Major International Counter-Trafficking

Organizations: Addressing Human

Trafficking from Multiple Directions

Tania E. DoCarmo

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Policy and Advocacy Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
United Nations and Intergovernmental Organization Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Policy and Advocacy Efforts by Nongovernment Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Public-Private Initiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Networks, Training, and Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Networks and Coalitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Victim Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Awareness and Movement-Building Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Moving into the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Abstract
International efforts to address human trafficking are not new, but the rapid
expansion of counter-trafficking programs and initiatives over the past two
decades is significant. Following adoption of the United Nations Trafficking
Protocol in 2000, most countries adopted criminal laws against trafficking, and
the number of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), nongovernment organi-
zations (NGOs), and other actors addressing human trafficking greatly increased.
Today, estimates number counter-trafficking organizations in the thousands,
working in practically every country of the world, including those without anti-
trafficking laws. This chapter provides an overview of counter-trafficking IGO
and NGO efforts, along with their networks and partnerships with government
agencies, the corporate sector, and civil society to reduce human trafficking, hold

T. E. DoCarmo (*)
University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
e-mail: tdocarmo@uci.edu

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 1

J. Winterdyk, J. Jones (eds.), The Palgrave International Handbook of Human
Trafficking, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-63192-9_78-1
2 T. E. DoCarmo

violators accountable, provide victim services, safeguard workers’ rights, and

expand anti-trafficking advocacy on a global scale. Though the efforts detailed
here are global in scope, this does not imply domestic NGOs are insignificant.
Many of the international organizations described depend on local organizations
to carry out their mission. The chapter begins by describing the work of policy
and advocacy organizations and then turns to an overview of NGO networks,
public-private partnerships, direct service organizations, and organizations
engaged in raising awareness and social movement building.

Keywords
Human trafficking · International organizations · Nongovernment organizations ·
United Nations

Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of contemporary efforts by nongovernmental

organizations (NGOs) and intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), along with their
networks and partnerships with government agencies, the corporate sector, and civil
society to reduce human trafficking on a global scale. NGOs and IGO programs to
coordinate counter-trafficking efforts, hold violators accountable, provide services,
and further expand anti-trafficking advocacy have grown significantly over the past
two decades and include a wide variety of actors and organizations (see chapter
▶ “Human Trafficking: An International Response”).
Efforts to address human trafficking are not new. Forced labor, slavery, and
trafficking have a long history dating back hundreds of years (see chapter ▶ “Under-
standing Historical Slavery”), and various waves of social movements have
contested these practices throughout history (Bertone 2004; Gallagher 2010;
Limoncelli 2010; Picarelli 2012). Anti-Slavery International, for example, an NGO
based in the UK that continues to advocate against contemporary slavery, was
founded almost 200 years ago by abolitionists organizing against the transatlantic
slave trade. Nonetheless, the expansion of NGO programs, IGO initiatives, and
global activities against human trafficking over the past two decades is
especially notable.
Following adoption of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking
in Persons, especially Women and Children (herein UN Trafficking Proto-
col) adopted by the United Nations (UN) in 2000 (see chapter “UN Palermo
Trafficking Protocol”), the majority of countries adopted domestic counter-traffick-
ing laws, and the number of IGOs, NGOs, and other actors addressing human
trafficking increased significantly (Foot et al. 2015; Gómez-Mera 2017; Limoncelli
2016). Whereas there were very few NGOs that focused on trafficking as recently as
the 1990s, current estimates number these organizations in the thousands.
Today, counter-trafficking organizations work in practically every country of the
world, including those that do not have official counter-trafficking laws (Limoncelli
Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human. . . 3

2016; Yoo and Boyle 2015). Indeed in some countries, NGOs take the lead in
addressing trafficking more so than their respective governments (Tzvetkova 2002).
Though the efforts detailed here are global in scope, this does not implicitly
suggest that domestic or local NGOs are insignificant. Large IGOs and government
agencies often receive the most funding, but many of the international organizations
described here depend on domestic NGOs and affinity groups to carry out their
mission. Counter-trafficking is not a state- or IGO-centered regime but a
decentralized transnational one, governed by collective and coordinated efforts of
local, national, and international actors (Gómez-Mera 2017). Thus, even when
officially sponsored by an international NGO, contemporary action against traffick-
ing occurs through the activities of local, national and international networks, linked
together through common purpose and strategy, rather than through single entities
working in isolation (Wong 2011). Moreover, as is characteristic of the contempo-
rary global political economy, much of the world’s current financial investment in
counter-trafficking flows from organizations and institutions in North America and
Europe(see chapter ▶ “Return on Investment: Spending on Combatting Human
Trafficking”). Because of this, the global activity discussed in this chapter is
predominantly hosted in regions of the global north but recognizes that NGOs
from all regions of the world contribute to these global processes. For an extensive
list of domestic and international counter-trafficking NGOs, databases such as The
Global Modern Slavery Directory, Freedom Collaborative, and End Slavery Now
provide profiles of counter-trafficking organizations working in countries all over the
world. (See Recommended Resources.)
NGOs and IGOs working to end human trafficking are engaged in a number of
activities, including (but not limited to) lobbying for improved policy, offering
training to government officials, assisting law enforcement with intervention, pro-
viding training to other NGOs, conducting research, developing accountability
schemes for the private sector, distributing information to the public, and providing
direct services to trafficked persons and affected communities (also see Foot et al.
2015). Such activities are often categorized by governments and IGOs into “four Ps”
of counter-trafficking: prevention, prosecution, protection and partnership (see
chapter ▶ “United Nations 4Ps Model in Response to Human Trafficking”). Because
human trafficking relates to a variety of adjacent social issues including migration,
child exploitation, violence against women, economic development, food security,
public health, and human rights (among others), the scope and focus of anti-
trafficking activities vary and are distributed across multiple arenas of international
cooperation. Many, if not most, counter-trafficking NGOs tend to focus their efforts
on sex trafficking and/or on serving women and children, but the number of
organizations addressing labor exploitation and forced labor appears to be increasing
(see Foot et al. 2015; Limoncelli 2016).
The chapter begins by describing the work of international policy and advocacy
organizations, including the United Nations and Council of Europe. It then turns to
describing the activities of NGO networks and coalitions coordinating efforts across
borders, international organizations supporting or providing direct services to vul-
nerable communities, and, finally, NGOs and religious organizations engaged in
4 T. E. DoCarmo

awareness and social movement building among workers, trafficked persons, survi-
vors, and the global public more broadly.

Policy and Advocacy Organizations

Policy work carried out by UN agencies and policy-oriented NGOs aims to bring
trafficking-related issues to the attention of policymakers and governments, to set
standards, monitor policy compliance, collect and distribute policy-related data, and
advocate for policy improvements on behalf of trafficked persons and other affected
populations. Though many organizations doing this type of advocacy work also run
campaigns to raise awareness about trafficking among the general public, the
majority of activities described in this section cater to governments and
policymakers directly. The section begins with an outline of efforts being carried
out by IGOs such as the UN and then turns to policy-oriented work done by NGOs
and public-private partnerships.

United Nations and Intergovernmental Organization Initiatives

A chapter on international activities of trafficking organizations would not be

complete without acknowledging the numerous activities of UN and IGO entities
to implement trafficking policy and build the capacity of governments and NGOs
(see chapter ▶ “Role of the United Nations in the Fight Against Human Traffick-
ing”). UN efforts to address trafficking and slavery date back to the organiza-
tion’s beginnings in 1945, but this work was limited in scope until the early 1990s
(see chapter ▶ “The Emergence of International Legislation on Trafficking”). After
the UN Trafficking Protocol was adopted in 2000, UN agencies followed suit by
intensifying their counter-trafficking efforts in ways relevant to their specific
agency’s mandates (Bertone 2004; Gallagher 2010). Today, this includes a variety
of counter-trafficking initiatives and programs carried out by the UN Children’s
Fund (UNICEF), International Labor Organization (ILO), International Organiza-
tion for Migration (IOM), World Health Organization (WHO), Office of the High
Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Office of the UN High Commissioner
for Refugees (UNHCR), UN Development Program (UNDP), and UN WOMEN,
among others (also see Gómez-Mera 2017).
The UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is the UN entity officially tasked
with assisting signatories of the UN Trafficking Protocol with implementation of
their treaty commitments. This includes working directly with countries to help draft
domestic anti-trafficking laws, strengthen criminal justice responses, and enhance
governments’ capacity to arrest and prosecute traffickers within and across national
borders. In addition to working with individual governments, UNODC publishes
resources and toolkits for implementing counter-trafficking measures, hosts a data-
base of trafficking case law, provides grants to domestic NGOs providing legal and
other support to trafficking victims, and publishes a biennial report assessing
Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human. . . 5

trafficking patterns and country-specific legal responses called the Global Report on
Trafficking in Persons.
Whereas UNODC is primarily focused on strengthening criminal justice compo-
nents of counter-trafficking policy, agencies such as UNICEF, ILO, IOM, and UN
WOMEN concentrate their efforts on protecting particular populations (children,
workers, migrants, and women, respectively), and UN entities such as WHO,
OHCHR, and UNDP work to strengthen policy approaches to trafficking beyond
the criminal justice framework, emphasizing those related to health, human rights,
and economic development. Though organizations such as these do not address
trafficking as their primary mandate and their counter-trafficking programming often
varies by country or region, each is active in strengthening policy, research, and
support for trafficked persons and populations known to be particularly vulnerable.
UNICEF, for example, has multiple initiatives to end child trafficking by supporting
families so their children can attend school, lobbying for countries to strengthen
child protection systems, and training professionals, teachers, social workers, and
others to recognize signs of child exploitation. The OHCHR, mandated with mon-
itoring human rights, published recommendations for enhancing the human rights of
trafficked persons in 2002 and subsequently appointed Special Rapporteurs on
trafficking in 2004 and on slavery in 2007.
ILO oversees numerous multilateral conventions on fair labor practices (e.g.,
Forced Labor Conventions Nos. 29 and 105, Convention No. 182 on Worst Forms of
Child Labor) and partners with individual governments to regulate industries known
for labor exploitation such as fishing, manufacturing, and domestic work. In addi-
tion, it sets global standards on eliminating forced and child labor, makes policy and
programmatic recommendations to promote decent employment and worker’s rights,
and manages an online knowledge portal of labor laws, standards, policies, and an
international database on labor statistics known as ILOSTAT. In 2016, the ILO
partnered with the Ford Foundation to initiate Alliance 8.7, an alliance of govern-
ments, NGOs, businesses and academic institutions to collectively pursue Target 8.7
of the UN’s 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development to eradicate forced labor.
IOM, which is based in Geneva but has field offices in over 100 countries, engages in
similar policy activities but with a primary concentration on migration. IOM’s work
against trafficking includes initiatives to assist countries with identifying migrants
who may have been trafficked, managing open source data on trafficked persons, and
directing public campaigns on safe migration. In 2017, ILO, in collaboration with
the Walk Free Foundation and IOM, released a report called Global Estimates of
Modern Slavery reporting new estimates for the number of people in modern slavery
to be 40 million (ILO 2017).
In addition to the work of individual agencies, there are a number of cross-agency
UN initiatives intended to build cooperation across UN bodies and other IGOs. In
2007, for example, the UN General Assembly mandated its agencies to enhance
coordination against trafficking through the creation of the Inter-Agency Coordina-
tion Group against Trafficking in Persons (ICAT), a policy forum for exchanging
information and good practices among over 20 international agencies including
Interpol, the UN Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and
6 T. E. DoCarmo

UN Population Fund (UNFPA) among others described above. Aimed at collabora-

tion beyond IGOs and governments, the United Nations Global Initiative to Fight
Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT) was launched in 2007 by UNODC, ILO, IOM,
UNICEF, OHCHR, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
(OSCE), to increase knowledge, provide technical assistance, and foster partnerships
among governments, business, academia, and civil society.
At the regional level, the United Nations Action for Cooperation against Traf-
ficking in Persons (UN-ACT, previously known as UNIAP) is managed by UNDP to
coordinate policy, research, training, and services for trafficked persons across the
Greater Mekong Subregion of Southeast Asia (see chapter ▶ “Regional Responses
to Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia and Australasia”). Similarly, Global Action
to Prevent and Address Trafficking Persons and Smuggling of Migrants (GLO.ACT)
is a four-year initiative by UNODC and the European Union (EU), in partnership
with IOM and UNICEF, to prevent trafficking in 13 countries of Africa, Asia,
Europe, and Latin America as part of a broader strategy to enhance these countries’
capacity for implementing 2030 Sustainable Development Goals.
IGO efforts against trafficking are, of course, not limited to the UN. The Council
of Europe has a series of initiatives against human trafficking and adopted its own
Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings in 2005 (see chapter
▶ “Role of the Council of Europe”). The Convention has been adopted by 47
countries to date and is monitored by a group of experts (GRETA) that evaluates
policy implementation, publishes country reports, organizes hearings, and cooper-
ates with legal practitioners, courts, NGOs, and civil society to improve victim
protection. The European Union (EU) adopted their Anti-trafficking Directive in
2011, employs an appointed Anti-trafficking Coordinator responsible for improving
counter-trafficking coordination among EU members, and supports anti-trafficking
work through a variety of grants to EU and non-EU organizations (see chapter
▶ “EU’s Anti-trafficking Office”). Other IGO efforts include agreements, standards,
and initiatives by the OSCE, World Bank, Organization of American States (OAS),
and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) (for more see Gómez-Mera
2017).

Policy and Advocacy Efforts by Nongovernment Organizations

Independent from the UN and other IGOs, counter-trafficking NGOs are do transna-
tional and international advocacy work across a variety of policy arenas including
migration, forced labor, sexual exploitation, child protection, and women’s rights.
Though some of these organizations have a long history advocating against traffick-
ing, others incorporated counter-trafficking initiatives in recent years or were
recently founded with counter-trafficking as a primary objective. Through their
policy and advocacy efforts these organizations aim to influence the policies of
governments, international institutions, and the private sector through lobbying,
research, policy analysis, and public campaigning.
Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human. . . 7

Perhaps one of the oldest NGOs doing policy work against forced labor and
trafficking is Anti-Slavery International, a British organization founded by aboli-
tionists during the early 1800s to eradicate global slavery. In 1840, the organization
convened the World Anti-Slavery Convention, which is often referred to as the first
ever international convention on slavery and credited for being a catalyst of the
women’s suffrage movement in the United States (Sklar 1990; Wong 2011). In the
years that followed, Anti-Slavery successfully campaigned against King Leopold
II’s use of slaves in the Congo, against indigenous slave labor in the Amazon, and
lobbied the League of Nations and UN for what eventually became the 1926 and
1956 Slavery Conventions. Today, Anti-Slavery International lobbies for the elim-
ination of forced labor, debt bondage, trafficking, child labor, forced marriage, the
exploitation of migrant workers, and greater transparency in global supply chains
through consultative status with agencies like ILO, Council of Europe, and the UN.
They also partner with local organizations in Africa, Asia, and the UK to provide
legal and social services for individuals leaving slavery. Free the Slaves, founded in
2000, does similar lobbying work against slave labor in the United States but with a
greater concentration on building public awareness that slavery still exists and
supporting grassroots organizations in the Caribbean, Africa, and South Asia with
tools for prevention and community development.
ECPAT International, initially founded in 1990 as a campaign to end child
exploitation in Asia, does global advocacy work with a focus on child rights and
the sexual exploitation of children. Through an early partnership with UNICEF,
ECPAT organized the First World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation
of Children, held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1996. Here, over 120 governments made
commitments against child sexual exploitation, which was a notable accomplish-
ment considering similar agreements such as the Optional Protocol to the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child on Commercial Sexual Exploitation of
Children, the UN Trafficking Protocol, and other multilateral instruments on this
topic had not yet come to fruition. Based in Thailand, ECPAT now has over 100
organization members and works in over 90 countries. Their activities include
creating toolkits on preventing child exploitation, lobbying for national policies
that better align with international child rights conventions, advocating for child
participation in creating policies related to their own well-being, and establishing
standards for travel and tourism industries to prevent child sex tourism. Large NGOs
doing international advocacy for child protection against exploitation across multi-
ple countries also include Terre des Hommes, Save the Children, and World Vision.
NGOs engaged in advocacy also include those providing law enforcement train-
ing and assisting with victim rescue and criminal prosecution. International Justice
Mission (IJM), founded in 1997 and headquartered in Washington, DC, for example,
assists governments and local authorities with investigating and arresting traffickers,
identifying corruption and systematic gaps in criminal justice systems, and
establishing mechanisms for victim services after trafficked persons are removed
from exploitation. With field offices in Central and South America, Africa, and Asia,
the organization was initially focused on rescuing children and young women from
sexual exploitation and violence but has expanded their work to also include human
8 T. E. DoCarmo

rights abuses such as land theft and forced labor. Other organizations using similar
criminal justice approaches include The Human Trafficking Institute, The Lift
Foundation (formerly Nvader), and Thorn, which work with private companies such
as Microsoft to investigate sex trafficking using advanced technology (see chapter
▶ “Investigation and Prosecution of Human Trafficking Activity”).

Public-Private Initiatives

In addition to government advocacy, a number of public-private initiatives between

IGOs, NGOs, and the private sector aim to leverage private industry resources and
expertise for counter-trafficking efforts and to hold companies accountable for
eliminating forced labor and exploitation from global supply chains (see chapter
▶ “Multisector Collaboration Against Human Trafficking”).
NGO efforts to leverage private resources include broad efforts like the ID2020
Alliance, an initiative between the UN, governments, philanthropic organizations,
and private companies like Accenture and Microsoft to establish digital identities for
refugees, trafficked and stateless persons. Drawing from the technological expertise
of the alliance’s corporate partners, the aim of ID2020 is to implement Target 16.9 of
the Sustainable Development Goals (“provide legal identity for all”) by creating an
international infrastructure for digital identities. The program asserts that once
provided with secure digital identities, migrants and other populations will no longer
be “invisible” from the international system and will have access to social, legal, and
financial services without paper documents (see DoCarmo 2018).
Other initiatives include The Code of Conduct for the Protection of Children from
Sexual Exploitation in Travel and Tourism (“The Code”), a collaborative between
ECPAT and a number of travel companies including Hilton, Marriott, Delta Airlines,
and Sabre Holdings to educate the travel and tourism industry about recognizing and
reporting trafficking, and the Global Business Coalition Against Human Trafficking,
including members such as Amazon, Coca-Cola, Google, and Microsoft. This
coalition aims to assist members navigate business solutions for preventing traffick-
ing, align themselves with UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights,
and assist with skill building programs for trafficking survivors. Though public-
private partnerships such as these are a positive first step toward greater account-
ability within the corporate sector, significant work still needs to be done to make
supply chains more transparent and subject to public scrutiny.
Though much research and advocacy attention has historically been given to
alleviating factors of vulnerability in communities and places where exploitation
occurs, projects such as The Global Slavery Index aim to hold those in higher-
income countries responsible for consuming products generated from exploitative
labor (see chapter ▶ “Human Trafficking in Supply Chains and the Way Forward”).
Initiatives addressing forced labor and exploitation in global supply chains
also include Verité, which partners with multinational brands and suppliers to
improve working conditions through analysis of supply chains, and Made in A
Free World’s supply chain transparency tool called FDRM, which is designed to
Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human. . . 9

help companies monitor their products and comply with ethical labor regulations.
NGOs working directly with suppliers include GoodWeave, founded in the 1990s to
prevent child labor by working with manufacturers to market and sell rugs made
without child exploitation. Similarly, the International Cocoa Initiative, a Swiss
organization, works to ensure that cocoa-growing communities around the globe are
equipped with tools to protect children from exploitative labor and that cocoa supply
chains are transparent about their practices.

Networks, Training, and Services

Within a few short years of the UN Trafficking Protocol, governments, aid agencies,
private foundations, and NGOs developed a number of funding initiatives and
programs for victim assistance. Trafficked persons often suffer from a myriad of
issues related to their mental, physical, and sexual health and a number of legal and
economic challenges. Therefore, comprehensive victim services include a broad
variety of services and interventions from the moment individuals exit exploitation,
through recovery and resettlement into a home community (see chapter ▶ “Health
and Social Service Response Models to Human Trafficking”). At the very least,
experts recommend trafficked persons be provided with shelter, medical, psycho-
logical and legal support, and basic needs such as food and clothing (Aronowitz
2009; Brunovskis and Surtees 2012) (see chapter ▶ “Creating Sanctuary: Trauma-
Informed Change” and ▶ “Psychological Care and Support for the Survivors of
Trafficking”). Direct services for survivors also generally include some form of risk
assessment to determine whether it’s safe for them to return home, as well as
education, job training, economic relief, or temporary employment to help them
avoid further exploitation.
As might be expected, many victim service agencies and organizations are local
rather than global. However, because the demand for victim services has grown so
quickly in recent decades and trafficking cases often require global coordination,
many service agencies participate in regional and global networks for information
sharing, referrals, resources, and training (Foot 2016). This section begins with a
description of anti-trafficking networks and coalitions, followed by an overview of
NGOs providing victim services across multiple regions.

Networks and Coalitions

Governments, IGOs, and NGOs generally agree that the complexity of human
trafficking requires coordination and collaboration within and across organizations.
As the fourth “P” for addressing global human trafficking, partnership includes
coordination and collaboration among stakeholders, is a major component of advo-
cacy and service provision, and serves to facilitate information sharing and training.
Naturally, some networks and coalitions are more active and coordinated than others,
and there is diversity among networks in terms of priorities, focus, and overall
10 T. E. DoCarmo

strategy. Whereas some counter-trafficking networks and coalitions are established

as independent organizations, others operate through membership or joint programs
across multiple organizations. Regardless of structure, most engage in creating
resources, coordinating information sharing, organizing referrals, and providing
training to build the capacity of participating organizations.
The Coalition Against Trafficking in Women (CATW) based in the United States,
for example, was founded in 1988 as an international network of organizations
working against the trafficking of women into prostitution. The Global Alliance
Against Traffic in Women (GAATW), based in Thailand and founded in 1994, does
similar coalition building among counter-trafficking and human rights NGOs, but
from an alternative point of view about how trafficking should be addressed.
Focused primarily on advocacy, organizers and members of both networks were
actively engaged in lobbying during drafting of the UN Trafficking Protocol (see
Gallagher 2010) and continue to advocate for improved counter-trafficking policies
by consulting at UN meetings, publishing position papers, initiating public cam-
paigns, and facilitating communication among members. Other large networks
addressing trafficking through advocacy include the Child Rights International
Network (CRIN) and European NGO Platform against Trafficking, Exploitation
and Slavery (ENPATES).
Besides coalitions and networks operating within individual countries (e.g.,
Freedom Network USA, UK Anti-Trafficking Monitoring Group), networks engaged
in capacity building, coalition building, and coordination efforts across multiple
countries include La Strada International, Chab Dai International, Survivor Alliance,
Faith Alliance Against Slavery and Trafficking (FAAST), and European Freedom
Network. Though often smaller in size than the above advocacy networks, these
organizations have extensive expertise working one-on-one with organizations to
monitor and evaluate their efforts, facilitate direct exchange of information, and
recognize gaps in services in ways that individual organizations often do not have
the resources or capacity to do on their own. La Strada, for example, helps coordinate
the work of counter-trafficking organizations across Europe, facilitates joint cam-
paigns, and organizes regular meetings for members to meet, share their work, and
plan for joint actions and campaigns. Chab Dai works with coalition member
organizations in Cambodia to assess their programs and track progress toward
coalition goals and standards related to client protection, staff care, and organiza-
tional development. As Chab Dai has expanded coalition-building work into Africa,
Latin America, and other parts of Asia, their member assessment model has been
adopted and contextualized by local networks and coalitions according to local
needs while drawing from Chab Dai’s experience and expertise. The Survivor
Alliance, based in the UK, aims to build coordination and collaboration among
trafficking survivors who are engaged in counter-trafficking efforts, providing them
with an international forum to share ideas and facilitate direct contact with leaders in
the counter-trafficking field.
Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human. . . 11

Taking a different approach to coalition building, Liberty Asia is based out of

Hong Kong and works with other NGOs, corporations, and financial institutions
across Asia to facilitate information sharing, expertise, and data management
through high-level technology platforms. Their projects include an online case
management system designed for partner NGOs to store, share, and analyze case
records, a project allowing frontline NGOs to better access advanced telecommuni-
cations systems for cross-border collaborations, and Freedom Collaborative, an
online forum and directory for counter-trafficking programs, initially launched in
collaboration with Chab Dai International. Though not a formal coalition, The
Polaris Project draws on their expertise operating the United States National
Human Trafficking Hotline to coordinate efforts between service providers, law
enforcement and government agencies around the use of hotlines, working with
other countries and regions to improve hotline data collection and facilitate data
exchange. Polaris also operates an online directory of global counter-trafficking
organizations called The Global Modern Slavery Directory.

Victim Services

Direct services for victims and survivors of trafficking vary by organization, country,
and region. Whereas in some countries, resources and victim services are available
through government-funded programs, this often does not exist in other regions
where IGOs, NGOs, charities, and/or religious groups are providing most of these
services. Ideally, victim services are provided by local agencies and organizations
with a working knowledge of local laws, procedures, and resources, but this is not
always possible. Trafficked persons often have to work with multiple service pro-
viders, organizations, and offices across multiple locations or countries depending
on circumstances of their case or the availability of services in their country of
residence.
Many if not most NGOs providing victim services work locally, though some
organizations that were initiated in one country have now expanded into additional
ones. One example is Hagar International, a Swiss organization that initially
established violence recovery programs for women and children in Cambodia in
1994. The organization has now extended their services to Afghanistan, Vietnam,
and Singapore. Programs for trafficked persons are also provided by large interna-
tional NGOs as part of more general international relief and development efforts.
World Vision, World Relief, International Rescue Committee, The Asia Foundation,
and Winrock International, for example, deliver services to trafficked persons
through a variety of development projects related to child protection, health, migra-
tion, economic development, and gender justice. Several of the primarily policy and
advocacy focused NGOs described above also provide technical support and training
for communities and agencies working in under-resourced regions. Anti-Slavery
International, for example, works in countries across Africa, India, and Nepal
alongside grassroots organizations to provide shelter, education, legal assistance,
and vocational training to children and communities vulnerable to exploitation.
12 T. E. DoCarmo

Awareness and Movement-Building Organizations

According to a recent study, most counter-trafficking organizations claim to do some

type of awareness raising (Foot et al. 2015). Awareness-raising and movement-
building campaigns include everything from radio and television ads to education
programs at schools, posters at airports, rallies, runs, and programs aimed at
informing communities about their rights. Raising awareness, public education,
disseminating information, and campaigning are common activities among domestic
and international counter-trafficking organizations alike.
For some organizations, awareness raising and education are primary activities,
and for others they serve as secondary to policy, services, or research. The actual
objectives of awareness-raising efforts tend to vary. Whereas some organizations
aim their campaigns at prevention, targeting groups known to be at risk of trafficking
so communities can protect themselves from exploitation, others facilitate awareness
raising as a way to shape public opinion, call people to action, or raise funds for their
counter-trafficking programs (see chapter ▶ “Combatting Trafficking in Persons
Through Public Awareness”). This section begins with an overview of UN and
NGO awareness and prevention campaigns, followed by a description of the move-
ment-building efforts of various civic and religious groups.
Alongside UN campaigns such as UN.GIFT and UNODC’s Blue Heart Cam-
paign, some of the NGOs facilitating movement building, raising global awareness,
and educating the public include those described in previous sections for policy and
advocacy activities. A primary objective of Free the Slaves, for example, is to raise
public awareness that slavery “still exists.” Similarly, ECPAT manages several media
campaigns against child sexual exploitation, and IJM actively engages churches and
college campuses with special events, education resources, and fundraising cam-
paigns. NGOs focused specifically on awareness and movement building also
include Stop the Traffik based in the UK, and The A21 Campaign (A21) out of
Australia.
Initiated as a 2-year campaign to coincide with the 200th anniversary of Britain’s
abolition of the slave trade in 2007, Stop the Traffik aims to equip communities with
information to prevent trafficking and inform consumers about how trafficking
impacts global supply chains. This includes what the organization calls an “intelli-
gence-led” prevention strategy, providing people with tools to recognize trafficking
and report what they see. A21, founded in Australia in 2008, encourages people to
stand up against trafficking “in their own way,” through campaigns such as Walk for
Freedom (which also serves as a fundraising event) and Can You See Me?, a public
campaign aimed at distributing trafficking hotline numbers.
Recognizing that in some communities religious institutions are among the most
influential in society, UNICEF released an Interfaith Toolkit to End Human Traf-
ficking in 2017. Indeed, an abundance of churches, religious groups, and civic
organizations have initiated campaigns and events to raise awareness about traffick-
ing within their own communities and networks. Initiated by Walk Free Foundation,
The Global Freedom Network unites faith leaders against forced labor and slavery
from around the world, and The Coalition of Catholic Organizations Against Human
Major International Counter-Trafficking Organizations: Addressing Human. . . 13

Trafficking is a network of over 30 international Catholic agencies engaged in

counter-trafficking that provides preventative and informative education to parish-
ioners of the global Catholic Church. Other examples include campaign efforts by
The Salvation Army and T’ruah Rabbinic Call for Human Rights.

Moving into the Future

Compared to previous decades, counter-trafficking efforts are growing and may well
be improving. Nonetheless, significant work still remains to coordinate efforts, assist
trafficked persons, improve policy, and hold perpetrators and consumers accountable
for trafficking and exploitation at all levels of society. As counter-trafficking pro-
grams, organizations, and public-private partnerships grow and expand, assessments
should be made as to how efforts can be improved and the extent to which existing
programs actually curb trafficking and/or improve the well-being of affected com-
munities. Some studies suggest that whereas growing counter-trafficking efforts
have increased general awareness of the problem and have perhaps improved the
lives of some victims, they have ignored, further complicated, or worsened the
situation of others (Brennan 2014; Esposito et al. 2016; Gallagher and Pearson
2009; Musto 2016).
Currently, the largest portions of counter-trafficking funding go to large INGOs,
UN agencies, and large corporations based in the United States or Europe. How-
ever, it is essential that policymakers, funders, and civil society equally recognize
and coordinate with the local, commonly under-resourced work of smaller-scale
organizations and networks on which larger organizations depend. Rooted in the
community, local efforts often have a deep understanding of the existing gaps in
local and global policy and may offer improved solutions to trafficking that remain
unrecognized by larger organizations (see Winterdyk 2018). Meanwhile, regional
organizations and networks are equipped to recognize trafficking patterns and
organize opportunities for capacity building and can assist with local or regional
coordination. By further coordinating macro- and micro-level efforts, and assessing
the impact of existing activities, counter-trafficking policy can be further improved
and communities better served.

Summary

The number of counter-trafficking programs and organizations has grown signifi-

cantly since adoption of the UN Trafficking Protocol in 2000. IGOs such as the UN,
EU, and Council of Europe, in addition to a wide variety of NGOs, address human
trafficking through a number of activities, including advocating for improved policy,
partnering with private industries to keep forced labor out of global supply chains,
coordinating efforts within and across borders, providing victim services, and raising
awareness within vulnerable communities and among the general public. Because
human trafficking relates to a variety of social issues including migration, child
14 T. E. DoCarmo

exploitation, human rights, and economic development, the scope and focus of these
NGO activities vary, with a wide range of actors and organizations. Much of the
world’s financial investment in counter-trafficking currently flows from organiza-
tions in North America and Europe, so the global activity outlined in this chapter is
predominantly hosted in these regions, but with the recognition that NGOs from all
regions of the world contribute to these global processes. By better coordinating
macro- and micro-level programs, supporting local organizations, and assessing the
impact of existing efforts, counter-trafficking policy and services can be further
improved.

Cross-References

▶ Combatting Trafficking in Persons Through Public Awareness

▶ Creating Sanctuary: Trauma-Informed Change
▶ EU’s Anti-trafficking Office
▶ Health and Social Service Response Models to Human Trafficking
▶ Human Trafficking in Supply Chains and the Way Forward
▶ Human Trafficking: An International Response
▶ Investigation and Prosecution of Human Trafficking Activity
▶ Multisector Collaboration Against Human Trafficking
▶ Psychological Care and Support for the Survivors of Trafficking
▶ Regional Responses to Human Trafficking in Southeast Asia and Australasia
▶ Return on Investment: Spending on Combatting Human Trafficking
▶ Role of the Council of Europe
▶ Role of the United Nations in the Fight Against Human Trafficking
▶ The Emergence of International Legislation on Trafficking
▶ Understanding Historical Slavery
▶ United Nations 4Ps Model in Response to Human Trafficking

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Recommended

Counter-Trafficking Directories
End Slavery Now. https://www.endslaverynow.org
Freedom Collaborative. https://www.freedomcollaborative.org
Global Modern Slavery Directory. http://www.globalmodernslavery.org
16 T. E. DoCarmo

Organizations and Resources

Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings, Council of Europe. https://www.coe.int/en/web/anti-
human-trafficking/home
Alliance 8.7. https://www.alliance87.org
International Labour Organization (ILO). https://www.ilo.org
International Organization for Migration (IOM). https://www.iom.int/counter-trafficking
UN Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT). http://www.ungift.org
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). http://www.unodc.org