumes, 2022).
Regarding the Top-10 PEV global sales, 6 were Chinese models, and the most delivered car, Tesla Model 3, with 501,000 had
more than half also produced in China. Curiously, the second one, with 424,000 deliveries was the Wulling Mini EV, a microcar
sold by the equivalent to 4000 to 5000 USD. Followed: 3-Tesla Model Y (411,000 deliveries), 4-VW ID.4 (122,000), 5-BYD Qin
Plus PHEV (112,000), 6-Li Xiang One EREV (90,000), 7-BYD Han BEV (87,000), 8- BYD Song Pro PHEV (79,000), Renault Zoe
BEV (77,000) and finally 10-Changan Benni BEV (76,000). Regarding the total EV sales by brand, the ranking was: 1-Tesla, 2-
VW Group, 3-BYD, 4-GM, 5-Stellantis, 6-Hyundai Motor, 7-BMW Group, 8-Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Alliance, 9-Daimler AG,
and 10-SAIC, to mention only the first 10 (EV-Volumes, 2022).
Official and updated information on European Union (27) vehicles and fleet can be find in the European Alternative Fuels
Observatory, from European Commission (European Alternative Fuels Observatory, n.d.) with a country comparison on the
same Website.
Regarding the future, transport electrification is forecast to continue to increase very sharply in the next few decades. For example,
the International agency in its EV Outlook 2021 (IEA, 2021), has the forecast that can be seen in Fig. 31, for the Stated Policies
Scenario and for the Sustainable Development Scenario. As can be seen for 2025 and 2030, the estimation for both scenarios,
have a very big variation between them, but in any case, a huge increase regarding 2020.
The forecast by Bloomberg New Energy Finance, BNEF, is even a little bit more optimistic. In their annual Electric Vehicle
Outlook they have been successively revising their forecast for the share of PEV sales for 2040 upwards: predicted 35% in 2016,
55% in 2018, 57% in 2019, 57% and 68% in 2021.
At world level, Norway leads the PEV sales market share. Indeed, in March 2022, PEV account for around 92% of new light
passenger new vehicles, with 86.1% BEV, 5.8% PHEV, 2.7% HEV (plugless), 2.6% diesel and 2.8% petrol. The top five best-
selling models in March 2022 were, respectively, the Tesla Model Y (3303), the Tesla Model 3 (1694), the VW ID.4 (1104), the
Audi Q4 e-tron (658), and the Hyundai Ioniq5 (590). It is estimated that BEV and PHEV account for around 17% and 6.5% Norway
fleet share (Holland, 2022).
Fig. 29 Global BEV plus PHEV sales for light vehicles in 2021, for different markets (EV-Volumes, 2022).
Fig. 30 Global BEV and PHEV sales for light vehicles in 2021, and global EV market share (EV-Volumes, 2022).
Fig. 31 Global EV (BEV þ PHEV) sales and shares for the Stated Policies Scenario and for the Sustainable Development Scenario and PHEV shares
in total EV up to 2030 (IEA, 2021).
Regulations, OEM announced targets and EV models

Besides the obvious efficiency, environmental and cost of operation advantages of EV over ICEV, this market trend has also been
promoted by political announcements from cities, countries and European Union, as discussed for example in Pereirinha et al.
(2018). Since then, there have been updates on the number of countries as can be seen in Fig. 32.
Indeed, European regulations are becoming more stringent, demanding that by 2030, cars must emit 37.5% less CO2 compared
with 2021, vans 31% less, and EVs must represent up 35%–40% of total vehicle sales, up from just 3% in 2019. Consequently,
a great need and a trend is the fleets electrification. Indeed, in Europe, fleets accounts for 20% of total vehicles but are responsible
for a much higher share of traveled kilometers and of the corresponding GHG and pollutants emissions. Five enablers to this tran-
sition to electric mobility are cohesive regulation, new funding models for charging infrastructure deployment, battery and EV
supply chain and end of life recycling, physical charging infrastructure at the right place and with the right balance between
slow, fast and ultrafast chargers, and appropriate digital interface for charging and billing, independently of the EV used, payment
and contract type (Colle et al., 2021).
It should also be noticed that, according to recent news, the EU is considering anticipating the ban to new petrol and diesel car
sales from 2035 (Pole, 2022).
According to Newton’s Third Law of Motion, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. Regarding the EVs’ market,
there is a similar response, even if not totally synchronized: to correspond to the increasingly strict regulations and the consumer
request, EVs’ manufacturers are investing huge amounts of money on development of new PEVs models and making pledges of
strong or full electrification of their models. Some information on this, in chronologic order, can be found for example in Pereirinha
et al. (2018), Walton et al. (2020), IEA (2021), Investors (2022). According to Allego, in their information for investors of May
2022, the OEM Targets to Fast-track EV Adoption in Europe and Globally are, for:
• 2025dLamborghini: All new vehicles to be BEVs or PHEVs; Lincoln: 50% of all new vehicles to be BEVs; Renault: 30% of all new
vehicles to be BEVs; Alpine: 100% of all new vehicles to be BEV; Mercedes-Benz: All new vehicle architectures to be BEVs only
(no longer PHEVs) and around 50% of all new vehicle sales to be BEVs or PHEVs.
• 2027dJaguar & Fiat (Europe): All new vehicles to be BEVs.
• 2028dOpel (Europe) & Chrysler: All new vehicles to be BEVs.
Fig. 32 ICEVs bans, electrification targets and net-zero emissions pledges up to 2050 at national or regional level (IEA, 2022a).
• 2030dBMW brand: 50% of all new vehicles to be BEVs; Porsche: 80% of all new vehicles to be BEVs; VW brand: >70% of all
new vehicles to be BEVs in Europe; VW Group: 60%/50% of all new vehicles to be BEVs for Europe/worldwide, respectively;
Stellantis: 100%/50% of new vehicles to be BEVs in Europe/US; Cadillac: All new vehicles to be BEVs; Nissan: 40% of all new
vehicles to be BEVs in US; Kia: 47%/34% of all new vehicles to be BEVs in Europe/USA, respectively; Ford: All new vehicles in
Europe to be BEVs and 40%–50% of global volumes to be BEVs.
OEM PEVs announcements up to 2040 as well as Government Regulations in EU and in several countries around the world are also
presented in the same document.
Given the number of models that have appeared on the market, it is not possible to present them here. A glimpse of the new
models announced for 2022 (Ford’s F-150 Lightning, Tesla Cybertruck, Rivian R1S, BMW iX, Nissan Ariya, Kia EV6, .) and of
the top 10 most efficient models in 2022 (1. 2022 T Model 3 RWD: 25 kWh/100 miles or 15.5 kWh/100 km, 2. 2022 Lucid Air
Grand Touring w/19-inch wheels: 26 kWh/100 miles or 16.2 kWh/100 km, 3. 2022 Chevrolet Bolt EV: 28 kWh/100 miles or
17.4 kWh/100 km, 4. 2022 Hyundai Kona EV: 28 kWh/100 miles or 17.4 kWh/100 km, .) are presented here (Hanley, 2022;
Online EV, 2022).
To find updated and detailed reviews of the current EVs, a good idea is to look at specialized magazines or websites, like Clean-
Technica (CleanTechnica, 2022), CarBuz (CarBuzz, 2022), InsideEVs (InsideEVs, 2022), Green Car Congress (Green Car Congress,
n.d.), or EVWorld (EVWorld, 2022).
Knowing which models exist or existed at any given time and more detailed specifications is an almost impossible task. Fortu-
nately, there are some sites that allow to systematically find this information, namely Ultimate Specs (Ultimate Specs, n.d.), which
has specifications not only for EVs but also for ICEVs, and Electric Vehicle Database (EV Database, n.d.), which allows to sort the EV
by various criteria (make, price, charge plug, segment, number of seats, range, energy consumption, top speed, etc.).
Challenges and trends. Conclusion
This is a very long introductory article to EVs and associated technology. The evolution of modern EVs since around 2009 has been
extraordinary. There is, however, still a set of challenges and trends, some of them previously mentioned in this article and for
example in Pereirinha et al. (2018), and others. A non-exhaustive list is:
1 The batteries: continue to improve chemistries, lower cost, higher energy and power densities (gravimetric and volumetric),
higher lifetime (calendar and number of cycles), improved thermal stability and safety, and increase autonomy.
2 The EV charging and discharging management, fostering V2G and EV integration with grid by controlled G2V, in particular with
Smart Grids, opening new possibilities for energy management and renewal energy increased usage. This is particularly important
when dealing with high power and energy as with electric buses (Carrilero et al., 2018; Al-Saadi et al., 2022).
3 Battery recycling, which currently allows up to 95% recovery of materials, vs. second life and affordable battery replacement
(Boyer, 2022; Dow, 2022; Hydro JV starts up battery recycling plant, n.d.; Lambert, 2022b).
4 Strong continuation of standardization activities regarding EVs to allow technical improvements, increasingly interoperability of
EV components and of EV charging, and reduce development and manufacturing times and costs and promote economic
competitiveness, including electric buses and heavy-duty trucks (Pereirinha et al., 2016; Borbujo et al., 2020, 2021).
5 Technical education for EVs is mandatory, with a shift in vehicles from an essentially mechanical activity to an activity with a very
strong electrical, electronics and IT components.
6 Public transportation and logistics: the development of EVs in this decade and a half has occurred mainly in light passenger
vehicles. However, a large part of fuel consumption, greenhouse gas and pollutant emissions, results from the use of fleets, both
from public passenger transport (taxis and buses, but also trains, boats and planes) and transport of goods. Despite some
development of electric buses, particularly in China, which still has the overwhelming majority of electric buses worldwide (IEA,
2021; Vila, 2022), the commercial EVs’ market is still taking its first steps, mainly in urban distribution. Medium and long-
distance transport, particularly heavy-duty transport, is even further behind, despite some more or less recent announcements
(Kothari, 2022b; The EV Report, 2022). Electric off-road vehicles, like construction and mining trucks and equipment, are also
a field to develop.
7 EVs’ price reduction especially in lower cost segments, to foster EVs’ adoption.
8 Decrease of critical raw materials utilization in battery and electric machines manufacturing.
9 Self-driving cars (Marr, 2021) and fleet-platooning. Self-Driving Vehicles, aka Autonomous Vehicles, and Mobility-as-a-service
(MaaS), including with Self-Driving Vehicles, poses new paradigms to mobility and new challenges, including societal,
because they dispense the drivers (Herrmann and Jungwirth, 2022).
10 Cyber security. What happens if someone takes control of an EV, namely for terrorist purposes? How to prevent this?
11 The impact of the EVs in the automobile spare parts industry and in dealer networks and garages? An ICEV has more than 2000
moving parts while an EV has around 20 (Tony Seba, 2020). That means a lot less maintenance and the corresponding parts
chain. Also the trend to online EVs’ sales will have significant impacts in dealer networks.
12 Increase the usage of SiC and GaN power electronic devices for compacter, lighter, and more efficient power electronic
converters, both for bidirectional EV charging and for traction converters, especially for high power and high voltage appli-
cations (EENews Europe, 2022; Tu et al., 2019).
13 Continue to decrease mechanical brakes utilization, reducing the corresponding energy losses and very pollutant powder
production, through more powerful regenerative braking and, at the limit, simply omit friction pads (Halvorson, 2022)
Each of the topics abovedand there are moredwould need at least a article of this Encyclopedia dedicated to it and will not be
further developed here.
To conclude, such as between about 1900 and 1913 (at least in the US) there was a sharp transition from horse-based mobility to
ICEVs, today, we are indeed on the brink of transition or even disruption from ICEVs to EVs (Bloomberg Markets and Finance, 2020;
Tony Seba, 2020). However, if the Russian invasion of Ukraine, a new pandemic, a disproportionate control of batteries and rare
earths used in PMSM by China cause a supply failure or unaffordable prices, or other major event with severe global repercussions
do not alter the course of events, this transition should begin to accelerate significantly around 2025, when the mid- and low-end
EVs become price similar to the corresponding ICEVs. Let’s hope so!
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Electric vehicles

Paulo G. Pereirinha, Coimbra PolytechnicdISEC, and INESC Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

350 Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronic Power Engineering, Volume 1 https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821204-2.00112-4

History and evolution of EV

Different types of electrified vehicles: from hybrid to purely electric

Plug-in range extender EV

Vehicle dynamics, road load forces and power

Fig. 10 Forces applied to a vehicle.

1200 Nissan Leaf (BEV, 2015) Tesla Model S (BEV, 2014)

Chevy Volt 2015 (PHEV) Toyota Mirai (FCEV, 2016)

120 Nissan Leaf (BEV, 2015) Tesla Model S (BEV, 2014)

Chevy Volt 2015 (PHEV) Toyota Mirai (FCEV, 2016)

80 AMG EQS 4MATIC+ (BEV, 2022) Audi e-ton GT (BEV, 2022)

Main components of electric vehicles and advantages of EVs

Charger RESS (bat.) Power elec. Motor Drivetrain

Oil extraction and reﬁning 90 90 97 95

Well-to-Tank eff., ηWTT Tank-to-Wheel eff., ηTTW

DIESEL GASOLINE RENEW. EG GOOD EG NORMAL EG

ICEV 1 ICEV 2 BEV 1 BEV 2 BEV 3

Energy storage systems: batteries (and others)

Deﬁnitions relating to batteries and energy storage systems

Classical and lithium-ion battery chemistries

Table 2 Comparison of typical characteristics of classical battery cell chemistries.

Unit Lead-acid (deep-cycle) NiCd NiMH Lithium-ion

LCO 175–240 400–640 1 C 300–1000 150 C 3.6 (2.5/4.2) 20 to 60 C 1991

Some challenges, evolution and future

Motors (and drives)

Past and present electric motors (and drives)

Electric Machines for EV (and HEV)

Asynchronous Synchronous Commutator &

Induction Variable PM Wound Field PM

Three-phase Switched Brushless DC Series excit.

Synchronous Interior PM Separated

Some trends for electric motors (and drives)

Chargers and charging

• Case Adcable permanently attached to the EV.

Charging networks and apps

EV charging management, vehicle-to-grid, vehicle-to-home

EV market, regulations, and EV models

Regulations, OEM announced targets and EV models

Challenges and trends. Conclusion

OSWOS, 2021. Tesla Motor the Secret of High Efﬁciency.

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