HSE 3 Book

HSE LEVEL 3 CHAPTER ONE
Table of Contents
HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
Chapter One
Health, Safety and Environment Management Systems 1 WHAT IS HEALTH SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
What is HSE System? 1 The Health, Safety, and Environment Management System (HSEMS) is a set of processes and tools that
Commitment of top Management in HSE Policy 1
Ensuring Participation of Employees in Developing HSE Policy 2 facilitate the best practice in proactive management of workplace Health, Safety, and Environmental
Contractor HSE Management System 3 (HSE) issues. It will lead to the proactive management of liabilities as well as the reduction in HSE issues.
A company's HSEMS should be developed according to International safety standards.
Chapter Two
Hazard and Effect 6 Present-day industries are becoming more and more complex because they have to meet the
Scope of Identification 7
Scope of Qualitative Risk Assessment 8 requirement of increased production rate, high efficiency and optimization. Huge investments are
Scope of Quantitative Risk Assessment 9 incurred. Any negligence at any stage from concept stage to design, erection, operation can result into
Scope of Control 9 disaster, loss of human lives and huge production losses, etc. Accordingly safety aspects deserve serious
Risk Acceptance Criteria (RAC) 10 attention. Today safety is an integral part of any industry. Even if a single employee neglects safety
What is ALARP 10
Residual Risk 11 aspect, it can lead to serious problem for everybody. It is, therefore, essential that foolproof safety
Scope of Recovery 12 systems be designed and incorporated; people trained adequately, checks and counterchecks made to
ensure implementation of safety. As losses due to any accident can be surmountable, it is important that
Chapter Three top management gets involved and shows full commitment towards implementation of safety. In
Health, Safety and Environment Risk Management Systems (HESERMS) 14 present context it is not only sufficient to take care of safety but other two interrelated aspects, viz.,
Terms, Definition and Concept 14
Risk Analysis Assessment and Management 14 health (well-being of employees) and environment are also attached equal importance and
Main Component of Risk Management 16 consideration. All these three elements are interrelated and affect each other. For instance, if health of
Human Risk Criteria 16 employees are not given due regard, it may lead to accidents. If industry pollutes the environment
Societal Risk and Risk Criteria 17 around work place, it will ultimately affect health of employees which may ultimately affect production.
Risk Management 18
Each industry has certain obligations towards keeping good environment and also towards health of
Chapter Four people. It is only if health and environment are in control that safety in industry can be ensured.
Ergonomics for the General Health and Safety Practitioners 24
Physical Ergonomics 25 Safety being a complex mechanism, necessary documentation has to be evolved, checklists prepared
How can Ergonomics and Human Factors improve Health & Safety 29 and system been designed to ensure implementation of all safe procedures and practices. The safety
Chapter Five systems may have to be reviewed from time to time and updated. Necessary audits should be carried
Environmental Management Plans (EMP) 35 out. Safety head should report direct to top management and safety need not be compromised at any
Environmental Management Roles and Responsibilities 39 cost.
Environment Management Measures 41
Pollution/Pollutants 43 All employees should be made to be aware of keeping good health. Any conditions which can
Forms of Pollution 46
Pollutants 47 spoil health of employees should be corrected eliminated. All employees should be subjected to
Effects of Pollution 49 medical tests periodically to check their health. They should be encouraged to change their lifestyle to be
Pollution Control Devices 53 in harmony with nature. Creating awareness of health will ultimately benefit industry because
Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) 55 employees will remain alert and contribute their best to industry and boost productivity.
EIA Around the World 57
Criticism 65
Many industries have a feeling that any money invested in checking pollution of environment is not
Chapter Six productive for them. But in the long run, polluted environment will not only affect the performance of
HSE Policy 67 industry but life of everybody will become miserable due to poor health which in turn will affect safety.
Realising this, standards have been prepared to enable industries to take care of and control the safety,
Chapter Seven
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) 68 health and environment; all these three elements being interrelated. Throughout the world, people are
Medical Uses 69 concerned about safety, health and environment. With experience of several accidents in past,
History 75 considerable public and governmental concern has been aroused for evolving appropriate strategy for
identifying, assessing and controlling industrial accidents. Most of the industries being prone to safety
Chapter Eight hazards and environmental degradation, utmost precautions are needed to have full control over S, H &
HSE Statistics/Data Management 77
Community Affairs (CASHES) 79 E.
Objectives 79
Compiled by: Chartered Institute of Contract Project and Facility Management in Partnership with Compiled by: Chartered Institute of Contract Project and Facility Management in Partnership with
Chartered Institute of Environmental Health and Safety, United States of America 2017
1 Chartered Institute of Environmental Health and Safety, United States of America 2017
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COMMITMENT OF TOP MANAGEMENT IN HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT POLICY Formal risk analysis should be conducted for all processes. One or more operation personnel familiar with
In the industries, Safety, Health and Environment management is considered as an integral part of overall the process being studied should be included in the HAZOP analysis. Hazardous processes and materials
management systems. Management's responsibilities include vision, establishing systems, setting the are identified in the Factories Act-1948, and specified as such by Risk Analysis for identifying : (a) The
expectations, assessing performance, improving effectiveness, encouragement for doing things safely, hazards of the process ; (b) Any previous incident with a likely potential for catastrophic consequences in
prompt action for deficiencies, and allocating resources for responsible operation. The management the workplace ; (c) Engineering and administrative controls to provide early warning of releases ; (d)
should involve all employees, contractors, security personnel and business associates related to Consequences of failure of such controls ; (e) Facility siting; (f) Human factors ; and (g) A qualitative
operation in the safety culture. Commitment of top management towards safety, health and environment evaluation of the range of possible safety and health effect of failure controls.
is essential and this message should flow to all organisational levels.
Reliability of critical system and devices has to be ensured. Maintenance and inspection personal should
Separate manuals for safety, fire, health and environment management need to be developed. The policy be involved in the implementation of mechanical integrity programme through normal work activities,
should be approved by the Board of Directors and be updated periodically and made available to all including development of written maintenance procedure, training for process maintenance activities,
employees. The intentions and commitments on part of top management should be clearly specified. inspection and testing, correction of deficiencies in equipment that are outside acceptable limits defined
by the process safety information, and assisting in the implementation of the quality assurance
For safety, separate committees need to be set up at management and shop-floor level. Management programme. Maintenance personnel should also be trained on the potential hazards associated with the
Safety Committee should be headed by unit head/location in charge. Workmen representative should be process and chemicals to which they may be exposed.
included in the committee. 50% of the members of each Shop-floor Safety Committee should be
workmen. Management Safety Committee should review safety performance, audit reports, incident Operation & maintenance personnel should be involved in the development, review, modification, and
investigations, recommendations to the shop-floor committees, status of fire fighting and safety use of operating procedures and they should operate and maintain processes in accordance with
equipment and compliance of statutory rules/regulations. Shop-floor Safety Committee should documented operating, inspection, testing and maintenance procedures.
deliberate hazards involved in operation, performance of safety systems, lessons learnt from past Employees should be encouraged to support good health by cooperating with occupational
incidents/near-misses, training etc. and suggestions for improvement in safety standards. health and hygiene physician in conducting various activities under occupational health monitoring, and
maintaining healthy hygiene in workplace by observing and encouraging best practices.
Surprise safety checks, particularly at odd-hours, should be carried out and findings recorded. Punitive
scheme may be devised for violation of safety procedures and non-compliance of Personal Protective A strong sense of environmental conscience needs to be developed amongst all the employees through
Equipment. Safety promotional activities like display of safety posters! precautions and safety records at educative and promotive programmes on regular basis. All employee should actively contribute towards
prominent locations, publication of safety newsletter bulletins, safety talk to contractors labourers, safety sustainable development by safeguarding the workplace and the environment through compliance of
competition, etc. should be encouraged. Safety awareness survey should be carried out once a year and relevant rules and regulations.
input provided to improve safety awareness.
CONTRACTOR HSE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
ENSURING PARTICIPATION OF EMPLOYEES IN DEVELOPING HSE POLICY
Employees participation and involvement in development and implementation of the HSE Management A. HSE CONTRACTUAL REQUIREMENTS – LOWRISK ACTIVITIES
system is essential. It must be remembered that a group decision is always considered to be a better 1. Contractor shall comply with;
decision than that of an individual, and is thus better implementable. a. All relevant Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) Laws and Regulations;
b. Requirements of approvals, licenses and permits (e.g. EIA, No Objection Certificates);
Plant manager should be given overall responsibility for the implementation of the Employee c. Appropriate HSE Management System Requirements, including but not limited to:
participation and to ensure that Process safety information, process hazard analysis reports, Incident - HSE and Sustainability Policy;
investigation reports and Audit Corrective action reports are made available to the affected employees or - HSE Management System Manual;
contract employees for proper dissemination of information. - HSE Management System Procedures;
Initial training on safety aspects to all has to be ensured. Structured training on safety, - HSE Management System Forms;
Hazards and emergency response should also be imparted. - Project HSE-Plan and
- Site Access & Security Requirements.
It should be ensured that no employee performs work for which he has not received appropriate training. - Other HSE Requirements as specified by the contract.
Employees should be encouraged to look for and report potential hazards and to suggest ways to control
and/or eliminate them. 2. The contractor shall provide appropriate evidence of procedures and/or programs to manage HSE
hazards and risks that at a minimum complies with the specified requirements for Low Risk Entities. The
Effective and continuing leadership at all level of participation is required. Each employee should be procedures/program shall be reviewed and approved by Corporate HSE Department prior to the
encouraged to observe all relevant H, S & E rules and regulations, actively participate in all promotional commencement of any works.
activities, report unsafe act and situation and active cooperation in mitigating the same.
3. The contractor shall conduct work in a safe manner and shall rectify, without delay, all unsafe acts and
conditions or potential hazards. Without prejudice to any rights of industrial safety code, if the work being
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carried out by the contractor is inconsistent with these requirements, the company reserves the right to - HSE Management System Manual;
suspend all or part of the work immediately, without any compensation to the contractor thereof. The - HSE Management System Procedures;
suspension notice shall include the company's reasons for issuing such notice and shall outline the steps - HSE Management System Forms;
that shall be taken by the contractor to rectify the hazard. The contractor shall be considered to be in - Project HSE-Plan (if applicable); and Site Access & Security Requirements.
default of its obligations under the terms and conditions hereof until the unsafe working hazard is - Other HSE Requirements as specified by the contract.
remedied to the satisfaction of the company
2. Contractor shall provide appropriate evidence of procedures and/or programs to manage HSE hazards
4. The contractor shall ensure that all personnel have completed the required medical assessments and and risks, including, but not limited to:
clearance as required for their respective assignments or if required by law. The contractor shall also a. HSE Policy;
comply with ongoing medical surveillance requirements. b. HSE method statements and or HSE Codes of Practice;
c. Completed risk assessments; and
5. The contractor shall be responsible for the medical welfare of its personnel and make arrangements for d. Minimum HSE training requirements.
medical attendance, treatment, hospitalization or emergency evacuation if and when necessary, and shall The procedures and/or programs shall be reviewed by the Company's Corporate HSE Department prior
arrange for, on their own account, suitable insurance coverage for such contingencies. to the commencement of any works.
6. The contractor, at its own cost, supply their personnel, agents or subcontractors with adequate Personal 3. The contractor shall conduct work in a safe manner and shall rectify, without delay, all unsafe acts and
Protective Equipment (PPE), appropriate to the hazardous nature of the particular work, in compliance conditions or potential hazards. Without prejudice to any other rights of, the company if the work being
with safety code in force in Nigeria. carried out by the contractor is inconsistent with these requirements, the company reserves the right to
The contractor shall ensure equipment is appropriately maintained, in good condition and that it is worn. suspend all or part of the work immediately, without any compensation to the contractor thereof. The
suspension notice shall include the company's reasons for issuing such notice and shall outline the steps
7. Notwithstanding the provisions of these terms and conditions hereof, the contractor shall ensure that that shall be taken by the contractor to rectify the hazard. The contractor shall be considered to be in
their personnel have the required safety training and are competent to undertake their required duties in default of its obligations under the terms and conditions hereof until the unsafe working hazard is
a safe and efficient manner, in accordance with HSE Training and Competency Procedure. remedied to the satisfaction of the company.
8. The Company may inspect the work and worksites concerned and may inspect and audit the contractors 4. The contractor shall ensure that all personnel have completed the required medical assessments and
HSE documentation, processes and activities for the purpose of verifying compliance with the terms and clearance as required for their respective assignments and shall certify the same to the company if
conditions hereof. requested or if required by law. The contractor shall also comply with ongoing medical surveillance
requirements.
9. In accordance with the company HSE Incident Reporting and Investigation Procedure, the
Contractor shall immediately notify them of any work related injury, illness, fatality or other HSE-related 5. The contractor shall be responsible for the medical welfare of its personnel and make arrangements for
incident. medical attendance, treatment, hospitalization or emergency evacuation if and when necessary, and
shall arrange for, on their own account, suitable insurance coverage for such contingencies.
10. In accordance with the company HSE Incident Reporting and Investigation Procedure, the
Contractor shall provide the company copies of all incident reports that result in formal notification to any 6. The contractor, at its own cost, supply their personnel, agents or subcontractors with adequate
governmental agency. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), appropriate to the hazardous nature of the particular work, in
compliance .The contractor shall ensure equipment is appropriately maintained, in good condition and
11. The contractor shall investigate and report all significant injuries, illnesses, fatalities or other HSE- that it is worn.
related incidents, and provide the company with copies of written incident investigation reports, including
corrective action plans identified during investigations. Corrective action plans shall be reviewed and C. HSE CONTRACTUAL REQUIREMENTS – HIGH RISK ACTIVITIES
approved by the company HSE Department. The contractor shall agree that appropriate personnel, at its
sole discretion, can participate in all investigations concerning HSE incidents. 1. Contractor shall comply with;
a. all relevant Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) Laws and Regulations;
Contractor HSE Management Procedure b. requirements of approvals, licenses and permits (e.g. EIA, No Objection Certificates);
B. THE COMPANY STANDARD HSE CONTRACTUAL REQUIREMENTS – MEDIUM RISK ACTIVITIES c. appropriate company HSE Management System Requirements , including but not limited to:
- HSE and Sustainability Policy;
1. Contractor shall comply with; - HSE Management System Manual;
a. all relevant Health, Safety and Environment (HSE) Laws and Regulations; - HSE Management System Procedures;
b. requirements of approvals, licenses and permits (e.g. EIA, No Objection Certificates); - HSE Management System Forms;
c. appropriate company HSE Management System Requirements, including but not limited to: - Project HSE-Plan (if applicable); and Site Access & Security Requirements.
- HSE and Sustainability Policy; - Other HSE Requirements as specified by the contract.
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Chartered Institute of Environmental Health and Safety, United States of America 2017 Chartered Institute of Environmental Health and Safety, United States of America 2017
CHAPTER TWO
2. The contractor shall submit an appropriate HSE Management System/HSE Program, aligned to
recognized standards. The management system/program does not necessarily need to be certified, HAZARDS AND EFFECTS MANAGEMENT PROCESS
although this is encouraged. The management system/program shall be reviewed and approved by the Industrial activities have the potential to harm people and the environment, to cause damage or loss to
Company's Corporate HSE Department prior to the commencement of any works. assets, to defer oil production, to cause financial loss, and to adversely impact the Company's reputation.
A Hazards and Effects Management Process (HEMP) provides a structured approach to managing the
3. The contractor shall conduct work in a safe manner and shall rectify, without delay, all unsafe acts and hazards and potential effects of Industrial activities. There are numerous techniques to carry out HEMP,
conditions or potential hazards. Without prejudice to any other rights of the company, if the work being and the technique chosen should be aligned to the scope of work, risk scenarios in that work, etc. Once
carried out by the contractor is inconsistent with these requirements, the company reserves the right to this is known, an appropriate technique can be chosen, such as Hazard Identification (HAZID), Hazards
suspend all or part of the work immediately, without any compensation to the contractor thereof. The Analysis (HAZAN), Hazards & Operability (HAZOP), Task Risk Assessment (TRA), Quantitative Risk
suspension notice shall include the company's reasons for issuing such notice and shall outline the steps Assessment (QRA), Job Safety Plan (JSP), etc.
that shall be taken by the contractor to rectify the hazard. The contractor shall be considered to be in
default of its obligations under the terms and conditions hereof until the unsafe working hazard is Effective application of HEMP involves four steps: identify, assess, control, and recover, and all steps will
remedied to the satisfaction of the company. See procedure 4-11 in Attachment 1 above generate records. These steps cover identification of the major hazards to people and the environment,
assessment of the related risks, as well as implementing measures to control these risks, and to recover
in case these measures fail.
Although these steps are often described sequentially, in practice they overlap and are not always
distinct. HEMP is an iterative process, i.e., a repetitive process wherein the HEMP cycle is ongoing and
dynamic because the risk picture in industries is always subject to change as well. HEMP is also a spoken
process, ideally conducted using a team approach where everybody on the team is encouraged to
provide their input and knowledge of the threats, hazards, and risks involved, as well as the resulting
event that could occur.
This chapter:
Introduces industrial Hazards and Effects Management Process (HEMP) and describes its role within
industrials HSE Management System.
Describes each stage of HEMP.
Describes some commonly used HEMP tools and techniques to assist in developing and implementing
each step.
Describes the general scope of each step and also provides detailed procedures for carrying out and
reporting each step.
Provides additional information sources for implementing HEMP.
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whereby a Company, Asset, or local risk register is established and populated with results of HAZID
REQUIREMENTS activities, for example.
HEMP shall be conducted for new assets, facilities, and/or activities as well as regularly for existing
facilities or operations whenever major changes take place. HEMP shall cover the lifecycle of asset / SCOPE OF IDENTIFICATION
facility as illustrated below: Identification of threats, hazards, and effects should cover the following:
All activities, products, and/or services controlled by industries, and those influenced by industries such
LIFECYCLE STAGE FOCUS OF HEMP
as supplier, contractor, and sub-contractor activities.
Planning for new assets, facilities , and/or Identification and assessment of threats,
All activities, products, and/or services carried out by all personnel having access to the workplace and
operations hazards, and effects that may be avoided, facilities at the workplace including suppliers, contractors, and sub-contractors.
reduced, and/or eliminated. Routine (frequently performed), non-routine (infrequently performed), and/or emergency operating
Reviewing existing assets, facilities, and/or Identification and assessment of threats, conditions and activities. Sometimes the categories of normal and abnormal operating conditions are
operations hazards, and effe cts that may be avoided, also considered.
reduced, and/or eliminated. The lifecycle of an asset or activity, from the planning stage, through operation to decommissioning, and
Operational and maintenance stages for all - Development and implementation of effective disposal and restoration.
assets, facilities, and/or operations controls for HEMP.
- Development and implementation of effective HEMP Tools - Identification
recovery preparedness measures. One or more of the following tools may be selected to assist in identifying threats, hazards, and effects.
- Identification of new hazards particularly in This selection may depend on the information available, the scope and/or phase of the activity or project,
non-routine operations and/or maturity of the operation.
Structured review techniques reflect collective knowledge and experience, and sometimes are codified
LIFECYCLE STAGE FOCUS OF HEMP into regulations, codes, and/or standards. Generally focused on hazard identification, assessment, and
Establishing a new Contract or renewing an Identification and assessment of the major threats, control, they contain specific information on hazards and their management for particular operations and
existing Contract hazards, and effects associated with the Contract activities.
so that the Contractor and/or Sub-Contractor can:
- Develop and implement effective controls for Checklists are a useful way of ensuring that known threats and hazards have all been identified and
hazards and effects management. assessed. However, use of checklists shouldn't limit the scope of the review because checklists should be
customized to the area in which they are applied, perhaps entailing adding several categories to them.
- Develop and implement effective recovery and
Hazard and Effects Registers are particularly useful as well, as they capture the knowledge derived from
emergency preparedness measures.
using the checklist(s).
Planning for abandonment and Identification and assessment of threats, hazards,
decommissioning and Knowledge and the judgment of experienced staff is invaluable for threat and hazard identification,
effects that may be avoided, reduced, and/or assessment, and control, particularly direct feedback from incidents, accidents, near misses, and Job
eliminated. Safety Plans.
Abandonment and decommissioning Safe clean up and rehabilitation.
Structured review techniques reflect collective knowledge and experience, and sometimes are codified
The first stage in HEMP is to systematically identify the potential health, safety, and environmental into regulations, codes, and/or standards. Generally focused on hazard identification, assessment, and
threats, hazards, and effects of your activities and operations. Threats, hazards, and effects control, they contain specific information on hazards and their management for particular operations and
identification is conducted at an early stage in the design and development of new facilities, equipment, Checklists are a useful way of ensuring that known threats and hazards have all been identified and
and/or processes. This permits sound HSE practices, systems, and equipment to be 'designed-in,' and
assessed. However, use of checklists shouldn't limit the scope of the review because checklists should be
allows for a wider choice of hazard prevention, risk reduction, mitigation, and recovery measures to be
employed than with existing facilities. Continual hazard identification and risk reduction is required at customized to the area in which they are applied, perhaps entailing adding several categories to them.
existing facilities to maintain and improve HSE performance. Threats, hazards, and their consequences Hazard and Effects Registers are particularly useful as well, as they capture the knowledge derived from
can be identified and assessed in a number of ways, ranging from the simple to the complex, as shown in using the checklist(s).
the order below:
Through experience and judgment. Knowledge and the judgment of experienced staff is invaluable for threat and hazard identification,
Using checklists. assessment, and control, particularly direct feedback from incidents, accidents, near misses, and Job
By referring to regulations, codes, and/or standards. Safety Plans.
By undertaking more structured review and analytical techniques.
The second stage in HEMP is to assess the health, safety, and environmental risks of all activities, and then
This first stage in HEMP also begins the formal process of documenting and recording the HEMP process.
to rank these risks. Once the hazards and effects have been identified, their consequences and likelihood
This is an important activity in that it creates a “risk history” for the organization, and provides
can be assessed, evaluated, and the risk level determined. It is important to contrast quantitative risk
traceability when managing risk overall. This stage is also where risk(s) can begin to be „registered,‟
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assessment (QRA) with qualitative risk assessment. Neither is a “better” means of evaluating risk than the When evaluating and comparing risk reduction options and where the relative effectiveness of these
other, and either or both can be a valid means of evaluation of a particular risk. options is not obvious.
Both methods use the same basic steps of hazard identification, consequence assessment, and exposure When the exposure of the workforce, public or strategic value of the asset is high, and risk reduction
assessment in order to characterize risk. The primary differences in the methods are the level of measures are to be evaluated
complexity in these steps, as well as the level of experience and expertise of the personnel carrying out the When novel technology is involved resulting in a perceived high level of risk for which no historical data is
assessment and a commensurate increase in the resources required to complete the exercise. Typically, available
qualitative risk assessment is used 1), to determine if a quantitative assessment is required, and 2), as a When a demonstration that risks are being managed to a level which is as low as reasonably practicable
screening tool prior to the completion of a quantitative assessment. (ALARP) is required.
The application of QRA need not be limited to large, complex and expensive studies, however. It is a
SCOPE OF QUALITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENTS technique that can be applied quickly and inexpensively to help structure the solution to problems for
Risk assessment of hazards and effects should cover the following: which the solution is not intuitively obvious.
All activities, products, and/or services controlled by industries, and those influenced by industries, such
as supplier, contractor, and sub-contractor activities. Only staff with adequate training and experience should undertake QRA, although it is critical that
personnel familiar with the operation or facility are involved in the study. QRA often involves the use of
All activities, products, and/or services carried out by all personnel having access to the workplace and specialized software.
facilities at the workplace including suppliers, contractors, and sub-contractors.
QRA provides a structured approach to assessing risk, whether the risks are human, hardware / software
Routine (frequently performed), non-routine (infrequently performed), and/or emergency operating failure, environmental events, and/or combinations of failures and events.
conditions and activities. Sometimes the categories of normal and abnormal operating conditions are also QRA identifies high-risk areas, assists in efficient and effective risk management, and helps demonstrate
considered. that risks are being managed to a level deemed ALARP.
The lifecycle of an asset or activity, from the planning stage, through operation to decommissioning, and Scope of Controls
disposal and restoration. The third stage in HEMP, developing fit-for-purpose risk controls, requires use of appropriate risk control
identification techniques. Application of the technique chosen should cover:
Qualitative methods are best used for risk assessments of simple facilities or operations, where the All activities, products, and/or services controlled by industries, and those influenced by industries, such
exposure of the workforce, public, environment, and/or asset is low. Qualitative risk assessments are as supplier, contractor, and sub-contractor activities.
typically a combination of judgment, opinion, and experience, and using structured review techniques The activities, products, and/or services carried out by all personnel having access to the workplace and
with as much available risk information as possible. facilities at the workplace including suppliers, contractors, and/or sub-contractors.
Routine (frequently performed), non-routine (infrequently performed), and/or emergency operating
Qualitative risk assessments should be carried out with input from those people directly involved with the conditions and activities. Sometimes the categories of normal and abnormal operating conditions are
risk, using a team approach. The logic here is that those directly involved with the risk have the greatest also considered.
self interest and “buy-in” to subsequently control it. The lifecycle of an asset or activity, from the planning stage, through operation to decommissioning, and
disposal and restoration.
Many structured review techniques have and use subjective or qualitative evaluation of risk. Techniques
such as simple risk assessment, task risk assessment, structured brainstorming, and group risk Risk controls should include prevention, mitigation, and recovery measures.
assessments are useful here, and by their nature require team approaches. Procedures or guidelines
detailing how to do these techniques should be available for risk assessment teams to refer to and use. Industrial Hierarchy of Risk Controls
In all cases, risk controls should be developed and established so that risk reduction achieves a level that is
Risk assessments can be undertaken using experience and judgment. A team approach is highly ALARP. The Industrial Risk Assessment Matrix is to be used as a standard to identify controls that reduce
recommended because: 1) no one individual knows everything about the situation being assessed; 2) the risk to ALARP.
quality of risk decisions tends to be higher and more accurate when done with a team; 3) the team
approach gets involvement, especially when involving employees and contractors who face the risk; 4) Depending on what the threat and/or hazard is, the same control may be used to prevent, mitigate,
risk decisions by a team also get higher levels of ownership, as the team also participates in determining and/or recover from a threatening and/or hazardous event. For example, all measures ranging from the
and ultimately implementing the risk controls they have determined as most effective. first steps in mitigation through to reinstatement of the operation assist in preparing for recovery.
SCOPE OF QUANTITATIVE RISK ASSESSMENTS An important outcome of HEMP is identifying the HSE risks arising from industrial operations that are
Quantitative Risk Assessments (QRA) are undertaken for more complex facilities or activities, and/or classified as “high,” prioritizing these, and identifying the actions that must be taken to manage them.
where required by law. Determining whether a qualitative or quantitative technique is to be used depends These actions are defined as HSE Critical Activities and are a focus of industrial HSE Management System.
on the scope and complexity of the scenario being assessed. However, the application of quantitative
methods is considered to be desirable under the following situations:
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Risk Acceptance Criteria Example of Managing Risk to ALARP
Risk Acceptance Criteria have been established at industries to provide guidance to the question, “If the As a guide to deciding whether risk is managed to ALARP, the following statements can be made about
risk is determined to be Low, Medium, or High, what should we do with respect to demonstrating ALARP? the example above:
Quantitative Risk Assessment (QRA) refers to risk acceptance criteria. In general, risk acceptance criteria Option 1 is not ALARP as the risk is not yet controlled to applicable standards.
apply the following concept: Options 2 and 3 may be ALARP. However, if for only a small incremental investment, the risk level could
For low risks, there is usually no formal need to demonstrate ALARP; the risks are already low. be further reduced as in Option 4, Option 4 would then be ALARP.
For medium risks, sometimes there is a need to demonstrate ALARP by determining and incorporating Options 5 and 6 may not be ALARP as the reduction in risk may not be justified by the additional
risk reduction measures. This can be a leadership decision as to what types of controls are required for investments required for control.
the various HSE risks that are faced.
High risks require some type of immediate risk reduction plan or measures so as to proceed with the Residual Risk
work or activity. In some cases if an immediate risk reduction solution cannot be found and applied, the Residual risk is the “remaining” risk after all proposed controls are applied and taking into consideration
task or activity may not be allowed to proceed. the quality and effectiveness of the controls in place. The potential difference between inherent and
residual risk gives an indication of the quality and effectiveness of the controls put in place. When
What is ALARP? considering residual risk levels, this should be done in the context of the overall risk profile for the
ALARP – As Low As Reasonably Practicable - is often expressed in qualitative or quantitative terms. business. In the case of the industry managing major process plants and other process safety issues,
However, ALARP itself does not prevent accidents; suitable, adequate, effective, and timely major accident hazards are still likely to be a significant contributor to the overall industry risk profile.
implementation of risk controls prevents accidents. Therefore, the following statements are provided as
Where the residual risks remain at high levels, the company's senior leadership should consider if and
a guide to determining whether a particular risk is being managed to an ALARP level:
what strategic activities are required to further lower the risk levels during their management review
Management ultimately decides whether ALARP is achieved, on a case by case basis, for each particular
processes. This is applying the concept of continual improvement to the overall HEMP process and the
risk.
organizations overall Risk Profile.
For each particular risk, ALARP can only be determined by comparing a number of risk control options or
strategies.
The terms, risk acceptance and risk appetite require consideration as well. Risk acceptance refers to a set
If risk is not controlled in a manner that meets applicable standards (e.g., Omani Law, industry codes of
of criteria defining the limits above which risks cannot be tolerated. Risk appetite refers to the positive
practice, industrial Specifications, international standards, and/or other stakeholder concerns / benefits of exploiting a business opportunity associated with the risks.
expectations), ALARP has not been achieved.
ALARP has not been achieved if risk can be appreciably reduced further for only a small incremental cost These two concepts together should be balanced against one another and against the cost of managing
or investment. the exposure. Some other key points regarding residual risk with respect to the managing risk process:
There are several quantitative and qualitative tools that may be used to assist in determining and Residual risk, initially, is a prediction by the assessment team of the risk that will remain, assuming the
demonstrating that risks are managed to ALARP levels, e.g. the Risk Assessment Matrix, QRA, HAZID, recommended risk control(s) are implemented. At this stage it is not yet tested or proven.
HAZOP, Task Risk Analysis, Cost Benefit Analysis (COBA), etc. Risk controls, once their implementation has begun, must be verified in the field at the point of control as
to whether the targeted residual risk level has been achieved or not. At this stage, the key question
Part of the ALARP demonstration process will involve assessing and evaluating the magnitude of the risk becomes, “Have the implemented risk controls brought the risk down to the predicted level?” This is a
reduction that can be provided by a proposed option. Along with the benefit, the technical feasibility, cost key part of risk monitoring.
and effort of the proposed risk reduction option should also be assessed as part of COBA. Once determined, the original risk assessment documentation has to be reviewed and changed as
necessary. For example, if the original determination was that a high risk could be brought down to a low
The quantified risk reduction considered within the scope of a QRA study, for example, should be limited risk, but field verifications and the evidence shows the risk level to be actually a medium residual risk,
to options that can be reasonably evaluated by QRA. These are broadly inherent safety options, but may then the risk register and other associated risk documentation must be changed and updated
also include some engineered and procedural controls. As many of the risk reduction options would accordingly.
involve changes to the process design, facility layout, safeguarding, or operations philosophy, the
brainstorming of QRA risk reduction options should involve a multi-disciplinary team. Identified options The fourth and final stage in HEMP is to ensure the necessary steps are planned to be able to recover
should be ranked on quantitative risk reduction against cost and effort of implementing. The residual risk from the release of a hazard, should the controls that have been put in place fail to prevent its release.
or the benefits gained from risk reduction initiatives, once risk reduction initiatives are approved and Recovery from the consequences of the release of a hazard requires careful planning. Even with a
implemented, should also be determined by the team. comprehensive range of controls in place to prevent the release of hazards and/or their effects, things
can still go wrong.
Maximum level of risk allowed by applicable standards Risk Control Options Residual risk that remains
when each control option is implemented Decreasing level of risk Increasing investment required to Should the controls fail to prevent or avoid the release of a hazard then some kind of counter measures
implement each risk control option. are required to limit the number and severity of the consequences of the hazardous event or effect.
These counter measures are aimed at mitigating the consequences of the hazard and aid in
reinstatement of the normal operation or activity.
13 14
Recovery measures can reduce the likelihood or probability that the first hazardous event will develop into
further consequences and provide life saving capabilities should the „top event‟ escalate further. To assist Procedures for recovery from high risk and emergency scenarios should be in place and subject to drills,
with recovery, it is important that all personnel are fully briefed and drilled as to the response measures testing, and review. Creating simple checklists and/or Work Instructions, based on procedures, clarify
planned, including evacuation and restoration procedures. For major incidents, this may include also crisis and expedite response in real emergency situations.
management and business continuity planning.
All control and recovery procedures should be established, included, and recorded in the HSE
Scope of Recovery Management System, an HSE Case, MOPO, and/or Job Safety Plans with recovery actions that should be
Recovery should include: taken in the event a control fails being documented.
All activities, products, and/or services controlled by industry, and those influenced by industry,
such as supplier, contractor, and sub-contractor activities. HEMP Tools – Records
The activities, products, and/or services carried out by all personnel having access to the The following documents should be kept to describe the hazards and effects identification, analysis,
workplace and facilities at the workplace including suppliers, contractors, and/or sub-contractors. controls results, and their monitoring requirements.
Routine (frequently performed), non-routine (infrequently performed), and/or emergency
operating conditions and activities. Sometimes the categories of normal and abnormal operating A Hazard and Effects Register demonstrates that all hazards and effects have been identified, are
conditions are also considered. understood, and are being properly controlled. The Register is kept current throughout the life cycle of a
The lifecycle of an asset or activity, from the planning stage, through operation to project, i.e., from the planning and design stage, through operation, to decommissioning,
decommissioning, and disposal and restoration. abandonment, and disposal. The purpose of the Hazards and Effects Register is to present the results of
the analysis made of each hazard or effect present in, or resulting from, the facility or operation.
In developing recovery measures, consider and include both active (e.g., emergency shutdown
procedures, automatic blowdown systems, alarms, fire protection) and passive emergency preparedness Once the Hazards and Effects Register is completed it is possible to complete a Manual of Permitted
and response arrangements (e.g. emergency response call out and duty rosters) for both operational and Operations (MOPO) which defines:
contingency planning (abnormal situations and potential emergencies). The level and number of barriers put in place initially and the recovery measures to be put in place.
The limit of safe operation if the barriers and/or recovery measures are reduced, removed, bypassed,
For effective recovery procedures it is important that each recovery measure be accompanied by formal and/or purposefully defeated.
documentation. For instance, each action that should be taken in the event that a control fails shall be The limit of safe operation permitted during periods of escalated risk in likelihood, consequences, or
documented. In addition, the persons responsible and/or accountable for establishing, maintaining, both.
implementing, and reviewing each associated procedure shall be defined and competent. Which activities may or may not be carried out concurrently, often referred to „Simultaneous
Operations.‟
Effective recovery procedures also require testing and review. For instance, all procedures for recovery
from high risk and emergency scenarios shall be in place and subject to testing and defined review periods. Hazards and effects information gained from the Hazards and Effects Register and a MOPO is now
In between the defined review periods, recovery procedures should be reviewed, and possibly updated, incorporated into the HSE Case. The HSE Case must demonstrate that:
for the following situation: All threats, hazards, and effects have been identified.
An incident has occurred. The likelihood and consequences of a hazardous event have been assessed.
Following analysis of drills and testing. Controls to manage potential causes (threat barriers) are in place.
Any changes in the operational environment occur. Recovery / emergency preparedness measures to mitigate potential consequences have been taken.
There are changes in legal and other requirements and/or industry best practice.
Performance against all recovery procedures should be recorded and formally reviewed periodically. Such
performance may be linked to Company, Asset, and/or local goals, objectives, and/or targets. Parties
responsible and accountable for implementing recovery procedures shall be competent to do so and
clearly understand their roles, responsibilities, and accountabilities.
Experienced personnel can construct a bow tie diagram as part of a hazard analysis (HAZAN) and use this
to consider the chain of events resulting from a top event and the recovery measures required to reduce
the probability and effect of each consequence. Knowledge of experienced personnel is invaluable for
hazard identification and analysis / assessment, particularly coming from direct feedback from incidents,
accidents, near misses, and/or hazards.
15 16
CHAPTER THREE
Risk management is a formal process for managing risks. The process consists of system definition, hazard
identification, identification of accident scenarios, quantification of probabilities and consequences,
HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT RISK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (HESERMS)
assessment of risk, identification of risk control options, decision on implementation, identification and
In this Chapter attempts have been made to provide unified understanding of the field of risk
management of residual risk.
management. The Chapter begins with a few of many definitions of the central concepts, namely risk
analysis, assessment and management. Then, the definition of a unified concept of the risk management
Risk management includes a range of management and policy-making activities, such as agenda setting,
system is provided. Based on the understanding gained in this research, a conceptual model of the risk
management system has been presented. The Chapter explores in some detail the main phases and risk reduction decision-making, programme implementation, and outcome evaluation.
stages of the risk management process. Risk (safety) management is the on-going process of controlling risk as part of the management of ship
operation. It encompasses tasks such as commissioning risks assessments, making decisions about the
TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS recommendations emerging from studies, and implementing and monitoring the chosen solutions.
Despite of the significant progress being made across many countries, industries and sectors, there are
still misconceptions, misuses and ambiguities in the field of risk management. Based on the 4 CARAT stands for Chemical Accident Risk Assessment Thesaurus. This is a database of laws, regulations,
understanding gained through the extensive literature review, library study and research work guidance standards and definitions of terms related to risk assessment. CARAT contains information from
experience, in this Chapter attempts have been made to provide a unified understanding of the field. various international, national and regional agencies, organisations, and chemical companies, including
the European Union and individual countries, the USA, Canada and other OECD countries. Variations
The field of risk management is faced with difficulties in defining and agreeing on principles. Risks are arising in terminology, definitions, concepts, as well as methodologies and practices are the result of a
dealt with differently across different countries, industries and sectors. Terms, definitions and wide range of different factors, including: a) different perceptions, attitudes and values regarding risks in
interpretations are as varied as the number of sources providing them. There are no agreed unified different socio–economic-political contexts; and b) different needs and specifications of diverse
definitions of risk analysis, assessment and management. There are often misconceptions. Different industrial sectors and risks specifications in various regions and countries. There are difficulties in
terms, for example “risk analysis” and “risk assessment”, are often used interchangeably. agreeing on the principles in the field, because each country has its own priorities, local communities,
central authorities and different kinds of legislation. The variations in the shipping industry, for example,
Further, a single term may be used in different ways, meanings or contexts.
may arise from the need to accommodate specifications of the systems and risks involved. The roots of
For example, although the term “analysis” may be narrower than the term “management”, the Society for
Risk Analysis (SRA 2004) has chosen to broadly define the term “risk analysis” as the process that includes differences in the field may also be the result of the diversity in languages and interpretations and the
risk assessment, risk characterization, risk communication, risk management, and policy making. The EC national social-cultural environment contexts.
Health and Consumer Protection Directorate defines the term “risk analysis” as the encompassing term
used to describe three major sub-fields of the discipline, namely: risk assessment, risk management and A unified concept of the risk management system
risk communication. Further, the Comprehensive Risk Analysis and Management Network, which is a As mentioned above, people have often chosen to adopt various views in the field of risk management. In
Swiss-Swedish workshop network initiative for international cooperation among governments, recent years, although some sources may have a narrow view, the term “risk management system” may
academics and industries and sectors, employs a similar definition of “risk analysis” as those stated be used to represent the broadest concept, in particular in the field of human safety and health, the
above. environment and property protection, and in the chemical and shipping industries. A few of many similar
terminologies in use include: “Safety Management System” (SMS), “Integrated Safety Management
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS - RISK ANALYSIS, ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT System”, “Total Risk Management System” and
“Safety, Health and Environmental Management System.”
Risk Analysis
The development of a quantitative estimate of risk based on engineering evaluation and mathematical In the following Section, attempts have been made to provide a unified understanding of the
techniques for combining estimates of incident consequences and frequencies central concepts related to the risk management system. The risk management system is the overall
The use of available information to estimate the risk to individuals or populations, property or the
integrated process consisting of two essential interrelated and overlapping, but conceptually distinct
environment from hazards. Risk analysis generally contains the following steps:
components – risk assessment and risk management.
scope definition, hazard identification, and risk estimation. The process in which the risks of a certain
activity are evaluated in quantitative terms.
In recent years, the term is defined by TRUSTNET (2002), which is a pluralistic and interdisciplinary
Risk Assessment European network involved in the field of Risk Governance. Its steering committee consists of
The process of risk analysis and risk evaluation. The process in which analysed risk is judged for its representatives of major organisations dealing with risk governance, including European national
acceptability. regulatory bodies and representatives of the European Commission. However, risk communication has
become an important integrated component of the risk management system.
Risk management
Risk management is the process of weighing policy alternatives and selecting the most appropriate Risk assessment, which is identical to safety assessment, is an element of the system that consists of risk
regulatory action, integrating the results of risk assessment with additional data on social, economic and analysis and risk evaluation. However, in many cases, the terms “risk analysis” and “risk assessment” are
political concerns to reach a decision implying the following approach: identification of chemicals for used interchangeably.
consideration, risk assessment, risk evaluation, and risk mitigation or reduction.
18
Risk analysis is a scientific process in which, by applying a wide range of methods, techniques and tools, Commission/Executive, (HSC 1991) has developed risk criteria for nuclear, petrochemical and offshore
risks are identified, estimated and presented in qualitative and/or quantitative terms. industries that are adapted for the transport of dangerous goods. Risk criteria are also proposed for
evaluation of risks related to ship operations. The most commonly used human risk expressions are
Risk evaluation is the process of comparing estimated risks with established risk evaluation criteria (e.g. individual risk and societal risk (IMO 2004).
criteria based on the best available technology, legal requirements, practices, processes, or achievements)
in order to determine the level or significance of risks and provide recommendations for the decision- The literature review shows that risk studies largely focus on the analysis of human safety and health
makers at various levels (EC 1999). (fatality and injury) risks. The following Section discusses individual and societal risks and respective risk
criteria.
Risk assessment combines both risk analysis and risk evaluation, providing practically useful and logically
structured inputs and perspectives about risks to the decision making process, development of policies, Individual risk and risk criteria: Individual risk is the frequency at which an individual may be expected to
strategies and measures for managing risks. Although risk assessment provides basic inputs for helping sustain a given level of harm from realization of specified hazards (Vrijling et al. 2004). According to the
decision makers to make better, more logical and informed decisions, it may not necessarily provide IMO (2004, p 2), individual risk (IR) is the risk of death, injury and ill health as experienced by an individual
answers to many questions, for example, questions concerning the level of risks, trade-offs in risk control, at a given location, such as for example a crewmember, a passenger on board the ship, or a person
costs and benefits. A wide range of factors, such as the society's values, priorities and perceptions, belonging to third parties that could be affected by a ship accident. Individual risk is usually determined
influences the issues mentioned. Dealing with these issues also requires consideration of factors other for the maximally exposed individual (IMO 2004, p 2).
than technical and scientific ones.
In some countries the level of individual risks above 10-4 per year are considered "unacceptable" for
MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE RISK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
"voluntary" risks (i.e. risks to workers or workplace risks), which include risks associated with the
The following Section is based on the review and study of some of the world's best risk management
workplace, such as loading, unloading and handing of dangerous goods. Risks above 10-5 per year are
practices, frameworks and techniques in shipping and other industries, sectors and activities.
"unacceptable" for "involuntary" risks, which may involve members of the general public living adjacent
The risk management system is defined and described prior to the review and evaluation of risk to ports, terminals or waterways (OECD 2000).
assessment frameworks and techniques. The risk assessment frameworks and techniques are the
constituent elements of the overall risk management system. As mentioned above, the risk management Societal risk and risk criteria: Societal risk is the risk of the occurrence of multiple fatalities in a single
system is a stepwise process consisting of the following interrelated but distinct phases: risk assessment event (HSE 2001) (Vrijling et al. 2004). According to the IMO (2004), societal risk (SR) is defined as average
(analysis and evaluation) and risk management. risk, in terms of fatalities, experienced by a whole group of people, such as for example crew, port
employees or society at large, exposed to hazards.
Each phase consists of a number of stages, steps and sub-steps that, in principle, are sequential. However,
in many situations, this may not necessarily be so. Researches in the field of risk management are, in many Societal risk is determined for everyone exposed, even if only once a year, and it is usually presented as
cases, carried out on the ad-hoc basis. Initiation of the process is triggered by combinations of different Potential Loss of Life (PLL) (IMO 2004). Societal risk criteria are generally based on individual risk criteria.
factors at any given time, including the seriousness of accidents, threats, issues or concerns, the They usually express a balance between costs and benefits (Spoung 1997). Standards for costs and
availability of resources, the availability of additional and/or new data, and improvements and/or benefits, risk estimation and evaluation vary among countries, industries, sectors or activities. Therefore,
developments of more advanced methods and tools. The process may start at any point and involve any risk criteria for other systems or activities may not be directly employed to the transport of dangerous
individual component of the system. goods.
The literature study shows that each component of the system may be considered a specific field or branch
of science in its own right. RISK PERCEPTION
Risk perception is an important element that considerably affects the entire risk management process,
The overall risk management process has a hierarchical structure form consisting of different levels, in including risk analysis and risk evaluation, and attitudes towards risks. Risk analysis, which is, in principal,
which the highest levels are further broken down into stages, steps and sub-steps. a "pure" scientific and technical process, may not necessarily take into consideration sociopolitical and
other related factors. Risk evaluation, on the other hand, in particular evaluation at high levels of
The following Sections discuss human and environmental risk criteria in some detail. These criteria are decision-making, takes into consideration the wide range of interrelated factors, including public risk
better developed and widely employed in many industries and sectors, including the shipping industry, tolerance, costs/benefits trade-offs, sociopolitical and ethical factors.
than other types of risk criteria.
The level of risks is generally determined the basis of scientific estimations and judgments, and by
observations of what society at the present tolerates.
HUMAN RISK CRITERIA
There are different risk criteria which are used in evaluation of human safety and health risks in various
Whether risks are considered tolerable or not may often be judged by the decision-makers at higher
industries and activities, such as aviation, road, rail and sea transport, nuclear power industry, and health
levels. Their judgments will depend on whether they believe that there is extra public sensitivity about
and safety sectors (IMO 2006). Risk criteria for the transport of dangerous goods are also developed in a
number of countries. For example, the Advisory Committee on Dangerous Substances (ACDS), on behalf of risks (HSC 1991). In many cases, risk evaluation may be a socio-political rather than a scientific matter
the UK's Health and Safety (Kunreuther and Slovic 1996).
19 20
It is often difficult to judge precisely what may be acceptable and unacceptable in a particular country,
industry, or sector of society. This is because of the wide range of various interrelated factors. Judgments
· Untrustworthy: The level of outrage is higher if the source of the risk is not trusted.
about the tolerability or acceptability of risks vary across countries, regions, industries, sectors,
individuals, and societies, as do types of risks and experiences. Judgments also alter with time – what was
· Concentrated risks: Concentrated risks, in which dangerous goods risks may fall, are regarded as
worse than diffused risks, such as for example risks of ordinary traffic accidents.
acceptable yesterday may not be acceptable today and tomorrow. People's views on\risks and their value
judgments are not static, but change according to circumstances (HSE 2001). Studies on risk perception · Benefits, voluntary/involuntary risks: The public aversion is greater for involuntary risks involving
have led to a theory which considers that it may be simplistic to believe that it will be possible to derive a activities with no immediate or little benefits than voluntary risks involving activities with
quantifiable physical reality that most people will agree represents the 'true' risk from a hazard (HSE immediate and large benefits. For example, risks to people living near roads, railroads, coastal
2001). This theory maintains that the concept of risk is strongly shaped by human minds and cultures zones, storages, terminals, ports and other facilities handling dangerous goods, with no or few
(HSE 2001). direct benefits from the activities, are regarded as worse than risks to beneficiaries, such as
employees (e.g. workers, stevedores and carriers) who are directly involved and benefit, for
The public risk tolerance is a function of different factors including risk perception, judgments, aversion, example, from the transport of dangerous goods and related activities. According to Starr (1969),
willingness and benefits. For example, a survey has shown that a sizable gap exists between risk experts public tolerance may be as many as 1000 times higher for voluntary risks than for involuntary risks
and non-technical citizens or the general public over how to define, measure and evaluate risks. Risk with the same benefits of activities (Vrijling et al. 2004).
experts and technical officials tend to focus on the standard concept of risk as the possibility of damage.
By contrast, the general public tends to expand the concept of risk to include other “non-damage” · Immediate risks/consequences: People are generally more averse to risks with immediate
attributes. They reflect societal values and the role of aversions and fears that hazards can cause. In the consequences than to those with long delayed effects.
Netherlands, for example, attempts have been made to express risk aversion mathematically in the form
of a risk aversion index, and to integrate it in the overall risk evaluation (Vrijling et al. 2004). Risk perception also depends on types of risks to which people are exposed. For example, natural and
technical or man-made risks may be perceived differently. Thus, natural risks, such as risks of earthquakes
The following presents the results of several studies concerning attributes affecting risk perception, and flooding disasters, are generally considered as inevitable because people think that they have little, if
evaluation and attitudes towards risks, including risks of dangerous goods (Sprent 1988): any, control over these events and, therefore, they may consider such natural risks as “acceptable” risks.
However, technical or man-made risks, in which risks of dangerous goods fall, may not be perceived and
· Voluntary/involuntary risks: Risks voluntarily assumed are ranked differently from those imposed accepted in the same way as natural risks.
by others. Involuntary risks, which may include risks of toxic fumes, spills, contaminations and
fires/explosions, are regarded as worse than voluntary risks, such as risks of climbing, diving and In summary, risk perception is an important multidimensional and dynamic factor that should be taken
driving. into account in understanding and dealing with risk issues, risk evaluation and risk management.
· Uncontrollable: The inability to personally make a difference may decrease the acceptability level RISK MANAGEMENT
of risk. Risk management attempts to provide answers to the questions on how best to deal with risks, such as:
What can be done? What options are available and what are their associated tradeoffs? What are the
· Immoral: Pollution is often viewed as a consummate evil; statements such as “hazards are too low
effects of current decisions on future options? This process, which is distinct from risk assessment,
to worry about” can cause suspicions. involves the key stages and steps shown below (Weigkricht and Fedra 1993) (Vincent1 et al. 1993).
· Familiarity/unfamiliarity: Generally, more familiar risks are regarded as more acceptable. Although a large part of this process concerns the decision of policy makers, risk assessors provide useful
information and propositions for dealing with risks in a most effective and efficient manner.
· Dreadful: Risks that cause highly feared or dreaded consequences are viewed as more dangerous.
The key stages and steps of risk management are:
· Uncertain: Scientific uncertainty about the effects, severity, or prevalence of a hazard tends to Stage 1: Identify, analyse and select decision making alternatives, including:
escalate unease.
· Identify key interests: Identify and solicit involvement from key interests who will be involved in
· Catastrophic: Large-scale disasters weigh more seriously in the public's mind than small-scale the decision-making and affected by actions resulting from it.
individual events. Society generally has a strong aversion to multiple casualty accidents (IMO
2004). A single accident that kills 1,000 people is perceived worse than 1,000 accidents that kill a
· Risk management strategies: Identify and determine which risks are
single person (IMO 2004). important to deal with and what key strategic decisions must be made to avoid/eliminate, reduce,
transfer or retain risks.
· Memorable: Risks embedded in remarkable events have greater impact than risks that arise in
· Risk management measures - options generation: Identify choices available to the decision
less prominent circumstances.
makers. Identify also the factors that will influence the decisions and risk factors, as decisions are
· Unfair: Substantial outrage is a more likely result if people feel they are being wrongfully exposed. rarely based on one single factor alone.
22
The decision-making process is a central element of risk management. It is a discipline in its own right and
involves identification and assessment of alternative actions for risk management, taking into account
· Select methods and tools: Select the appropriate methods and tools for the analysis of alternative costs of actions, the likelihood of future uncertain actions that may occur if the action is taken, and the
options. rewards or costs estimated to result (RMSI Group 2001).
· Option analysis and evaluation: In the light of the results of risk assessment and other relevant In the shipping industry, decision-makers at all levels are continually faced with difficult decisions. A wide
evaluation, conduct specific analyses including cost-benefit analysis and appraise/ weigh/ range of complex factors and conditions contribute to difficulties in the decision-making process. For
compare available options. managing risks of dangerous goods, the process involves not only consideration of technical factors, but
also political, social, economic, and many other factors.
· Option selection: Select and recommend appropriate alternative
approaches for implementation of risk management strategies and measures. Further, the process may be complicated by the variety and complexity of the choices and the
environment in which they are made, multiple and often conflicting objectives, different perspectives of
· Residual risks and recommendations: Identify residual risks and provide recommendations for those who are involved and affected by risks, sensitivity of decisions and uncertainty of various variables
managing them. in the decision-making process. It is, therefore, important to provide decision makers with valid, reliable
and sufficient information to ensure that they have taken a decision to their best knowledge.
Stage 2: Decision-making:
This concerns decisions on implementation of selected risk management strategies and measures. In The following Section discusses risk communication and re-assessment.
consultations with all interested parties, weighed alternatives are selected and decisions are made for Risk communication does not constitute a phase on its own, but it is rather an essential integrated
their implementation. The decision may involve implementation of measures to reduce or eliminate element of the system. In each phase and stage of the process, communications among the concerned
unacceptable risks. When appropriate, risks are eliminated, reduced or transferred in the most cost parties are essential important. Risk-related information generated at each stage is communicated to
effective manner. When they are justified, risks are retained or accepted. the concerned parties. The stage of re-assessment indicates that this is a continuous and cyclic process.
Although presented at the “end” of the cycle, the re-assessment or re-analysis can take place at any given
Stage 3: Planning: Prepare and communicate action plans to deal with risks, including: phase or stage and at any moment.
Risk management strategies
· Documentation of strategies, actions, goals, and schedule dates; The principal risk management strategies are; avoidance/elimination, reduction, transfer, and retention
(Knight 1999). The following Section discusses the mentioned strategies in some detail and provides
· Emergency response and contingency planning; some illustrative examples.
· Transport planning; Risk avoidance/elimination

The strategy of risk avoidance or elimination involves elimination of risks at the source. This strategy may,
· Providing supporting information needed to implement risk management strategies and for example, include the elimination of a) chemical-related activities (e.g. banning production and
measures. transport of chemicals), b) transport/distribution hazards and their effects (e.g. designing and
manufacturing stronger and more secure packages for the carriage of materials and substances of class 7
Stage 4: Implementation and enforcement: – radioactive materials and wastes), and c) causes and contributing factors accidents/ incidents involving
The implementation or execution of risk management strategies and measures, including: dangerous goods releases and, subsequently, their consequences. This strategy also includes
elimination of the maritime transport of certain chemicals, for example, persistent organic pollutants.
· Implementation of risk management measures for different risks and systems components; Risks are also eliminated by invention, production and use of alternative non-dangerous products –
“green products.”
· Emergency response procedures and means;
Risk elimination
· Education and training of all persons involved; Stockholm Convention (2001) on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
The Stockholm Convention (2001) on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global treaty that became
· Supervision, inspection and monitoring to verify compliance with regulations; legally binding on May 2004, after being ratified by 50 states worldwide. The main objective of the
Convention is to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants.
· Measures to compel compliance;
The parties to the Convention are required to take measures to reduce or eliminate releases from
· Safety management audit. intentional production and use, or unintentional production and stockpiles and wastes of the following
persistent organic pollutants: Aldrin, Chlordane, Dieldrin, Endrin, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene
Stage 5: Follow-up and monitoring actions: (HCB), Mirex, Toxaphene, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB), DDT (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis (4-chlorophenyl)
Follow-up and monitor the effectiveness of planned actions and the continuous update of all assessments ethane) Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/PCDF). The first nine persistent
as they change due to the implementation of actions and changes in the transport system and organic pollutants should be eliminated or banned for production and use.
surrounding environment with the passage of time. Risks of the maritime transport of persistent organic pollutants are eliminated by banning production
and use of these chemicals.
24
Risk reduction Transfer by insurance
The strategy of risk reduction involves reduction, but not a complete elimination, of the frequency of Risk transfer can take many forms, but the most common of these is the purchase of insurance and re-
occurrence of undesirable events and/or the severity of their consequences. There are many risks that insurance. In recent years, more risks have become commercially insured. In some industries or
cannot be eliminated in a technology-based society including production, transport, storage, handling businesses, insurance is one of the most developed areas of risk management. Risk transfer is mainly
and usage of many chemicals. At present, and in the near future, complete elimination of most risks in based on cost-benefit considerations. The costs of insured risks consist of insurance premiums, fees,
the transport of dangerous goods may not be possible, as this may be very costly, practically difficult or commissions, and other administrative costs. In the shipping industry, the risks are insured by the risk
not feasible. Further, contemporary society relies very heavily on the use of a wide range of dangerous carriers such as insurance companies. Approximately 90% of the world's merchant fleet (by tonnage) is
goods and, subsequently, it desires the benefits of activities related to dangerous goods. With respect to bound into a mutual, non-profit-making structure, which is made up of the Protection and Indemnity
the benefits ofchemicals, the EU White Paper on the Strategy for the Future Chemicals Policy in the (P&I) Clubs into which ship owners pool their third-party liabilities (Bennett 2001). Such liabilities include
European Community states (EC 2001, p 4): those arising from the ship, cargo and other property losses and damages, personnel injuries, and
pollution liabilities (UK P&I Club 1998). The P&I Clubs contrast with commercial “hull and machinery”
Chemicals 11 bring about benefits on which modern society is entirely dependent, for example, in food
underwriters, such as the Lloyd's of London syndicates. Ship owners generally purchase insurance from
production, medicines, textiles, cars etc. They also make a vital contribution to the economic and social
profit making companies (Bennett 2001). Although it has become an important part of risk management,
wellbeing of citizens in terms of trade and employment. The chemical industry is Europe's third largest
and in many cases it is necessary, risk transfer by insurance has its shortcomings.
manufacturing industry. It employs 1.7 million people directly and up to 3 million jobs are dependent on
it.
Even when a risk is "fully" insurable, the claims payment may, sometimes, be only a fraction of the total
Given the benefits of chemicals, in many countries and industries, efforts have been made to reduce costs. Experiences have shown that for many types of risks, the hidden costs, in particular for accidents
dangerous goods risks to an “acceptable” level. involving dangerous goods, may have been much higher than the amount of money paid by insurers.
Hidden costs are medium and long term costs encountered by the organisation, including management
Risk reduction can be achieved by reducing the frequency of occurrences of dangerous goods release time, administration, customer satisfaction, effect on morale, public perception and image, loss of market
events and/or the severity of their consequences should they occur. These comprise two fundamental values and shares. For example, the insurance pays for repairing or rebuilding ships and replacing cargo
approaches to risk reduction, which are: damaged or lost, but it cannot cover for lost markets and customers, or bring back lives of people and
marine environment fauna and flora.
· Prevention: that means to hinder or keep from happening, especially by taking precautionary
measures. Preventive risk control occurs when risk control measures reduce the probability of Risk sharing
the undesirable events. In many countries and industries, there are various risk pooling arrangements providing for organisations
the possibility to co-operate in reducing and sharing risk costs. In addition to the actual sharing of claims
· Mitigation: that means to make or become less severe or harsh, or moderate. Mitigating risk
and the pooling of premiums, the essence of the pooling is also sharing of the services provided by the
control occurs when risk control measures reduce the severity of outcomes of the events or scheme management.
subsequent events, should they occur.
Transfer by contract
Because of the large number of complexly interrelated elements of the systems and the large amounts of In the shipping industry, for example, the charter parties, bill of lading and other contracts (e.g. sale and
different types of dangerous goods carried by water, an “absolute prevention”, which is hindering all purchase of goods) stipulate rights and liabilities arising in cases of marine accidents and damages and
dangerous goods release events, is not possible. Reducing the frequency of consequences once losses of goods, including dangerous goods.
dangerous goods have been released also reduces risks. For example, in order to reduce risks onboard
ships, measures can be taken to contain flammable or toxic spills and prevent fires/explosions. The risks Physical transfer
can also be reduced by timely responses in evacuation of people (passengers and ship personnel) that Risk transfer by contract or insurance concerns transfer of risk costs and responsibilities, but it may not
are likely to be exposed to dangerous goods hazards. The approach of reducing the frequency of necessarily concern physical transfer of human, environmental or property risks. Physical transfer of risks
occurrence, such as causes, contributing factors, hazard release events and exposure, constitutes takes many different forms, including the transport mode or activity, whose purpose is to reduce the
prevention, also known as loss or accident prevention. Whereas minimization of the severity of frequency of dangerous goods releases and/or the severity of consequences. Modal transfer, for
consequences, once the release or involvement of dangerous goods has happened and the risk example, involves transfer of risks from air to other transport modes, such as maritime, road or rail
receptors are exposed to dangerous goods hazards, is generally known as mitigation. transport. The carriage of many dangerous goods is prohibited by air, but permitted by other modes. Risks
In summary, both prevention and mitigation are risk management strategies enacted to reduce are also physically transferred, for example by diverting the route of transport means (i.e. ships) with
undesirable events and minimise their consequences. dangerous goods from high to less sensitive and dense residential areas
Risk transfer Risk Retention

Risk transfer is carried out in different ways, including risk transfer by insurance and contract, risk sharing There are various reasons why certain risks are to be retained. In some situations, risks, however
and physical transfer. Organisations may transfer insurable risks to a third party under a legal contract. undesirable they could be, cannot be avoided, reduced or transferred, as this can be economically or
These risks are known as contractually transferred risks. practically impossible.
26
The decision makers may have no other alternative than to retain these risks.
In certain circumstances, no active response may be a solution. Further, after reduced risks at a given · Financial: for example financial instruments including:
level, some risks may still remain, known as residual risks. These types of risks may be considered as - Market-based economic incentive tools, such as charges, levies on importers and distributors;
insignificant or negligible, and further reduction may be very expensive and counterproductive. - Trade restrictions or permits systems;
- Quotas on imports/exports;
Risk retention does not necessarily mean doing nothing. “Doing nothing” means taking some kind of risk - Subsidies to substitute dangerous with non-dangerous products. The purpose of these measures is to
prompt desired changes in decision makings,and to shift behaviours of people, including producers,
(HSE 2001). Although risks may be at the “negligible” level, where no actions for changes or
carriers and users.
improvements may be needed, the decision makers still need to commit considerable time, resources
and efforts to maintain these risks at the current level.“Self risk”, which is known in the insurance industry
as deductibles, is a form of risk retention. Another form of risk retention is "self-funding" or “self · Technological: the use of the best technology available including:
insurance”, in which certain organisations may fund insurance claims from the organisation's own - Hardware - e.g. ships and packagings;
reserves. This means that claims arising, for example from serious accidents, may be paid from the - Software - e.g. risk analysis/ assessment software tools;
reserves of the organisation. In some industries and sectors, self-insurance has been used for many years - Information Technology and Communication (ITC) solutions.
as a means to take control of insurance. Many organisations continue to reduce their dependency on the
external insurance market and buy only coverage for catastrophic events.
· Operational: for example:
RISK MANAGEMENT MEASURES - Packing
The list of possible measures to deal with risks of dangerous goods is also endless. However, based on the - Storage
understanding gained through the literature review and the examination of empirical data, risk - Stowage
management measures are categorised based on the purpose of enactment, legal aspects and their - Loading/discharging
nature. - Caring
- Transport
- Documentation
Purpose or strategy of enactment: Risk management measures can be preventive (e.g. measures to
- Securing of PDG.
reduce the frequency of accidents) or mitigating. Examples of preventive measures are technical and
operational measures to eliminate or reduce releases of dangerous goods. Rescue services and
contingency planning are examples of mitigating measures. · Training and education: for example:
- Programmes for training and education of people involved in
Legal aspects: From a legal point of view, measures can be divided into: dangerous goods activities.
a) regulatory (command and control) or non-voluntary, and b) non-regulatory or voluntary measures.
Command and control measures include all categories of legally binding measures, for example,
technical or operational. · Methodological: for example:
The transport of dangerous goods is highly regulated and numbers of responsible authorities are - Risks assessment and management methods, techniques and tools
assigned to enforce compliance with regulations. - Marine accident data and databases;
- Marine accident reporting systems;
On the other hand, product stewardship and environmentally friendly product design, employee health - Marine accident investigation procedures.
and safety programmes, information and education programmes to modify people's behaviours and A single measure can be enacted to affect one or several combinations of risk or system elements. On
promote marine pollution prevention are voluntary initiatives developed with the purpose of reducing the other hand, multiple measures can be designed to affect a single element. Often, there is no single
risks from chemicals. For example, the chemical industry's code of practice “Chemical Industries solution to guarantee a high degree of safety and health, environmental and property protection. As
one single measure may be not sufficient, several measures are often combined to achieve the risk
Responsible Care Programme” is a voluntary initiative.
management strategies. For example, this may be combining the mandatory technology and procedure
Types of measures: The following are some examples of risk management measures by type:
with levy or subsidy measures.
· Information/knowledge: for example:
- Risk communication programmes;
- Information tools, such as the classification and labelling system;
- Dissemination/sharing of risk-related data and information;
- Dissemination/sharing of risk assessment results;
- Public hearings.
28
CHAPTER FOUR Contributing disciplines Ergonomists makes use of information from a range of scientific disciplines
including:
ERGONOMICS FOR THE GENERAL HEALTH AND SAFETY PRACTITIONERS Anthropometry and biomechanics
Physiology
Introduction Psychology
This topic presents an overview of the relationship of Ergonomics (also known as Human Factors) to Medicine
Occupational Safety and Health (OSH). It describes briefly the historical background of Ergonomics. It Industrial engineering
describes how ergonomics can be applied to OSH and how it fits with the legislative framework for OSH Computer science
in the European Union (EU), World Health Organization (WHO) etc. It summarizes the application areas
of Ergonomics that relate to OSH and lists professional bodies in ergonomics and current sources of Relationship of ergonomics to OSH
information. Ergonomics is a discipline that can be applied to OSH to help ensure that workplace risks are, prevented
at the design stage, eliminated at a later stage, or controlled and reduced if they cannot be eliminated. It
Definition can therefore improve the safety, well-being and comfort of workers. It also has broader effects by
According to the official definition of the International Ergonomics Association (IEA), 'Ergonomics (or enhancing the safety of systems of work and therefore, more broadly, of society as a whole. In the specific
human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of the interactions among context of the safety of machinery the need to accommodate ergonomics principles is embodied in ISO
humans and other elements of a system'. The terms 'Ergonomics' and 'Human Factors' are therefore 12100 and ISO 22100 provides a more detailed framework for incorporating ergonomics in the design of
synonyms and can be used interchangeably, although some do regard them as separate (but machines to help ensure their safety.
complementary) entities. These terms also refer to 'the profession that applies theoretical principles,
data and methods to design in order to optimise human well-being and overall system performance.' Legislative frameworks relating to OSH and ergonomics
The most important piece of European legislation relevant to risk assessment is the 'Framework
Practitioners of ergonomics - ergonomists - contribute to the planning, design and evaluation of tasks, Directive' . This Directive has been transposed into national legislation. Member States, however, have
jobs, products, organisations, environments and systems in order to make them compatible with the the right to introduce more stringent provisions to protect their workers.
needs, abilities and limitations of people.
Article 6 of the Framework Directive encourages an ergonomic approach since it requires the employer
Ergonomics is a systems-oriented discipline, which can be applied to all aspects of human activity. In the to adapt the work to the individual, particularly by alleviating monotonous work and work at a
context of work system, ISO 6385 establishes the fundamental principles of ergonomics as basic predetermined work-rate and by reducing the effect of work on health. Six individual directives [11] [12]
guidelines for the design of work systems. In the wider context, ISO 26800 presents the general [13] [14] [15] [16] were initially made under the Framework Directive, with further individual directives
ergonomics approach and specifies basic ergonomics principles and concepts applicable to the design being added making a total (2017) of 24 (including the Framework).
and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, tools, equipment, systems, organisations, services, facilities and
environments . Ergonomists often work in particular economic sectors or application domains, which The Directives on Manual Handling, Display Screen Equipment (DSE) [15]and Personal Protective
are not mutually exclusive and change over time. Equipment (PPE), which were all amongst the first six, are of particular importance to ergonomics.
Amongst the first six, the directive on work equipment and the provisions regarding thermal conditions
Historical background in the directive on the requirements for the workplace also relate to ergonomics issues. None of the
further individual directives include any additional requirements relevant to ergonomics.
Origins of the term 'Ergonomics' Specific areas of application of ergonomics to OSH
The word 'ergonomics ' was coined in 1949 by K. F. H Murrell as a combination of two Greek words, εργον
(ergon), meaning 'work ', and νομος (nomos) meaning 'law'. It came to prominence in 1950 when it was Physical Ergonomics
used in the name of the 'Ergonomics Research Society' (now the Chartered Institute of Ergonomics and Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological and
Human Factors). biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. It covers topics such as working postures,
manual handling operations, repetitive movements, work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WRMSDs),
In the 19th century the same term had been coined independently in Poland by Wojciech Jastrzębowski workplace layout, safety and health.
who published Rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach poczerpniętych z Nauki Przyrody
(The Outline of Ergonomics, i.e. Science of Work, Based on the Truths Taken from the Natural Science) Environmental Ergonomics
(1857). In addition to the physical design of the working environment, the environment itself (temperature,
lighting, noise, etc.) can have a significant effect on the health, safety and performance of workers. For
Origin of the term 'Human Factors' example, elevated temperatures can impair concentration, increasing human error and the risk of
The terms 'Human Engineering', 'Human Factors' and 'Human Factors Engineering' came into use in the accidents, as well as creating a risk of heat-related illness. A series of ISO Standards provide help and
USA during World War 2 in the context of the design of military equipment. guidance on the design and assessment of physical environments.
30
Anthropometry Human Error
Anthropometry is the science of measurement of the human body. It can be applied to OSH to ensure that The two main types of human failure are errors and violations. A human error is an action or decision
workers have sufficient space to perform their tasks, that they can reach necessary equipment, tools and which was not intended or has an outcome that was unintended. A violation is a deliberate deviation from
controls, that barriers keep them out of reach of hazards, and that working postures can be optimised for a rule or procedure. Both types of failure can have the potential to result in harm to people. Errors can be
the range of people using them. classified as
Slips – when something is done that should not have been done;
Ergonomic Work Design Lapses – when something that should be done is omitted;
This refers to the use of ergonomics to design jobs and work systems so that most of the potential Mistakes or errors of judgment or decision-making – which may be due to applying rules badly, or
workforce can perform well. The ultimate goal is to make it easy for quality work to be done easily without having incorrect or insufficient information.
unnecessary risk of injury or illness because of biomechanical, physiological or psychological overload. It Violations include non-compliances, circumventions, shortcuts and work- arounds.
will therefore tend to improve the reliability of humans within a system and to reduce the risks of harmful
Ergonomics In Office Work
errors occurring.
While offices are typically low risk environments, ergonomics relates to OSH in office work in the context
of seating and low back pain and the need to encourage movement and avoid prolonged static postures,
Musculoskeletal Disorders
use of VDU equipment, use of computer software, musculoskeletal disorders, thermal environments,
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) can affect the body's muscles, joints, tendons, ligaments, bones and psychological demands, work-related stress and visual fatigue . Recent trends in the development of
nerves. mobile computing and hand-held computing devices raise ergonomics issues because much “office work”
is now taking place outside offices.
Most work-related MSDs develop over time and are caused either by the work itself or by the employees'
working environment. They can also result from accidents, e.g. fractures and dislocations. Typically, MSDs Other Aspects of Ergonomics
affect the back, neck, shoulders and upper limbs; less often they affect the lower limbs.
Organisational Ergonomics
Health problems range from discomfort, minor aches and pains, to more serious medical conditions Organisational ergonomics is concerned with the optimisation of sociotechnical systems, including their
requiring time off work and even medical treatment. In more chronic cases, treatment and recovery are organisational structures, policies, and processes. It takes into account factors ranging from the design of
often unsatisfactory - the result could be permanent disability and loss of employment. workstations to the scheduling of rest breaks and job rotation schedules to human resources issues such
as promotion opportunities. This approach gives an overview of the OSH risks that each person in the
Many problems can be prevented or greatly reduced by complying with existing safety and health law and system is exposed to.
following guidance on good practice. This includes assessing the work tasks, putting in place preventive
measures, and checking that these measures stay effective. Participatory Ergonomics
'Participatory ergonomics' has been defined as 'The involvement of people in planning and controlling a
Physiological Fatigue significant amount of their own work activities, with sufficient knowledge and power to influence both
Exercise induced fatigue has a physiological basis. It is thought to be a warning mechanism that prevents processes and outcomes in order to achieve desirable goals'.
over strain of the body or a part of the body. It can be general or systematic, or local, usually muscular in Within ergonomics the consensus is that the participation of end users in the design of work equipment
nature. It is different from mental or visual fatigue. It is important in the context of OSH because it leads to and workplaces will lead to better design, as these solutions are developed using the expertise and
the reduction in the capacity of muscles to generate force or power output, so may make a fatigued practical experience of the end users. It is also held that a participatory approach will make the solutions
more acceptable to the end users and will improve relations between managers and the workers.
worker less able to perform work tasks, less efficient, and more likely to make errors or suffer injury.
Gender differences in the workplace
Cognitive Ergonomics
Physical, physiological, psychological, social and cultural differences between men and women mean that
Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and ergonomists need to be aware of the influences these differences can have in the workplace. Selection
motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. It therefore policies and informal self-selection lead to many jobs and tasks within jobs being more associated with
relates to OSH through how people process information in hazardous situations. either males or females. Real or perceived differences can be associated with different employment
patterns for males and females. Jobs, workstations or equipment associated with male employment may
Human Machine Interface be unsuited to female employees, and vice versa. As men and women tend to have different domestic and
A Human Machine Interface (HMI) can be defined as the part of a machine or device which allows the caring responsibilities outside work, they may prefer different working patterns and hours of work.
exchange of information between an operator/user and the machine/device. An HMI consists of three
parts which are (1) controls / input devices, (2) displays or other output devices, and (3) an inner structure, Work adaption for individuals with specific needs
often consisting of both hardware and computer software. The European employment directive aimed at preventing discrimination requires employers to carry out
workplace adaptions for people with disabilities. Ergonomics often has a part to play in the process of
Deficiencies in an HMI are relevant to OSH as they can cause stress, errors and accidents. Stress can result making modifications to accommodate these individuals, including facilitating keeping them in work or
from cognitive overload or under-load. Operating errors can result in accidents. In high-risk industries, helping them to return to work following injury or ill health. Council Directive 2000/78/EC establishes a
such as nuclear, oil, or gas such errors can result in major accidents. general framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation.
32
controls and equipment – they should be positioned in relation to how they are used. Place those used
To assess the fit between a person and their work, you have to consider a range of factors, including:
The job/task being done: most often where they are easy to reach without the need to stoop, stretch or hunch. Making sure
- The demands on the worker (activities, workload, work pacing, shift work and fatigue). protective measures such as extraction hoods or respirators are easy and comfortable to use means they
- The equipment used (its design in terms of size, shape, controls, displays, and how appropriate it is for are more likely to be effective at reducing exposure to hazardous substances.
the task).
- The information used (how it is presented, accessed, and changed). If you don't follow ergonomics principles, there may be serious consequences for people and whole
- The physical environment (temperature, humidity, lighting, noise, vibration). organizations. Many well-known accidents might have been prevented if ergonomics and human factors
had been considered in designing people's jobs and the systems they worked in.
The individual's physical and psychological characteristics:
- Body size and shape. What kind of workplace problems can ergonomics and human factors solve?
- Fitness and strength. Ergonomics is typically known for solving physical problems. For example, ensuring that emergency stop
- Posture. buttons are positioned so that people can reach them readily when they need to. But ergonomics also
- The senses, especially vision, hearing and touch. deals with psychological and social aspects of the person and their work. For example, a workload that is
- Mental abilities. too high, or too low, unclear tasks, time pressures, inadequate training, and poor support from
- Personality. managers can all have negative effects on people and the work they do.
- Knowledge. The following examples highlight some 'typical' ergonomic problems found in the workplace:
- Training.
- Experience. Design of tasks
The organization and social environment: · Work demands are too high or too low.
- Teamwork and team structure.
- Supervision and leadership. · The employee has little say in how they organise their work.
Health and Safety Executive · Badly designed machinery guards (awkward to use or requiring additional effort) slow down the
- Supportive management. work.
- Communications.
- Resources. · Conflicting demands, eg high productivity and quality.
You will find a range of physical and psychological abilities in your workforce which you may need to take These problems can lead to employees failing to follow procedures or removing guards, causing
into account in designing the plant and equipment they use, and the tasks they perform. accidents, injury and ill health.
By assessing people's abilities and limitations, their jobs, equipment and working environment and the
interaction between them, it is possible to design safe, effective and productive work systems. Manual handling
How can ergonomics and human factors improve health and safety? · The load is too heavy and/or bulky, placing unreasonable demands on the person.
Applying ergonomics to the workplace can:
- Reduce the potential for accidents; · The load has to be lifted from the floor and/or above the shoulders.
- Reduce the potential for injury and ill health;
- Improve performance and productivity. · The job involves frequent repetitive lifting.
- Taking account of ergonomics and human factors can reduce the likelihood of an accident. For example,
in the design of control panels, consider: · The job requires awkward postures, such as bending or twisting.
- The location of switches and buttons – switches that could be accidentally knocked on or off might start
the wrong sequence of events that could lead to an accident; · The load can't be gripped properly.
- Expectations of signals and controls – most people interpret green to indicate a safe condition. If a green
light is used to indicate a 'warning or dangerous state' it may be ignored or overlooked; · The job is performed on uneven, wet, or sloping floor surfaces.
- Information overload – if a worker is given too much information they may become confused, make
mistakes, or panic. In hazardous industries, incorrect decisions or mistaken actions have had catastrophic · The job is performed under time pressures and doesn't include enough rest breaks.
results. These problems may lead to physical injuries, such as low back pain or injury to the arms, hands, or
fingers. They may also contribute to the risk of slips, trips, and falls.
Ergonomics can also reduce the potential for ill health at work, such as aches, pains and damage to the
wrists, shoulders and back, noise-induced hearing loss and work-related asthma. Consider the layout of
33 34
Workstation Layout Hazard spotting
While you walk around your workplace, look for signs of poor or inadequate equipment design such as:
· Items that are used frequently are out of convenient reach.
*improvised tools;
· Inadequate space under work surface for legs. *handwritten reminders, or handwritten labels on machinery controls;
*plasters on workers' fingers or 'home-made' protective pads made of tissue or foam.
· Work surface height inappropriate for the tasks causing awkward and uncomfortable postures.
Review
· Lighting inadequate causing eyestrain when inspecting detail on work items. Review information you may already have about accidents and ill health which may result from human
factors problems:
· Chair not properly adjusted to fit the person and workstation.
· Look at the circumstances that lead to frequent errors or incidents.
Managing the working day
· Try to identify the root causes of people's mistakes.
· Not enough recovery time between shifts.
· Use accident reports to identify details of incidents and their possible causes.
· Poor scheduling of shifts.
· Record and look at sickness, absence and staff turnover levels.
· Juggling shifts with domestic responsibilities. High numbers may be because of the problems listed earlier and/or dissatisfaction at work.
· Employees working excessive overtime. What can be done if an ergonomics problem has been identified?
These problems may lead to tiredness or exhaustion, which can increase the likelihood of accidents and ill
health. · Talk to employees and get them to suggest ideas and discuss possible solutions.
How can I check if there are ergonomics problems? · Involve employees from the start of the process – this will help them to adopt changes.
Checking for human factors problems is part of a company's normal risk assessment process. The first step
in a risk assessment is to identify the hazards. This can be done by talking to employees and seeking their
· Look for likely causes and consider possible solutions.
views, walking around the workplace to see if you can spot any hazards, and reviewing any accidents or
reports of ill health you have had in the past. You may find useful information about common ergonomics
· A minor alteration may be all that is needed to make a task easier and safer to perform. For
example:
problems in your industry on HSE's website.
Talking to employees
· Arrange items stored on shelving so those used most frequently and those that are the heaviest
are between waist and shoulder height;
Workplaces where employees are involved in taking decisions about health and safety are safer and
healthier. Collaboration with the employees helps you to manage health and safety in a practical way by: · Raise platforms to help operators reach badly located controls (or alternatively relocate the
*Helping the company spot workplace risks; controls);
*Making sure health and safety controls are practical;
*Increasing the level of commitment to working in a safe and healthy way. · Remove obstacles from under desks so there is enough leg room;
Companies are legally required to consult all employees, in good time, on health and safety matters. In · Provide height-adjustable chairs, so individual operators can work at their preferred work
workplaces where a trade union is recognized, this will be through union health and safety height;
representatives. In non-unionised workplaces, you can consult either directly or through other elected
representatives. · Change shift work patterns;
Consultation involves employers not only giving information to employees but also listening to them and · Introduce job rotation between different tasks to reduce physical and mental fatigue;
taking account of what they say before making health and safety decisions. Employees have important
knowledge of the work they do, problems they have, and their impact on health, safety, and performance. · Always make sure any alterations are properly evaluated by the people doing the job;
While talking to them, you could also ask them some specific questions about their work such as:
*Are their working postures comfortable (or not)?
· Be careful that a change introduced to solve one problem doesn't create difficulties somewhere
*Do they experience discomfort, aches, pain, fatigue, or feel unable to keep up with the flow of work? else;
*Is the equipment appropriate, easy to use and well maintained?
*Is the person satisfied with their working arrangements?
· You should be able to identify straightforward, inexpensive changes yourself. But you may need
to ask a qualified ergonomist if you can't find a straightforward solution or if a problem is
*Do they make the same errors and mistakes repeatedly?
complex;
*Are they following procedures, and if not, why not?
36
CHAPTER FIVE
· Adopting an ergonomics and human factors approach can save money in the long term by
avoiding costly accidents, reducing injuries, reducing sickness absence, and improving quality and
productivity. ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP)
Preparation of environmental management plan is required for formulation, implementation and
CASE STUDY 1 monitoring of environmental protection measures during and after commissioning of projects. The plans
Eddie works on an engine assembly line. He uses a handheld impact wrench to fit a component to an should indicate the details as to how various measures have been or are proposed to be taken including
engine. The assembly line makes up to 2400 engines a day and it takes approximately 3 seconds to tighten cost components as may be required. Cost of measures for environmental safeguards should be treated
each component. as an integral component of the project cost and environmental aspects should be taken into account at
various stages of the projects:
As well as the risk from using a vibrating tool, Eddie often had to adopt poor postures to reach some parts
* Conceptualization: preliminary environmental assessment
of the engine. He had to repeatedly stretch out his arm and constrain his posture while tightening the
adapter. After a few weeks Eddie found that he was leaving work with shoulder and neck pain. One tea * Planning: detailed studies of environmental impacts and design of safeguards
break, Eddie's line manager saw him rubbing his neck and shoulder and recognised that the pain could be * Execution: implementation of environmental safety measures
due to the type of work Eddie was doing. The line manager spoke with Eddie and then told the company * Operation: monitoring of effectiveness of built-in safeguards
health and safety officer about what she had seen.
The management plans should be necessarily based on considerations of resource conservation and
The company assessed the work by considering ergonomics principles and, after getting ideas from the pollution abatement, some of which are:
workforce, came up with the following modifications: * Liquid Effluents
· They replaced the impact wrench with one with minimal reaction force so that little shock was *
*
Air Pollution
Solid Wastes
transmitted to the hand. They also suspended the wrench so Eddie didn't have to support its
weight. * Noise and Vibration
* Occupational Safety and Health
· They modified the workplace layout so workers had better access to all sides of the engine, * Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems
avoiding the need to adopt poor working postures. * House-Keeping
· They implemented a job rotation scheme so the five workers on the line were moved around a *
*
Human Settlements
Transport Systems
number of different tasks.
* Recovery - reuse of waste products
Some of these tasks still required the use of vibrating tools, but the overall personal exposure was halved. * Vegetal Cover
As a result of the modifications there was: a reduction in vibration exposure; no need to adopt poor and * Disaster Planning
constrained postures; reduced boredom and fatigue for Eddie's team; improved productivity. * Environment Management Cell
CASE STUDY 2 1. Liquid Effluents

An operative's hand was amputated after he became trapped in packaging machinery while trying to clear
a blockage. The machine was part of a production line. Workers were protected by a fence that enclosed · Effluents from the industrial plants should be treated well to the standards as prescribed by the
several production lines. Access to the machines was through a door in the fence which was arranged so Federal/State Water Pollution Control Boards.
that all production lines were switched off when it opened.
Managers regularly visited the shop floor to talk about production targets. The workers had obtained an
· Soil permeability studies should be made prior to effluents being discharged into holding tanks or
impoundments and steps taken to prevent percolation and ground water contamination.
override key, so they could open the door and enter the enclosure without stopping production. But this
meant the machinery was not isolated. Following the accident, these measures were identified to help
prevent a recurrence:
· Special precautions should be taken regarding flight patterns of birds in the area. Effluents
containing toxic compounds, oil and grease have been known to cause extensive death of
· Consulting workers about how and why the maintenance procedures were difficult to follow; migratory birds. Location of plants should be prohibited in such type of sensitive areas.
· Installing local guards so workers could isolate individual machines without stopping the other · Deep well burial of toxic effluents should not be resorted to as it can result in re-surfacing and
production lines; ground water contamination. Re-surfacing has been known to cause extensive damage to crop
· Holding toolbox talks with the workforce to better communicate management's commitment to
and livestocks.
safe working. · In all cases, efforts should be made for re-use of water and its conservation.
· As a result of these changes, employees were less likely to take short cuts when clearing
blockages. There was also less down time on the production lines.
38
2. Air Pollution 8. Human Settlements
· The emission levels of pollutants from the different stacks should conform to the pollution control · Residential colonies should be located away from the solid and liquid waste dumping areas.
standards prescribed by Federal or State Boards. Meteorological and environmental conditions should be studied properly before selecting the
site for residential areas in order to avoid air pollution problems.
· Adequate control equipment should be installed for minimizing the emission of pollutants from
the various stacks. · Persons who are displaced or have lost agricultural lands as a result of locating the industries in
the area, should be properly rehabilitated.
· In-plant control measures should be taken to contain the fugitive emissions.
· Infrastructural facilities should be provided for monitoring the stack emissions and measuring the 9. Transport Systems
ambient air quality including micro-meteorological data (wherever required) in the area. · Proper parking places should be provided for the trucks and other vehicles by the industries to
· Proper stack height as prescribed by the Federal/State Pollution Control Boards should be avoid any congestion or blocking of roads.
provided for better dispersion of pollutants over a wider area to minimise the effect of pollution. · Sitting of industries on the highways should be avoided as it may add to more road accidents
· Community buildings and townships should be built up-wind of plant with one-half to one because of substantial increase in the movements of heavy vehicles and unauthorized shops and
settlements coming up around the industrial complex.
kilometer greenbelt in addition to physiographical barrier.
3. Solid Wastes
· Spillage of chemicals/substances on roads inside the plant may lead to accidents. Proper road
safety signs both inside and outside the plant should be displayed for avoiding road accidents.
· The site for waste disposal should be checked to verify permeability so that no contaminants
10. Recovery-Reuse of waste products
percolate into the ground water or river/lake.
Efforts should be made to recycle or recover the waste materials to the extent possible. The treated
· Waste disposal areas should be planned down-wind of villages and townships. liquid effluents can be conveniently and safely used for irrigation of lands, plants and fields for growing
non-edible crops.
· Reactive materials should be disposed of by immobilizing the reactive materials with suitable
additives. 11. Vegetal Cover
Industries should plant trees and ensure vegetal cover in their premises. This is particularly advisable for
· The pattern of filling disposal site should be planned to create better landscape and be approved those industries having more than 10 acres of land.
by appropriate agency and the appropriately pretreated solid wastes should be disposed
according to the approved plan. 12. Disaster Planning
Proper disaster planning should be done to meet any emergency situation arising due to fire, explosion,
· Intensive programs of tree plantation on disposal areas should be undertaken. sudden leakage of gas etc. Firefighting equipment and other safety appliances should be kept ready for
use during disaster/emergency situation including natural calamities like earthquake/flood.
4. Noise and Vibration
Adequate measures should be taken for control of noise and vibrations in the industry. 13. Environment Management Cell
Each industry should identify within its setup a Department/Section/Cell with trained personnel to take
5. Occupational Safety and Health up the model responsibility of environmental management as required for planning and
Proper precautionary measures for adopting occupational safety and health standards should be taken. implementation of the projects.
6. Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems It is important to point out that, Environmental management plans describe how an action might impact
on the natural environment in which it occurs and set out clear commitments from the person taking the
· Adequate safety precautions should be taken during preventive maintenance and shut down of
action on how those impacts will be avoided, minimized and managed so that they are environmentally
the control systems. acceptable.
· A system of inter-locking with the production equipment should be implemented where highly
This chapter provides general guidance to stakeholders preparing environmental management plans for
toxic compounds are involved.
environmental impact assessments and approvals in Nigeria.
Environmental management plans are often submitted during the environmental impact assessment
7. House-Keeping
process and may be part of the documentation considered by the Minister, or their delegate, when
Proper house-keeping and cleanliness should be maintained both inside and outside of the industry.
deciding whether to approve a proposed action. If the proposed action is approved, environmental
40
management plans are often referenced in the conditions of approval. In addition, approval conditions Cover Page and Declaration Of Accuracy
sometimes require revised or additional environmental management plans to be approved before the Cover page detailing:
approved action can begin. These guidelines will assist with the preparation of environmental
management plans in all of these circumstances. - Project name
The understanding that at times, in addition to meeting obligations under national environment law, an
- Proponent /approval holder
environmental management plan may also be required to satisfy the requirements of other regulatory - The proposed/approved action
bodies or regulations and that formats may vary.
- Location of the action
These guidelines were developed in consultation with a selection of state agencies, industry
representatives and environmental consultants. This process highlighted the need for the guidelines to - Date of preparation of the environmental management plan
be flexible to account for a diverse range of industries, scales of development and regulatory contexts.
- Person accepting responsibility for the environmental management plan – signed declaration.
General principles for the preparation of an environmental management plan.
A person must not knowingly provide information that is false or misleading with regards to EMP.
Key principles Providing false or misleading information to authorised officer etc.
An environmental management plan should:
(1) A person is guilty of an offence if the person:
Be balanced, objective and concise.
(a) provides information or a document to another person (the recipient); and
State any limitations that apply, or should apply, to the use of the information in the
environmental management plan.
(b) knows the recipient is:
Identify any matter in relation to which there is a significant lack of relevant information or a
(i) an authorised officer; or
significant degree of uncertainty.
(ii) the Minister; or
Include adaptive management strategies for managing uncertainty. (iii) an employee or officer in the Department; or
Be written in a way that is easily understood by other parties. (iv) a commissioner;
Clearly present how conclusions about risks have been reached. performing a duty or carrying out a function under the environmental Act or the regulations; and
Ensure that the person taking the action takes full responsibility for the content and
commitments contained in the plan. (c) knows the information or document is false or misleading in a material particular.
Including commitments in management plans (2) The offence is punishable on conviction by imprisonment.
All commitments must be specific and auditable with measurable outcomes and clear
timeframes. Document version control
To ensure readability, write clearly and avoid long sentences with complex clauses. The document version control should be a simple system that ensures that details of all key changes to
Always use the terms 'will' and 'must', rather than 'should' or 'may' when committing to carry out the document over time are properly recorded. Identified changes should include details of timings,
management actions. persons responsible and reasons for changes. An EMP should contain:
Avoid use of ambiguous terminology such as 'where possible', 'as required', 'to the greatest
extent possible'. If it is necessary to include ambiguous terminology, it should be explained and Table of contents
examples given. Table of contents page detailing:
Clearly explain any technical terms or acronyms used, and/or define them in a glossary.
- All section headings and page numbers
It is also important that commitments or statements within the management plan are consistent with
other relevant management plans or conditions of approval.
- All figures, tables, plans and maps (should be numbered)
- All appendices (with meaningful titles, including for sub-appendices if any). If the appendices
Cross-referencing contain a collation of data, include summary of the contents.
Where the plan refers to material in other documents, it should include cross-references that are clear,
complete and that specify the document version and date. Use tables, diagrams and maps where their Executive Summary or Introduction
inclusion would provide a better understanding and implementation of the management plan. Link all The executive summary should note the key elements of the project, the purpose of the document, the
tables, diagrams and maps into the text through cross-referencing. main potential impacts and the primary strategies planned to address these impacts.
42
Objectives operational activities, if relevant. A schedule of intended commencement and completion dates should
The environmental outcomes of the plan should be defined. These should be tailored to the be provided. Projects undertaken in stages should identify each stage in the schedule. Contingency
environmental issues outlined in the plan. schedules can also be included along with examples of events that could result in the use of the
contingency schedules.
Environmental Management Roles and Responsibilities
Once an action is approved, the approval holder is responsible for complying with the conditions of Risk assessment
approval, including the commitments made in environmental management plans. The plan should define Once the potential impacts of the proposal are clearly identified a risk assessment should be undertaken
the roles and responsibilities of personnel in charge of the environmental management of the project. The for each potential impact. This means that the likelihood and consequences of each potential impact
roles and responsibilities of each relevant position should be documented, including the responsibilities need to be estimated. An example of a methodology for risk assessment is in Section.
of subcontractors. The names of the responsible personnel do not need to be included. Identification of
the position titles, roles and responsibilities is sufficient. If the roles and responsibilities are expected to
Evaluating risk.
change over time the long term variations should also be documented.
The function of the risk assessment is not to repeat or supersede the original assessment of a project or its
conditions of approval. Rather it is to ensure that these risks are effectively translated into actual
Reporting
mitigation and management actions. Impacts with higher risk ratings usually require more management
An environmental management plan will usually require reporting arrangements for two purposes.
Reporting arrangements assist with effective implementation and with external reporting. External actions and controls. This minimizes the likelihood of the risk occurring and reduces the consequences to
reports may include reports on environmental incidences to the regulator, reports to stakeholders, acceptable levels.
reports to inform reviews of the plan and reports to meet the reporting requirements of the conditions of
approval. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT MEASURES
The environmental management plan should clearly state how the potential impacts of the proposal will
The description of reporting requirements should include: be managed and this information usually forms the bulk of the content of the plan. For each potential
A list of required reports including where appropriate monitoring, environmental incidents, non- impact the plan should address:
compliance, corrective action and auditing * Environmental management activities, controls and performance targets
A description of the standard report content * Environmental management maps and diagrams
The schedule or triggers for preparing a report * Monitoring programs with trigger values for corrective actions
Who the report is provided to * Corrective actions and non-compliance reporting
Document control procedures * Environmental schedules.
Reporting commitments should also be consistent with any reporting to the Department required
by the conditions of approval. It is helpful if management plans present the information on these topics for one potential impact at a
time. This ensures that all the management measures for each potential impact are in the same section of
Environmental Training the document and easy to locate. Environmental management activities, controls and performance
All people involved with the project should receive relevant environmental training to ensure they targets.
understand their responsibilities when implementing the environmental management plan. People to be
trained include those at the site/s of all project activities and operations, including contractors, The environmental management plan should describe all the environmental management activities and
subcontractors and visitors. The training should be tailored to the role of the individual in the project.
control measures that will be implemented to avoid or minimise environmental impacts. The description
The environmental management plan should describe the training to be implemented and could include:
of each measure should also specify the timeframes for implementation and the performance targets or
* Site inductions
outcomes to be achieved. The timing of measures is often best presented in a timetable. Performance
* Identification of key points of environmental value and any relevant matters of national
targets and outcomes should be quantitative and auditable.
environmental significance
* Understanding the requirements of the environmental management plan and the individual's role
Environmental Management Maps and Diagrams
Project Description Environmental management maps and diagrams are useful visual tools that aid in environmental
The environmental management plan should provide a description of the project as this provides context management activities. Maps can provide useful spatial information about areas that require
for the plan. The location of all project actions should be described and a map showing their location environmental management. Diagrams can illustrate the design of environmental control measures and
provided. Basic information on the environment at these locations should also be included as this helps the flow of environmental management procedures. For example, a map could be used to show:
provide the environmental context to which the environmental management plan applies. * Environmentally sensitive areas on or near a project site
The plan should include a description of the activities that will be undertaken as part of the project * Vegetation that requires protection
including project details relevant to any approval conditions and with potential impacts on matters * Buffer zones or 'no-go zones'
protected under the environmental Act. The plan should distinguish between construction and * Monitoring locations.
43 44
Environmental monitoring
components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring
The environmental management plan should specify how the effectiveness of environmental
contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.
management measures will be monitored. It should include the methodology, frequency and duration of
monitoring activities. It should also include trigger values or conditions under which corrective actions are History
taken. The plan should also specify if, and when, follow up action is required and how monitoring records Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man
will be maintained. created the first fires. According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, "soot" found on ceilings of
prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associated with
Corrective actions inadequate ventilation of open fires." Metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of
The environmental management plan should include procedures for addressing: significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate
monitoring results which exceed the trigger values for corrective action increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman and Chinese metal production, but at that time the
potential corrective actions pollution was comparatively small and could be handled by nature.
reporting non-compliance with approval conditions to the relevant authority
environmental incidents and emergencies. Urban Pollution
The plan should also identify who is responsible for implementing the above procedures. Auditable
systems should be developed for recording the implementation of these procedures and their outcomes.
Audit and review
Environmental Auditing
The environmental management plan should include the schedule or triggers for auditing the
implementation and effectiveness of the plan. It should address both internal and external audit
requirements including who is responsible for undertaking the audits and reporting the results.
Air pollution in the US, 1973
Environmental Management Plan Review
The environmental management plan should specify the schedule or triggers for reviews of the plan. A The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas made the cities
review should assess whether the plan is achieving its objectives and the requirements of any relevant the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and
approval conditions. A review should take into account environmental monitoring records, corrective wastes into local streams that served as the water supply. King Edward I of England banned the burning
of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so
actions and the results of any audits. The plan should also identify who will be responsible for undertaking
common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from
the review. During the review process, any reasons for varying the environmental management plan
some shores by the wheelbarrow.
should be documented.
It was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London
Review of an environmental management plan would typically be undertaken: also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the
following significant environmental incidents Thames of 1858, which led to construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward. Pollution
when there is a need to improve performance in an area of environmental impact issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste
periodically for actions undertaken over long timeframes such as one, two or five years. problem. Reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water.
However, if the person taking the action wishes to carry out any activity other than in accordance In 1870, the sanitary conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. August Bebel recalled
conditions before a modern sewer system was built in the late 1870s:
with the approved management plan specified in the approval conditions, the person taking the action is
"Waste-water from the houses collected in the gutters running alongside the curbs and emitted a truly
usually required to submit to the Department for the Minister's written approval a revised management fearsome smell. There were no public toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often
plan. In these cases the varied activity should not commence until the Minister has approved the varied became desperate when nature called. In the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably
management plan in writing. As a guiding principle, the Minister will not approve a varied management primitive....As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after
plan unless the revised management plan would result in an equivalent or improved environmental 1870.
outcome over time. The primitive conditions were intolerable for a world national capital, and the Imperial German
government brought in its scientists, engineers and urban planners to not only solve the deficiencies but
POLLUTION/POLLUTANTS to forge Berlin as the world's model city. A British expert in 1906 concluded that Berlin represented "the
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. most complete application of science, order and method of public life," adding "it is a marvel of civic
administration, the most modern and most perfectly organized city that there is."
Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the
46
The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal gave rise to Though their effects remain somewhat less well understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they
unprecedented air pollution and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing have been detected in various ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity such as the Arctic,
load of untreated human waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws demonstrating diffusion and bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use.
ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Pollution became a major issue in the United States in the early twentieth
century, as progressive reformers took issue with air pollution caused by coal burning, water pollution A much more recently discovered problem is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, a huge concentration of
caused by bad sanitation, and street pollution caused by the 3 million horses who worked in American plastics, chemical sludge and other debris which has been collected into a large area of the Pacific Ocean
cities in 1900, generating large quantities of urine and manure. As historian Martin Melosi notes, The by the North Pacific Gyre. This is a less well known pollution problem than the others described above,
generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as "miracles of cleanliness."By the but nonetheless has multiple and serious consequences such as increasing wildlife mortality, the spread
1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was a major issue in Los Angeles. of invasive species and human ingestion of toxic chemicals. Organizations such as 5 Gyres have
researched the pollution and, along with artists like Marina DeBris, are working toward publicizing the
Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century, when the short lived Office of Air issue.
Pollution was created under the Department of the Interior. Extreme smog events were experienced by
the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder. Pollution introduced by light at night is becoming a global problem, more severe in urban centres, but
Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, nonetheless contaminating also large territories, far away from towns.
and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have given
rise to environmentalism and the environmental movement, which generally seek to limit human impact
Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of on the environment.
radioactive fallout from atomic warfare and testing. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in
London, killed at least 4000 people. This prompted some of the first major modern environmental FORMS OF POLLUTION
legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956.
Pollution began to draw major public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early
1970s, when Congress passed the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act and the
National Environmental Policy Act.
Severe incidents of pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB dumping in the Hudson River resulted in
a ban by the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974. Long-term dioxin contamination at Love Canal starting
in 1947 became a national news story in 1978 and led to the Superfund legislation of 1980.The pollution of
industrial land gave rise to the name brownfield, a term now common in city planning.
The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can remain lethally SMOG POLLUTION IN TAIWAN
radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay, named by the Worldwatch Institute as the The Lachine Canal in Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
"most polluted spot" on earth, served as a disposal site for the Soviet Union throughout the 1950s and
1960s. Chelyabinsk, Russia, is considered the "Most polluted place on the planet". The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular contaminant relevant to each of
them:
Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, especially in the earlier stages of their * Air pollution: the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common gaseous
development. The toll on the worst-affected populations and the growth since then in understanding pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen
about the critical threat to human health posed by radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as
associated with nuclear power. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is
disaster suggested by incidents such as those at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl pose a lingering specter characterized by their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5.
of public mistrust. Worldwide publicity has been intense on those disasters. Widespread support for test * Light pollution: includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference.
ban treaties has ended almost all nuclear testing in the atmosphere. * Littering: the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-made objects, unremoved, onto public
and private properties.
International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast of Brittany in * Noise pollution: which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as
1978 and the Bhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the scale on high-intensity sonar.
which efforts to address them needed to engage. The borderless nature of atmosphere and oceans * Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage. Among
inevitably resulted in the implication of pollution on a planetary level with the issue of global warming. the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, MTBE,herbicides,
Most recently the term persistent organic pollutant (POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
as PBDEs and PFCs among others. * Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such as
nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment.
47 48
* Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human influence,
such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
* Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway billboards,
scarred landforms (as from strip mining), open storage of trash, municipal solid waste or space
debris.
* Water pollution, by the discharge of wastewater from commercial and industrial waste
(intentionally or through spills) into surface waters; discharges of untreated domestic sewage,
and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine, from treated sewage; release of waste and
contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and
agricultural runoff, which may contain chemical fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal and
leaching into groundwater; eutrophication and littering.
* Plastic pollution: involves the accumulation of plastic products in the environment that
adversely affects wildlife, wildlife habitat, or humans.
POLLUTANTS
A pollutant is a waste material that pollutes air, water or soil. Three factors determine the severity of a
pollutant: its chemical nature, the concentration and the persistence.
An industrial area, with a power plant, south of Yangzhou's downtown, China
Cost of pollution
Pollution has cost Manufacturing activities that cause air pollution imposes health and clean-up costs on
the whole society, whereas the neighbors of an individual who chooses to fire-proof his home may In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the
benefit from a reduced risk of a fire spreading to their own houses. If external costs exist, such as work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, said that humans
pollution, the producer may choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas
producer were required to pay all associated environmental costs. Because responsibility or emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to
consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self, an element of externalization is involved. change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades,
If there are external benefits, such as in public safety, less of the good may be produced than would be according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others.
Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such
Air pollution comes from both natural and human-made (anthropogenic) sources. However, globally as chromium, cadmium–found in rechargeable batteries, and lead–found in lead paint, aviation fuel and
human-made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining, agriculture and warfare are still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In 2001 a series of press reports
increasingly significant in the air pollution equation. culminating in a book called Fateful Harvest unveiled a widespread practice of recycling industrial
byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary
Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China, United States, Russia, India municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often
Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally
include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU.
disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals There have also been some unusual releases of Polychlorinated Dibenzodioxins, commonly called
production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD.
contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying
Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often involve water
of pesticides and herbicides.
contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or automobiles. Larger scale
and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved. Some
About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United States alone
sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil tankers, can produce widespread and
produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but
potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur.
produce roughly 25% of the world's CO2, and generate approximately 30% of world's waste. In 2007,
China has overtaken the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2, while still far behind based In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing about ninety
on per capita pollution - ranked 78th among the world's nations. percent of all unwanted noise worldwide.
50
Effects of Pollution on:
Environment
Human health Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of effects of this:
Further information: Soil pollution § Health effects, Toxic hotspots, and List of pollution-related diseases Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass through
trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process.
Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of the
Earth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved.
The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems in many
ways.
Invasive species can out compete native species and reduce biodiversity. Invasive plants can
contribute debris and biomolecules (allelopathy) that can alter soil and chemical compositions
of an environment, often reducing native species competitiveness.
Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change the species
composition of ecosystems.
Smog and haze can reduce the amount of sunlight received by plants to carry out photosynthesis
and leads to the production of tropospheric ozone which damages plants.
Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in the food
web.
Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause acid rain which lowers the pH value of soil.
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INFORMATION

The Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program (TEHIP) at the United States National
Library of Medicine (NLM) maintains a comprehensive toxicology and environmental health web site
that includes access to resources produced by TEHIP and by other government agencies and
organizations. This web site includes links to databases, bibliographies, tutorials, and other scientific
and consumer-oriented resources. TEHIP also is responsible for the Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET)
an integrated system of toxicology and environmental health databases that are available free of charge
on the web.
TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) that is part of TOXNET. TOXMAP uses maps of the
United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection
Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution. Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund Basic Research Programs.
Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans. Ozone pollution can cause respiratory Worker Productivity
disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion. A number of studies show that pollution has an adverse effect on the productivity of both indoor and
Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to contamination of drinking outdoor workers.
water by untreated sewage in developing countries. An estimated 500 million Indians have no access to
a proper toilet, Over ten million people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 REGULATION AND MONITORING
people died, most of them children. Nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water. A 2010
analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in China because of air pollution. Regulation And Monitoring Of Pollution
The WHO estimated in 2007 that air pollution causes half a million deaths per year in India. Studies have To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have
estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000. enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of
pollution.
Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure,
stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and
neurologic symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those
with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and
other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive
substances can cause cancer and as well as birth defects.
51 52
POLLUTION CONTROL
A litter trap catches floating waste in the Yarra River, east-central Victoria, Australia
Gas nozzle with vapor recovery
Air pollution control system, known as a Thermal oxidizer, decomposes hazard gases from
industrial air streams at a factory in the United States of America.
A Mobile Pollution Check Vehicle in India.
Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control of emissions and
A dust collector in
effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from overconsumption,
Pristina, Kosovo
heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether
they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution
prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of land
development, low impact development is a similar technique for the prevention of urban runoff.
54
Try Practices such as
Recycling · Powdered activated carbon treatment
Reusing
Waste minimization · Ultrafiltration
Mitigating
Preventing
· Vapor recovery systems
Compost
· Phytoremediation
Pollution control devices
Perspectives
· Air pollution control The earliest precursor of pollution generated by life forms would have been a natural function of their
existence. The attendant consequences on viability and population levels fell within the sphere of
· Thermal oxidizer natural selection. These would have included the demise of a population locally or ultimately, species
extinction. Processes that were untenable would have resulted in a new balance brought about by
· Dust collection systems
changes and adaptations. At the extremes, for any form of life, consideration of pollution is superseded
· Baghouses by that of survival.
· Cyclone For humankind, the factor of technology is a distinguishing and critical consideration, both as an
enabler and an additional source of byproducts. Short of survival, human concerns include the range
· Electrostatic precipitators from quality of life to health hazards. Since science holds experimental demonstration to be definitive,
modern treatment of toxicity or environmental harm involves defining a level at which an effect is
· Scrubbers
observable. Common examples of fields where practical measurement is crucial include automobile
· Baffle spray scrubber emissions control, industrial exposure (e.g. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
PELs), toxicology (e.g. LD50), and medicine (e.g. medication and radiation doses).
· Cyclonic spray scrubber
"The solution to pollution is dilution", is a dictum which summarizes a traditional approach to pollution
· Ejector venturi scrubber management whereby sufficiently diluted pollution is not harmful. It is well-suited to some other
· Mechanically aided scrubber
modern, locally scoped applications such as laboratory safety procedure and hazardous material
release emergency management. But it assumes that the dilutant is in virtually unlimited supply for the
· Spray tower application or that resulting dilutions are acceptable in all cases.
· Wet scrubber Such simple treatment for environmental pollution on a wider scale might have had greater merit in
earlier centuries when physical survival was often the highest imperative, human population and
· Sewage treatment densities were lower, technologies were simpler and their byproducts more benign. But these are often
· Sedimentation (Primary treatment) no longer the case. Furthermore, advances have enabled measurement of concentrations not possible
before. The use of statistical methods in evaluating outcomes has given currency to the principle of
· Activated sludge biotreaters (Secondary treatment; also used for industrial wastewater) probable harm in cases where assessment is warranted but resorting to deterministic models is
impractical or infeasible. In addition, consideration of the environment beyond direct impact on human
· Aerated lagoons beings has gained prominence.
· Constructed wetlands (also used for urban runoff) Yet in the absence of a superseding principle, this older approach predominates practices throughout
· Industrial wastewater treatment the world. It is the basis by which to gauge concentrations of effluent for legal release, exceeding which
penalties are assessed or restrictions applied. One such superseding principle is contained in modern
· API oil-water separators[29][55] hazardous waste laws in developed countries, as the process of diluting hazardous waste to make it
non-hazardous is usually a regulated treatment process. Migration from pollution dilution to
· Biofilters elimination in many cases can be confronted by challenging economical and technological barriers.
· Dissolved air flotation (DAF)
56
Contents
GREENHOUSE GASES AND GLOBAL WARMING 1. History Of EIA
2. Methods
Global warming 3. Follow-Up
Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised 4. EIA Around The World
levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can 4.2 Canada
also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, 4.4 Egypt
such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels 4.5 United States
of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in the acidity of ocean waters, and 5. Transboundary Application
the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems. 6. Criticism
Most Polluting Industries History Of EIA

The Pure Earth, an international non-for-profit organization dedicated to eliminating life-threatening Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental
pollution in the developing world, issues an annual list of some of the world's most polluting industries.
awareness. EIAs involved a technical evaluation intended to contribute to more objective decision
Lead-Acid Battery Recycling
making. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in 1969, with
Industrial Mining and Ore Processing
enactment of the National Environmental Policy Act. EIAs have been used increasingly around the world.
Lead Smelting
The number of "Environmental Assessments" filed every year "has vastly overtaken the number of more
Tannery Operations
rigorous Environmental Impact Statements (EIS). An Environmental Assessment is a "mini-EIS designed
Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mining
to provide sufficient information to allow the agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-blown
Industrial/Municipal Dumpsites
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is necessary." EIA is an activity that is done to find out the impact
Industrial Estates
that would be done before development will occur.
Chemical Manufacturing
Product Manufacturing
Methods
Dye Industry
General and industry specific assessment methods are available including:
Industrial products - Product environmental life cycle analysis (LCA) is used for identifying and
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT measuring the impact of industrial products on the environment. These EIAs consider activities related to
extraction of raw materials, ancillary materials, equipment; production, use, disposal and ancillary
Environmental Impact assessment (EA) is the assessment of the environmental consequences equipment.
(positive and negative) of a plan, policy, program, or actual projects prior to the decision to move Genetically modified plants - Specific methods available to perform EIAs of genetically modified
forward with the proposed action. In this context, the term "environmental impact assessment" (EIA) is organisms include GMP-RAM.
usually used when applied to actual projects by individuals or companies and the term "strategic Fuzzy logic - EIA methods need measurement data to estimate values of impact indicators.
environmental assessment" (SEA) applies to policies, plans and programmes most often proposed by However, many of the environment impacts cannot be quantified, e.g. landscape quality, lifestyle quality
organs of state. Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of administrative procedure and social acceptance. Instead information from similar EIAs, expert judgment and community
regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, and may be subject to judicial sentiment are employed. Approximate reasoning methods known as fuzzy logic can be used. A fuzzy
review. arithmetic approach has also been proposed and implemented using a software tool.
The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the environmental impacts Follow-up
when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. The International Association for Impact At the end of the project, an audit evaluates the accuracy of the EIA by comparing actual to predicted
Assessment (IAIA) defines an environmental impact assessment as "the process of identifying, impacts. The objective is to make future EIAs more valid and effective. Two primary considerations are:
predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of development Scientific - to examine the accuracy of predictions and explain errors
proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made". EIAs are unique in that they do Management - to assess the success of mitigation in reducing impacts
not require adherence to a predetermined environmental outcome, but rather they require decision Audits can be performed either as a rigorous assessment of the null hypothesis or with a simpler
approach comparing what actually occurred against the predictions in the EIA document.
makers to account for environmental values in their decisions and to justify those decisions in light of
detailed environmental studies and public comments on the potential environmental impacts.
After an EIA, the precautionary and polluter pays principles may be applied to decide whether to reject,
modify or require strict liability or insurance coverage to a project, based on predicted harms.
58
The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol is a sector specific method for checking the quality of Supreme Court Justice La Forest cited (Cotton, Emond & 1981 245), "The basic concepts behind
Environmental and Social assessments and management plans. environmental assessment are simply stated: (1) early identification and evaluation of all potential
environmental consequences of a proposed undertaking; (2) decision making that both guarantees the
EIA AROUND THE WORLD adequacy of this process and reconciles, to the greatest extent possible, the proponent's development
desires with environmental protection and preservation."[20]
The Commonwealth Level La Forest referred to (Jeffrey 1989,) and (Emond 1978, p. 5) who described "...environmental
The EIA Act provides a legal framework to protect and manage nationally and internationally important assessments as a planning tool with both an information-gathering and a decision-making component"
flora, fauna, ecological communities and heritage places-defined in the Act as matters of 'national that provide "...an objective basis for granting or denying approval for a proposed development."
environmental significance'. Following are the nine matters of 'national environmental significance' to
which the ACT applies: Justice La Forest addressed his concerns about the implications of Bill C-45 regarding public navigation
World Heritage sites rights on lakes and rivers that would contradict previous cases.(La Forest, 1973 & 178-80)
National Heritage places
wetlands of international significance The Canadian Environmental Assessment Act 2012 (CEAA 2012) "and its regulations establish the
Listed threatened species and ecological communities legislative basis for the federal practice of environmental assessment in most regions of Canada." CEAA
Migratory species protected under international agreements 2012 came into force July 6, 2012 and replaces the former Canadian Environmental Assessment Act
The Commonwealth marine environment (1995). EA is defined as a planning tool to identify, understand, assess and mitigate, where possible, the
Nuclear actions (including uranium mining) environmental effects of a project.
National Heritage
Water resources, in relation with coal seam gas development and large coal mining development. "The purposes of this Act are:
(a) to protect the components of the environment that are within the legislative authority of Parliament
In addition to this, the Act aims at providing a streamlined national assessment and approval process for from significant adverse environmental effects caused by a designated project; (b) to ensure that
activities. These activities could be by the Commonwealth, or its agents, anywhere in the world or designated projects that require the exercise of a power or performance of a duty or function by a
activities on Commonwealth land; and activities that are listed as having a 'significant impact' on matters
federal authority under any Act of Parliament other than this Act to be carried out, are considered in a
of 'national environment significance'.
careful and precautionary manner to avoid significant adverse environmental effects; (c) to promote
cooperation and coordinated action between federal and provincial governments with respect to
The Act comes into play when a person (a 'proponent') wants an action (often called a 'proposal' or
environmental assessments; (d) to promote communication and cooperation with aboriginal peoples
'project') assessed for environmental impacts under the Act, he or she must refer the project to the
with respect to environmental assessments; (e) to ensure that opportunities are provided for
Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (Australia). This 'referral' is then released to the
public, as well as relevant state, territory and Commonwealth ministers, for comment on whether the meaningful public participation during an environmental assessment; (f) to ensure that an
project is likely to have a significant impact on matters of national environmental significance. The environmental assessment is completed in a timely manner; (g) to ensure that projects, as defined in
Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts assess the process and makes section 66, that are to be carried out on federal lands, or those that are outside Canada and that are to be
recommendation to the minister or the delegate for the feasibility. The final discretion on the decision carried out or financially supported by a federal authority, are considered in a careful and precautionary
remains of the minister, which is not solely based on matters of 'national environmental significance' but manner to avoid significant adverse environmental effects; (h) to encourage federal authorities to take
also the consideration of social and economic impact of the project. actions that promote sustainable development in order to achieve or maintain a healthy environment
and a healthy economy; and
The Australian Government environment minister cannot intervene in a proposal if it has no significant (i) to encourage the study of the cumulative effects of physical activities in a region and the
impact on one of the eight matters of 'national environmental significance' despite the fact that there consideration of those study results in environmental assessments."
may be other undesirable environmental impacts. This is primarily due to the division of powers between
the States and the Federal government and due to which the Australian Government environment Canadian Environmental Assessment Act
minister cannot overturn a state decision.
Opposition
There are strict civil and criminal penalties for the breach of the Act. Depending on the kind of breach, civil Environmental Lawyer Dianne Saxe argued that the CEAA 2012 "allows the federal government to create
penalty (maximum) may go up to $550,000 for an individual and $5.5 million for a body corporate, or for mandatory timelines for assessments of even the largest and most important projects, regardless of
criminal penalty (maximum) of seven years imprisonment and/or penalty of $46,200. public opposition." (Saxe 2012)
"Now that federal environmental assessments are gone, the federal government will only assess very
CANADA large, very important projects. But it's going to do them in a hurry."
In Friends of the Oldman River Society v. Canada (Minister of Transportation),(SCC 1992) La Forest J of the
Supreme Court of Canada described environmental impact assessment in terms of the proper scope of Dianne Saxe
federal jurisdiction with respect to environments matters, On 3 August 2012 the Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency nine "designated projects" with
"Environmental impact assessment is, in its simplest form, a planning tool that is now generally regarded their timelines: Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipeline Joint Review Panel (JRP) 18 months; Marathon
as an integral component of sound decision-making." Platinum Group Metals and Copper Mine Project (JRP): 13 months; Site C Clean Energy Project (JRP) 8.5
59 60
months; Deep Geologic Repository Project (JRP) 17 months; Enbridge Northern Gateway Project (JRP)
EIA must be performed for new establishments or projects and for expansions or renovations of existing
18 months; Jackpine Mine Expansion Project (JRP) 11.5 months; Pierre River Mine Project: 8 months;
New Prosperity Gold-Copper Mine Project (JRP) 7.5 months; Frontier Oil Sands Mine Project (JRP) 8.5 establishments according to the Law for the Environment.
months; EnCana/Cenovus Shallow Gas Infill Project (JRP) 5 months.
EU
Saxe compares these timelines with environmental assessments for the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline. A wide range of instruments exist in the Environmental policy of the European Union. Among them the
Thomas R. Berger, Royal Commissioner of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry (9 May 1977), worked European Union has established a mix of mandatory and discretionary procedures to assess
extremely hard to ensure that industrial development on Aboriginal people's land resulted in benefits to environmental impacts. European Union Directive (85/337/EEC) on Environmental Impact Assessments
those indigenous people. (known as the EIA Directive) was first introduced in 1985 and was amended in 1997. The directive was
amended again in 2003, following EU signature of the 1998 Aarhus Convention, and once more in 2009.
On 22 April 2013, Official Opposition Environment critic Megan Leslie issued a statement claiming that The initial Directive of 1985 and its three amendments have been codified in Directive 2011/92/EU of 13
the federal government's recent changes to "fish habitat protection, the Navigable Waters Protection December 2011. In 2001, the issue was enlarged to the assessment of plans and programmes by the so-
Act and the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act", along with gutting existing laws and making cuts called Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive (2001/42/EC), which is now in force. Under
to science and research, "will be disastrous, not only for the environment, but also for Canadians' health the EU directive, an EIA must provide certain information to comply. There are seven key areas that are
and economic prosperity." On 26 September 2012, Leslie argued that with the changes to the Canadian required:
Environmental Assessment Act that came into effect 6 July 2012, "seismic testing, dams, wind farms and 1. Description of the project
power plants" no longer required any federal environmental assessment. She also claimed that because - Description of actual project and site description
the CEAA 2012—which she claimed was rushed through Parliament—dismantled the CEAA 1995, the - Break the project down into its key components, i.e. construction, operations, decommissioning
Oshawa ethanol plant project would no longer have a full federal environmental assessment. - For each component list all of the sources of environmental disturbance
- For each component all the inputs and outputs must be listed, e.g., air pollution, noise, hydrology.
Mr. Peter Kent (Minister of the Environment) explained that the CEAA 2012 "provides for the
Government of Canada and the Environmental Assessment Agency to focus on the large and most 2. Alternatives that have been considered
significant projects that are being proposed across the country." The 2,000 to 3,000-plus smaller - Examine alternatives that have been considered
screenings that were in effect under CEAA 1995 became the "responsibility of lower levels of - Example: in a biomass power station, will the fuel be sourced locally or nationally?
government but are still subject to the same strict federal environmental laws." Anne Minh-Thu Quach,
MP for Beauharnois-Salaberry, QC, argued that the mammoth budget bill dismantled 50 years of 3. Description of the environment
environmental protection without consulting Canadians about the "colossal changes they are making to - List of all aspects of the environment that may be affected by the development
environmental assessments." She claimed that the federal government is entering into "limited - Example: populations, fauna, flora, air, soil, water, humans, landscape, cultural heritage
consultations, by invitation only, months after the damage was done." - This section is best carried out with the help of local experts, in the UK.
EGYPT 4. Description of the significant effects on the environment

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) EIA is implemented in Egypt under the umbrella of the Ministry - The word significant is crucial here as the definition can vary
of state for environmental affairs. The Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) is responsible for - 'Significant' must be defined
the EIA services. - The most frequent method used here is use of the Leopold matrix
- The matrix is a tool used in the systematic examination of potential interactions
In June 1997, the responsibility of Egypt's first full-time Minister of State for Environmental Affairs was - Example: in a windfarm development a significant impact may be collisions with birds.
assigned as stated in the Presidential Decree no.275/1997. From thereon, the new ministry has focused,
in close collaboration with the national and international development partners, on defining 5. Mitigation
environmental policies, setting priorities and implementing initiatives within a context of sustainable - This is where EIA is most useful
development. - Once section 4 is complete, it is obvious where impacts are greatest
- Using this information ways to avoid negative impacts should be developed
According to the Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs - Best working with the developer with this section as they know the project best
Agency (EEAA) was restructured with the new mandate to substitute the institution initially established - Using the windfarm example again, construction could be out of bird nesting seasons. Or removal of
in 1982. At the central level, EEAA represents the executive arm of the Ministry. hardstanding on a potentially contaminated land site, out of the rainy season.
The purpose of EIA is to ensure the protection and conservation of the environment and natural 6. Non-technical summary (EIS)
resources including human health aspects against uncontrolled development. The long-term objective - The EIA is in the public domain and be used in the decision making process
is to ensure a sustainable economic development that meets present needs without compromising - It is important that the information is available to the public
future generations' ability to meet their own needs. EIA is an important tool in the integrated - This section is a summary that does not include jargon or complicated diagrams
environmental management approach. - It should be understood by the informed lay-person.
62
Content
7. Lack of know-how/technical difficulties The Environmental Assessment is a concise public document prepared by the federal action agency
- This section is to advise any areas of weakness in knowledge that serves to:
- It can be used to focus areas of future research 1. briefly provide sufficient evidence and analysis for determining whether to prepare an EIS or a
- Some developers see the EIA as a starting block for poor environmental management. Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI)
2. Demonstrate compliance with the act when no EIS is required
UNITED STATES 3. facilitate the preparation of an EIS when a FONSI cannot be demonstrated.
National Environmental Policy Act The Environmental Assessment includes a brief discussion of the purpose and need of the proposal and
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), enacted in 1970, established a policy of of its alternatives as required by NEPA 102(2)(E), and of the human environmental impacts resulting
environmental impact assessment for federal agency actions, federally funded activities or federally from and occurring to the proposed actions and alternatives considered practicable, plus a listing of
permitted/licensed activities that in the U. S. is termed "environmental review" or simply "the NEPA studies conducted and agencies and stakeholders consulted to reach these conclusions. The action
process." The law also created the Council on Environmental Quality, which promulgated regulations to agency must approve an EA before it is made available to the public. The EA is made public through
codify the law's requirements. Under United States environmental law an Environmental Assessment notices of availability by local, state, or regional clearing houses, often triggered by the purchase of a
(EA) is compiled to determine the need for an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). Federal or public notice advertisement in a newspaper of general circulation in the proposed activity area.
federalized actions expected to subject or be subject to significant environmental impacts will publish a
Notice of Intent to Prepare an EIS as soon as significance is known. Certain actions of federal agencies Structure
must be preceded by the NEPA process. Contrary to a widespread misconception, NEPA does not The structure of a generic Environmental Assessment is as follows:
prohibit the federal government or its licensees/permittees from harming the environment, nor does it 1. Summary
specify any penalty if an environmental impact assessment turns out to be inaccurate, intentionally or 2. Introduction
otherwise. NEPA requires that plausible statements as to the prospective impacts be disclosed in - Background
advance. The purpose of NEPA process is to ensure that the decision maker is fully informed of the - Purpose and Need for Action
environmental aspects and consequences prior to making the final decision. - Proposed Action
-Decision Framework
- Public Involvement
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
- Issues
An environmental assessment (EA) is an environmental analysis prepared pursuant to the National
3. Alternatives, including the Proposed Action
Environmental Policy Act to determine whether a federal action would significantly affect the
- Alternatives
environment and thus require a more detailed Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). The certified
- Mitigation Common to All Alternatives
release of an Environmental Assessment results in either a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) or
- Comparison of Alternatives
an EIS.
4. Environmental Consequences
5. Consultation and Coordination
The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), which oversees the administration of NEPA, issued
regulations for implementing the NEPA in 1979. Eccleston reports that the NEPA regulations barely Procedure
mention preparation of EAs. This is because the EA was originally intended to be a simple document The EA becomes a draft public document when notice of it is published, usually in a newspaper of
used in relatively rare instances where an agency was not sure if the potential significance of an action general circulation in the area affected by the proposal. There is a 15-day review period required for an
would be sufficient to trigger preparation of an EIS. But today, because EISs are so much longer and Environmental Assessment (30 days if exceptional circumstances) while the document is made
complicated to prepare, federal agencies are going to great effort to avoid preparing EISs by using EAs, available for public commentary, and a similar time for any objection to improper process. Commenting
even in cases where the use of EAs may be inappropriate. The ratio of EAs that are being issued on the Draft EA is typically done in writing or email, submitted to the lead action agency as published in
compared to EISs is about 100 to 1. the notice of availability. An EA does not require a public hearing for verbal comments. Following the
mandated public comment period, the lead action agency responds to any comments, and certifies
Likewise, even the preparation of an accurate EA is viewed today as an onerous burden by many entities either a FONSI or a Notice of Intent (NOI) to prepare an EIS in its public environmental review record.
responsible for the environmental review of a proposal. Federal agencies have responded by The preparation of an EIS then generates a similar but more lengthy, involved and expensive process.
streamlining their regulations that implement NEPA environmental review, by defining categories of
projects that by their well understood nature may be safely excluded from review under NEPA, and by ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
drawing up lists of project types that have negligible material impact upon the environment and can The adequacy of an environmental impact statement (EIS) can be challenged in federal court. Major
thus be exempted. proposed projects have been blocked because of an agency's failure to prepare an acceptable EIS. One
prominent example was the Westway landfill and highway development in and along the Hudson River
in New York City. Another prominent case involved the Sierra Club suing the Nevada Department of
63 64
Transportation over its denial of the club's request to issue a supplemental EIS addressing air emissions Development causes both direct and indirect effects. Consumption of goods and services, production,
of particulate matter and hazardous air pollutants in the case of widening U.S. Route 95 through Las use and disposal of building materials and machinery, additional land use for activities of manufacturing
Vegas. The case reached the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, which led to and services, mining and refining, etc., all have environmental impacts. The indirect effects of
construction on the highway being halted until the court's final decision. The case was settled prior to development can be much higher than the direct effects examined by an EIA. Proposals such as airports
the court's final decision. or shipyards cause wide-ranging national and international effects, which should be covered in EIAs.
Several state governments that have adopted "little NEPAs," state laws imposing EIS requirements for Broadening the scope of EIA can benefit the conservation of threatened species. Instead of
particular state actions. Some of those state laws such as the California Environmental Quality Act refer concentrating on the project site, some EIAs employed a habitat-based approach that focused on much
to the required environmental impact study as an environmental impact report. broader relationships among humans and the environment. As a result, alternatives that reduce the
negative effects to the population of whole species, rather than local subpopulations, can be assessed.
This variety of state requirements produces voluminous data not just upon impacts of individual
projects, but also in insufficiently researched scientific domains. For example, in a seemingly routine Thissen and Agusdinata have argued that little attention is given to the systematic identification and
Environmental Impact Report for the city of Monterey, California, information came to light that led to assessment of uncertainties in environmental studies which is critical in situations where uncertainty
the official federal endangered species listing of Hickman's potentilla, a rare coastal wildflower. cannot be easily reduced by doing more research. In line with this, Maier et al. have concluded on the
need to consider uncertainty at all stages of the decision-making process. In such a way decisions can be
Transboundary Application Of EIA made with confidence or known uncertainty.
Environmental threats do not respect national borders. International pollution can have detrimental
effects on the atmosphere, oceans, rivers, aquifers, farmland, the weather and biodiversity. Global These proposals are justified on data that shows that environmental assessments fail to predict
climate change is transnational. Specific pollution threats include acid rain, radioactive contamination, accurately the impacts observed. Tenney et al. and Wood et al. have reported evidence of the intrinsic
debris in outer space, stratospheric ozone depletion and toxic oil spills. The Chernobyl disaster, uncertainty attached to EIAs predictions from a number of case studies worldwide. The gathered
precipitated by a nuclear accident on April 26, 1986, is a stark reminder of the devastating effects of evidence consisted of comparisons between predictions in EIAs and the impacts measured during, or
Transboundary nuclear pollution. following project implementation. In explaining this trend, Tenney et al. have highlighted major causes
such as project changes, modelling errors, errors in data and assumptions taken and bias introduced by
Environmental protection is inherently a cross-border issue and has led to the creation of transnational people in the projects analyzed. Cardenas and Halman provide a comprehensive review on the issues of
regulation via multilateral and bilateral treaties. The United Nations Conference on the Human uncertainty in environmental impact assessments.
Environment (UNCHE or Stockholm Conference) held in Stockholm in 1972 and the United Nations
Conference on the Environment and Development (UNCED or Rio Summit, Rio Conference, or Earth
Summit) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 were key in the creation of about 1,000 international
instruments that include at least some provisions related to the environment and its protection.
The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe's Convention on Environmental Impact
Assessment in a Transboundary Context was negotiated to provide an international legal framework for
Transboundary EIA.
However, as there is no universal legislature or administration with a comprehensive mandate, most
international treaties exist parallel to one another and are further developed without the benefit of
consideration being given to potential conflicts with other agreements. There is also the issue of
international enforcement. This has led to duplications and failures, in part due to an inability to
enforce agreements. An example is the failure of many international fisheries regimes to restrict
harvesting practices. Application shall be achieved by the willing of counties authorities.
Criticism
As per Jay et al., EIA is used as a decision aiding tool rather than decision making tool. There is growing
dissent about them as their influence on decisions is limited. Improved training for practitioners,
guidance on best practice and continuing research have all been proposed.
EIAs have been criticized for excessively limiting their scope in space and time. No accepted procedure
exists for determining such boundaries. The boundary refers to 'the spatial and temporal boundary of
the proposal's effects'. This boundary is determined by the applicant and the lead assessor, but in
practice, almost all EIAs address only direct and immediate on-site effects.
66
CHAPTER SEVEN
CHAPTER SIX
CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR)
HSE POLICY
A Company Management should be committed to ensuring that all works associated with the Project History of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation
shall be carried out in a manner that shall not compromise the health and safety of Personnel, In the 19th century, Doctor H. R. Silvester described a method (The Silvester Method) of artificial
equipment as well as the environment where it operates. Its management shall frequently visit the site ventilation in which the patient is laid on their back, and their arms are raised above their head to aid
inhalation and then pressed against their chest to aid exhalation. The procedure is repeated sixteen
in order to evaluate the HSE situations and performance level. Its management shall demonstrate
times per minute. This type of artificial ventilation is occasionally seen in films made in the early 20th
visible leadership commitment and accountability to the Project's HSE policy and strategic objectives, century.
and provide resources to implement a Project culture that embraces optimal HSE behaviour.
A second technique, called the Holger Nielsen technique, described in the first edition of the Boy Scout
This will include: Handbook in the United States in 1911, was a form of artificial ventilation where the person was laid
face down, with their head to the side, resting on the palms of both hands.
* Communication of Its HSE policy throughout the Project's locations.
* Exercising leadership that exemplifies the fullest commitment to all aspects of health, safety, Upward pressure applied at the patient's elbows raised the upper body while pressure on their back
and environmental concern, both personally and from a corporate perspective. forced air into the lungs, in essence the Silvester Method with the patient flipped over. This form is seen
* Through management example and directive, endorsing and ensuring the incorporation of well into the 1950s (it is used in an episode of Lassie during the mid-1950s), and was often used,
considerations into all Project decision-making processes. sometimes for comedic effect, in theatrical cartoons of the time (see Tom and Jerry's "The Cat and the
* Promoting performance as a value in every activity all through the project duration. Mermouse" [1949]). This method would continue to be shown, for historical purposes, side-by-side
with modern CPR in the Boy Scout Handbook until its ninth edition in 1979. The technique was later
* Allocating adequate resources to the program for achievement of objectives and targets.
banned from first-aid manuals in the UK.
* Visible management commitment, effective communication and training to ensure
environmental protection, and the safety and health of all employees and the Similar techniques were described in early 20th century ju-jutsu and judo books, as being used as far
community. back as the early 17th century. A New York Times correspondent reported those techniques being used
* Measurable goals promoting continual improvement toward zero incidents and the prevention successfully in Japan in 1910. In ju-jutsu (and later on, judo) those techniques were called Kappo or
of pollution. Kutasu.
* Line management accountability for HSE matters and the individual contribution of all
However, it was not until the middle of the 20th century that the wider medical community started to
employees. recognize and promote artificial ventilation in the form of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation combined
* Recognition by all employees and contractors that safety and environmental protection is a with chest compressions as a key part of resuscitation following cardiac arrest. The combination was
condition of employment and that they are responsible for their safety and the safety of first seen in a 1962 training video called "The Pulse of Life" created by James Jude, Guy Knickerbocker
those around them. and Peter Safar. Jude and Knickerbocker, along with William Kouwenhoven and Joseph S. Redding had
recently discovered the method of external chest compressions, whereas Safar had worked with
* Promoting a culture where Stop Work Authority is exercised freely and is valued as a proactive
Redding and James Elam to prove the effectiveness of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. It was at Johns
process to control HSE risks and impacts. Hopkins University where the technique of CPR was originally developed. The first effort at testing the
* Integration of HSE considerations, including identifying and controlling risks and impacts into technique was performed on a dog by Redding, Safar and JW Pearson. Soon afterward, the technique
the company's business decisions, plans and operations. was used to save the life of a child. Their combined findings were presented at the annual Maryland
* Periodic audits and reviews of HSSE systems and performance. Medical Society meeting on September 16, 1960 in Ocean City, and gained widespread acceptance over
* Compliance with applicable legislation, regulations and relevant industry standards. the following decade, helped by the video and speaking tour they undertook. Peter Safar wrote the
book ABC of Resuscitation in 1957. In the U.S., it was first promoted as a technique for the public to learn
* Providing appropriate resources to implement this policy.
in the 1970s.
* This policy being available to employees and the public.
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation was combined with chest compressions based on the assumption that
active ventilation is necessary to keep circulating blood oxygenated, and the combination was accepted
without comparing its effectiveness with chest compressions alone.
However, research over the past decade has shown that assumption to be in error, resulting in the AHA's
acknowledgment of the effectiveness of chest compressions alone.
67 68
CPR has continued to advance, with recent developments including an emphasis on constant, rapid MEDICAL USES
heart stimulation, and a de-emphasis on the respiration aspect. Studies have shown that people who CPR is indicated for any person unresponsive with no breathing or breathing only in occasional agonal
had rapid, constant heart-only chest compression are 22% more likely to survive than those receiving gasps, as it is most likely that they are in cardiac arrest. If a person still has a pulse but is not breathing
conventional CPR that included breathing. What's more, because people tend to be reluctant to do (respiratory arrest) artificial ventilations may be more appropriate, but, due to the difficulty people
mouth-to-mouth, chest-only CPR nearly doubles the chances of survival overall, by increasing the odds have in accurately assessing the presence or absence of a pulse, CPR guidelines recommend that lay
of receiving CPR in the first place. persons should not be instructed to check the pulse, while giving healthcare professionals the option to
check a pulse. In those with cardiac arrest due to trauma, CPR is considered futile but still
recommended. Correcting the underlying cause such as a pneumothorax or pericardial tamponade
may help.
CPR serves as the foundation of successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation, preserving the body for
defibrillation and advanced life support. Even in the case of a "non-shockable" rhythm, such as
pulseless electrical activity (PEA) where defibrillation is not indicated, effective CPR is no less
important. Used alone, CPR will result in few complete recoveries, though the outcome without CPR is
almost uniformly fatal.
Studies have shown that immediate CPR followed by defibrillation within 3–5 minutes of sudden VF
cardiac arrest dramatically improves survival. In cities such as U.S.A.where CPR training is widespread
and defibrillation by EMS personnel follows quickly, the survival rate is about 20 percent for all causes
and as high as 57 percent if a witnessed "shockable" arrest. In countries such as Nigeria, without those
advantages, the survival rate is only 5 percent for witnessed shockable arrest.
In adults compression-only CPR by bystanders appears to be better than chest compressions with
rescue breathing. Compression-only CPR may be less effective in children than in adults, as cardiac
arrest in children is more likely to have a non-cardiac cause. In a 2010 prospective study of cardiac
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure that combines chest compressions
arrest in children (age 1–17) for arrests with a non-cardiac cause, provision by bystanders of
often with artificial ventilation in an effort to manually preserve intact brain function until further
conventional CPR with rescue breathing yielded a favorable neurological outcome at one month more
measures are taken to restore spontaneous blood circulation and breathing in a person who is in cardiac
often than did compression-only CPR. For arrests with a cardiac cause in this cohort, there was no
arrest. It is recommended in those who are unresponsive with no breathing or abnormal breathing, for
difference between the two techniques. This is consistent with American Heart Association guidelines
example, agonal respirations.
for parents.
CPR involves chest compressions for adults between 5 cm (2.0 in) and 6 cm (2.4 in) deep and at a rate of When done by trained responders, 30 compressions interrupted by two breaths appears to have a
at least 100 to 120 per minute.The rescuer may also provide artificial ventilation by either exhaling air slightly better result than continuous chest compressions with breaths being delivered while
into the subject's mouth or nose (mouth-to-mouth resuscitation) or using a device that pushes air into compressions are ongoing.
the subject's lungs (mechanical ventilation). Current recommendations place emphasis on early and
high-quality chest compressions over artificial ventilation; a simplified CPR method involving chest There are higher proportions of patients who achieve spontaneous circulation (ROSC), where their
compressions only is recommended for untrained rescuers. In children, however, only doing heart starts beating on its own again, than ultimately survive to be discharged from hospital. This may
compressions may result in worse outcomes. be due to medical staff being ultimately unable to address the cause of the cardiac arrest, to other co-
morbidities, or to the patient being gravely ill in more than one way. Ultimately, only 5–10% of patients
CPR alone is unlikely to restart the heart. Its main purpose is to restore partial flow of oxygenated blood in cardiac arrest will survive after an attempted resuscitation.
to the brain and heart. The objective is to delay tissue death and to extend the brief window of
opportunity for a successful resuscitation without permanent brain damage. Administration of an COMPLICATIONS
electric shock to the subject's heart, termed defibrillation, is usually needed in order to restore a viable While CPR is a last resort intervention, without which a person without a pulse will all but certainly die,
or "perfusing" heart rhythm. Defibrillation is effective only for certain heart rhythms, namely the physical nature of how CPR is performed does lead to complications that may need to be rectified.
ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia, rather than asystole or pulseless electrical Common complications due to CPR are rib fractures, sternal fractures, bleeding in the anterior
activity. CPR may succeed in inducing a heart rhythm that may be shockable. In general, CPR is continued mediastinum, heart contusion, hemopericardium, upper airway complications, damage to the
until the person has a return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) or is declared dead. abdominal viscera - lacerations of the liver and spleen, fat emboli, pulmonary complications -
pneumothorax, hemothorax, lung contusions.
70
The most common injuries sustained from CPR are rib fractures, with literature suggesting an incidence
between 13% and 97%, and sternal fractures, with an incidence between 1% to 43%. Whilst these
iatrogenic injuries can require further intervention (assuming the patient survives the cardiac arrest),
only 0.5% of them are life-threatening in their own right.
The type and frequency of injury can be affected by factors such as gender and age. For instance, women
have a higher risk of sternal fractures than men, and risk for rib fractures increases significantly with age.
Children and infants have a low risk of rib fractures during CPR, with an incidence less than 2%, although,
when they do occur, they are usually anterior and multiple.
Where CPR is performed in error by a bystander, on a person not in cardiac arrest, around 2% have injury
as a result (although 12% experienced discomfort).
METHODS
CPR training: CPR is being administered while a second rescuer prepares for defibrillation.
In 2010, the American Heart Association and International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation updated
their CPR guidelines. The importance of high quality CPR (sufficient rate and depth without excessively
ventilating) was emphasized. The order of interventions was changed for all age groups except
newborns from airway, breathing, chest compressions (ABC) to chest compressions, airway, breathing
(CAB). An exception to this recommendation is for those believed to be in a respiratory arrest (airway
obstruction, drug overdose, etc.).The most important aspect of CPR are: few interruptions of chest
compressions, a sufficient speed and depth of compressions, completely relaxing pressure between
compressions, and not ventilating too much. It is unclear if a few minutes of CPR before defibrillation
results in different outcomes than immediate defibrillation.
Compressions with Rescue Breaths

A universal compression to ventilation ratio of 30:2 is recommended for adults. With children, if at least
CPR technique as demonstrated on a dummy 2 trained rescuers are present a ratio of 15:2 is preferred. In newborns a rate of 3:1 is recommended
unless a cardiac cause is known in which case a 15:2 ratio is reasonable.
If an advanced airway such as an endotracheal tube or laryngeal mask airway is in place, artificial
ventilation should occur without pauses in compressions at a rate of 8–10 per minute. The
recommended order of interventions is chest compressions, airway, breathing or CAB in most situations,
with a compression rate of at least 100 per minute in all groups.
Recommended compression depth in adults and children is at least 5 cm (2 inches) and in infants it is 4
centimetres (1.6 in). As of 2010 the Resuscitation Council (UK) still recommends ABC for children. As it
can be difficult to determine the presence or absence of a pulse, the pulse check has been removed for
lay providers and should not be performed for more than 10 seconds by healthcare providers. In adults,
rescuers should use two hands for the chest compressions, while in children they should use one, and
with infants two fingers (index and middle fingers).
Compression only
For adults with cardiac arrest, compression-only (hands-only or cardiocerebral resuscitation) CPR which
involves chest compressions without artificial ventilation is recommended as the method of choice for
the untrained rescuer or those who are not proficient as it is easier to perform and instructions are easier
to give over a phone. In adults with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, compression-only CPR by the lay
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation public has an equal or higher success rate than standard CPR. It is hoped that the use of compression-
only delivery will increase the chances of the lay public delivering CPR.
72
Compression-only CPR is not as good for children who are more likely to have cardiac arrest from Additional devices
respiratory causes. Two reviews have found that compression-only CPR had no more success than no CPR While several adjunctive devices are available, none other than defibrillation, as of 2010, have
whatsoever. Rescue breaths for children and especially for babies should be relatively gentle. Either a
ratio of compressions to breaths of 30:2 or 15:2 was found to have better results for children. Both consistently been found to be better than standard CPR for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. These devices
children and adults should receive a hundred chest compressions per minute. Other exceptions besides can be split into three broad groups: timing devices; devices that assist the rescuer in achieving the
children include cases of drownings and drug overdose. In both these cases, compressions and rescue correct technique, especially depth and speed of compressions; and devices that take over the process
breaths are recommended if the bystander is trained and is willing to do so. completely.
As per the American Heart Association, the beat of the Bee Gees song "Stayin' Alive" provides an ideal
rhythm in terms of beats per minute to use for hands-only CPR. One can also hum Queen's "Another One Timing devices
Bites The Dust", which is exactly 100 beats-per-minute and contains a memorable repeating drum Timing devices can feature a metronome (an item carried by many ambulance crews) in order to assist
pattern. For those in cardiac arrest due to non heart related causes and in people less than 20 years of
the rescuer in achieving the correct rate. Some units can also give timing reminders for performing
age, standard CPR is superior to compression-only CPR.
compressions, ventilating and changing operators.
Prone CPR
Standard CPR is performed with the person in supine position. Prone CPR or reverse CPR is CPR performed Manual assist devices
on a person lying on their chest, by turning the head to the side and compressing the back. Due to the Mechanical chest compression devices are not currently recommended for widespread use. There has
head's being turned, the risk of vomiting and complications caused by aspiration pneumonia may be not been enough high quality studies performed to determine if using mechanical assist devices for
reduced. chest compression saves more lives compared with using the traditional hand compression technique.
The American Heart Association's current guideline recommends performing CPR in the supine position, Audible and visual prompting may improve the quality of CPR and prevent the decrease of compression
and limits prone CPR to situations where the patient cannot be turned. rate and depth that naturally occurs with fatigue, and to address this potential improvement, a number
of devices have been developed to help improve CPR technique.
Pregnancy
These items can be devices to be placed on top of the chest, with the rescuer's hands going over the
During pregnancy when a woman is lying on her back, the uterus may compress the inferior vena cava and
device, and a display or audio feedback giving information on depth, force or rate, or in a wearable
thus decrease venous return. It is therefore recommended that the uterus be pushed to the woman's left;
if this is not effective, either roll the woman 30° or healthcare professionals should consider emergency format such as a glove. Several published evaluations show that these devices can improve the
resuscitative hysterotomy. performance of chest compressions.
Family presence As well as its use during actual CPR on a cardiac arrest victim, which relies on the rescuer carrying the
Evidence generally supports family being present during CPR. This includes in CPR for children. device with them, these devices can also be used as part of training programs to improve basic skills in
performing correct chest compressions.
Other Interposed abdominal compressions may be beneficial in the hospital environment. There is no
evidence of benefit pre-hospital or in children. Automatic devices
Mechanical CPR has not seen as much use as mechanical ventilation. Devices on the market include
Cooling during CPR is being studied as currently results are unclear whether or not it improves outcomes.
LUCAS-2, developed at the University Hospital of Lund, and return of spontaneous circulation, and
AutoPulse. Both use straps around the chest, LUCAS-2 uses a gas driven piston and motor driven
Internal cardiac massage is manual squeezing of the exposed heart itself carried out through a surgical
incision into the chest cavity, usually when the chest is already open for cardiac surgery. constricting band.
Pathophysiology There are several advantages to automated devices: they allow rescuers to focus on performing other
CPR is used on people in cardiac arrest in order to oxygenate the blood and maintain a cardiac output to interventions; they do not fatigue and begin to perform less effective compressions, as humans do; they
keep vital organs alive. Blood circulation and oxygenation are required to transport oxygen to the tissues. are able to perform effective compressions in limited-space environments such as air ambulances,
The physiology of CPR involves generating a pressure gradient between the arterial and venous vascular where manual compressions are difficult, and they allow ambulance workers to be strapped in safely
beds; CPR achieves this via multiple mechanisms. The brain may sustain damage after blood flow has rather than standing over a patient in a speeding vehicle. However the disadvantages are cost to
been stopped for about four minutes and irreversible damage after about seven minutes. Typically if purchase, time to train emergency personnel to use them, interruption to CPR to implement, potential
blood flow ceases for one to two hours, then body cells die. Therefore, in general CPR is effective only if for incorrect application and the need for multiple device sizes.
performed within seven minutes of the stoppage of blood flow. The heart also rapidly loses the ability to
maintain a normal rhythm. Low body temperatures, as sometimes seen in near-drownings, prolong the
Several studies have shown little or no improvement in survival rates, but acknowledge the need for
time the brain survives. Following cardiac arrest, effective CPR enables enough oxygen to reach the brain
more study.
to delay brain stem death, and allows the heart to remain responsive to defibrillation attempts.
74
CHAPTER EIGHT
Mobile apps
To support training and incident management, mobile apps have been published on the largest app HSE STATISTICS/DATA MANAGEMENT
markets. An evaluation of 61 available apps has revealed that a large number do not follow international
The Figure below shows the main data sources used for injury & ill health statistics, and an indication of
guidelines for basic life support and many apps are not designed in a user-friendly way. As a result, the Red
the severity range that each source includes. An introduction to these sources is found below the Figure,
Cross updated and endorsed its emergency preparedness application, which uses pictures, text and videos and a full description of these, plus details of additional data sources (for example economic costs of
to assist the user. workplace injuries and ill health, management of health and safety in the workplace, enforcement
activity and employment) is available via the detailed description of data sources.
The UK Resuscitation Council, has an app, called Lifesaver, which shows how to perform CPR.
Self-CPR hoax. A form of "self-CPR" termed "cough CPR" was the subject of a hoax chain e-mail entitled Each of the sources has strengths and weaknesses; this is explained in the full description (see the link
"How to Survive a Heart Attack When Alone," which wrongly cited "Via Health Rochester General Hospital" below). Details about preferred data sources for illness and injury are also available.
as the source of the technique. Rochester General Hospital has denied any connection with the technique.
"Cough CPR" in the sense of resuscitating oneself is impossible because a prominent symptom of cardiac
arrest is unconsciousness, which makes coughing impossible. In cases of myocardial infarction (heart
attack), during which the person may well remain conscious but which is not by itself a form of arrest,
attempting "cough CPR" will increase the workload on the heart and will likely prove harmful.
The American Heart Association (AHA) and other resuscitation bodies do not endorse "cough CPR", which
it terms a misnomer as it is not a form of resuscitation. The AHA does recognize a limited legitimate use of
the coughing technique: "This coughing technique to maintain blood flow during brief arrhythmias has
been useful in the hospital, particularly during cardiac catheterization. In such cases the patient's ECG is
monitored continuously, and a physician is present."When coughing is used on trained and monitored
patients in hospitals, it has been shown to be effective only for 90 seconds.
RIDDOR
The Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (as amended), under which
fatal and defined non-fatal injuries to workers and members of the public are reported by employers.
Certain types of work-related injury are not reportable under RIDDOR, hence excluded from these
figures. Particular exclusions include fatalities and injuries to the armed forces and injuries from work-
related road collisions.
A number of key changes to the reporting system and legal requirements have occurred in recent years,
with some impact on the resulting statistics:
* September 2011: the notification system used by employers changed to a predominately online
system.
* April 2012: a legislative change introduced the requirement to report injuries to workers that
lead to absence from work or inability to do their usual job, for over seven days (over-7-day
injuries). This replaced the previous 'over-3-day' legal requirement.
* October 2013: more extensive legislative changes were introduced to simplify the reporting of
workplace injuries. One key change was the introduction of 'specified injuries', which replaced
the previous 'major injury' category.
76
The Labour Force Survey (LFS) Community Affairs, Safety, Health, Environment And Security (CASHES)
The LFS is a national survey run by the Office for National Statistics of currently around 38,000 households Policy of Almoner Petroleum & Gas Limited (APG)
each quarter. HSE commissions annual questions in the LFS to gain a view of work-related illness and
workplace injury based on individuals' perceptions. The analysis and interpretation of these data are the
Introduction
sole responsibility of HSE.
Community Affairs, Safety, Health, Environment and Security – (CASHES) Policy, is the emphasis on
Self-Reported Work-Related Illness management's responsibility for good community relationship, Health and safety of all persons involved
People who have conditions which they think have been caused or made worse by their current or past in a company's operations, and any member of the public that may be affected and a minimum negative
work, as estimated from the LFS. Total cases (prevalence) includes long-standing as well as new effect of the impact on the environment in which the company operations are carried out.
(incidence) cases. New cases consist of those who first became aware of their illness in the last 12 months.
Estimates are based on the most serious work-related illness, as defined by the individual, if they have This CASHES policy for implementation of company Operations has put in place all the
more than one. HSE has collected data on ill health through the LFS, periodically since 1990 and annually necessary procedures and activities aimed at achieving a satisfactory management of
from 2001/02, with the exception of 2002/03 and 2012/13 when no ill health data was collected. the CASHES issues.
Self-Reported Injuries By this CASHES plan, performance can actually be measured, facilitating the future
Workplace injuries sustained as a result of a non-road traffic accident in the last 12 months, as estimated identification of areas that may require improvement.
by the LFS. Over-3-day and over-7-day absence injuries include all those with more than three and more
than seven consecutive (working and non-working) days away from work (not counting the day on which CASHES OBJECTIVES
the accident happened). Estimates are based on the most recent workplace injury, if the individual has
more than one. HSE has collected data on injuries through the LFS in 1990 and annually since 1993/94. LFS Community Affairs
injury estimates are generally presented as three-year averages to provide a more robust series of
Introducing the company first of all to any community it operate in
estimates.
1. Let the community know any benefits they may derive from the company operations there.
2. Employment of qualified and semi-qualified youths of the community
Working days lost
Days off work due to workplace injuries and work-related ill health. The figures are expressed as full-day
equivalents, to allow for variation in daily hours worked, and are available for 2000/01 (injuries), 2001/02 Safety
(ill health), and annually (for both injuries and ill health) from 2003/04, with the exception of 2012/13 for 3. Ensure that all employees the company are trained for any task they may be assigned to do
ill health when no ill health data was collected. 4. Enhance commitment to safety and promote safety awareness among all categories of our staff and
sub-contractor's staff
Reports of Ill Health By Doctors and Specialist Physicians (Thor) 5. No fatality of the company staff, sub-contractor's staff or any third party involved in our operations
Reports of work-related ill health are gathered in surveillance schemes run by The Health and Occupation 6. No lost time injuries (LTI)
Reporting network (THOR); statistical tables covering patients seen by specialists are available annually 7. Maintain ZERO Road Transport Accident (RTA) and Road Transport Incident (RTI)
from the early 1990s for work-related respiratory disorders and skin disease. In THOR (since 2005), 8. Carryout daily near miss and unsafe condition audits
general practitioners are asked to report new cases of work-related ill health. 9. Report all near misses
10. Maintain ZERO fire accident
Ill Health Assessed For Disablement Benefit (IIDB) 11. Continuous training of personnel (to enhance awareness)
New cases of specified 'prescribed diseases' (with an established occupational cause) assessed for 12. Maintain Zero equipment damage
compensation under the Industrial Injuries Disablement Benefit scheme. IIDB statistics are available 13. Strict adherence to permit to work procedures
annually from 2003, although earlier historical data is available. 14. Ensure what an employee believes cannot be carried out in accordance with the safety policy must
be stopped and immediately reported do his supervisor.
Death Certificates (DC)
Includes deaths from some types of occupational lung disease, including asbestos-related diseases,
Health
mesothelioma and asbestosis.
15. All workers are to be certified medically fit before being employed and annually by a qualified
medical doctor.
16. Carry out inventory of illness causing absence from work
78
17. Prevent injury to and preserve the health of its employees Each supervisor is responsible for reviewing the appropriate CASHES Procedure with the workforce
18. Complete health hazard identification list during the daily toolbox Meeting. If appropriate CASHES Procedures are not available, then it is the
19. Upgrade site accommodation standards responsibility of the Supervisor to suspend work and ensure an appropriate CASHES Procedure is
developed in conjunction with Clients CASHES facilitator, who now discusses it with his work force prior
20. Ensure that workers receive medical care in a well-equipped site clinic manned by suitably qualified
to commencement of work.
doctor and industrial nurses
Site Entry/Muster Procedures

Environment
Site entry and mustering procedure shall be as defined.
21. Adhere to all statutory laws and procedures for the conservation of the environment.
22. Develop proper waste disposal procedure suitable for the environment SUB-CONTRACTORS
23. Operate with the limits of job requirements in order to minimize any such deleterious effects on the
A company will ensure that its workers, sub-contractors and vendors maintain the same CASHES
environment in which the company work
Standards as defined in its CASHES Manual.
Security
It will ensure full integration of sub-contractors and vendors into the procedures defined in the CASHES
24. Ensure sound protection of personnel and property in all the company locations through close liaison
Manual.
with and respect for appropriate government agencies.
SECURITY CHALLENGES, CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
CASHES STANDARDS
(For more details on security, see Chapter Three of HSE level 2)
All lessons learned from incidents must be fed back into CASHES Plan Reviews to strengthen the
Company's commitment to the achievement of the digested possible CASHES standards.
NIGHT WORK PRECAUTIONS

Permit to Work must be in place
Item Work Hazard analysis and CASHES statement relating to Method Statement in the Quality
Plan to be discussed in Tool Box Meeting before commencement
Emphasize night work hazard in Tool Book Meeting
Pre start inspection by the Client representative
Ensure there is a standby vehicle at the Work Site Entrance
All personnel to wear reflective bands
Ensure adequate illumination of work area including access road, provision of torches
Dedicated Safety Officers, Nurse and supervisor must always be on site throughout the operations
Ensure radio communication between key workers and between supervisors and Client representative.
Observation of one hour break during the operation
Drill to be conducted on the first day of the night work
Client representative to be on site throughout the night operations
Operational/access areas to be barricaded
Presence of a dedicated electrician.
Night work will, however, not be done. Where and when night work is necessary, it cannot be
commenced except it is permitted and the night work precautions approved by the Client. Approval of
night work will entirely be at the discretion of the Client.
79 80

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HSE LEVEL 3 CHAPTER ONE

· Transport planning; Risk avoidance/elimination

Risk transfer Risk Retention

CASE STUDY 2 1. Liquid Effluents

Audit and review

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH INFORMATION

Gas nozzle with vapor recovery

A Mobile Pollution Check Vehicle in India.

· Dissolved air flotation (DAF)

Most Polluting Industries History Of EIA

EGYPT 4. Description of the significant effects on the environment

Compressions with Rescue Breaths

Site Entry/Muster Procedures

NIGHT WORK PRECAUTIONS

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