DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Computer Aided Manufacturing

EMG 4104

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Lecture Notes

Table of contents

1. Coordinate Systems
2. CNC Programming Language
3. CNC Tools
4. CNC Operation
 5. 2D Milling Toolpaths
6. CNC Turning
The general workflow to go from CAD model to machined CNC part is:
1. Begin with CAD model.
2. Establish Job parameters including CNC coordinate system and stock shape/size.
3. Select CNC process.
4. Select cutting tool and machining parameters.
5. Select driving CAD geometry.
6. Verify toolpath.
7. Post Process.
8. Transfer G-­‐code program to CNC machine.
9. Set up and operate CNC machine to make part.

CNC Tools

A wide range of tool types and configurations are available for CNC milling machines. However,
in this chapter, we only introduce the most commonly used tools for prototype and short run
production machining.
• End mills (Flat, Ball, Bull and Chamfer) Face mill
• Corner Rounding tools
• Slot Tools
• Spot-­‐Center Drill
• Twist Drill
• Tap
• Reamer
• Counterbore
a. End Mill
Milling tools include flat, ball, bull nose and chamfer.

Figure 1: Nose type mill tools

Flat nose mills are used for milling 2D contours and pockets. Ball nose mills are used for 3D
milling. Bull nose end mills have a radius corner. They are used to create a fillet on the bottom of
a wall. Because they are sturdier than an end mill, they are also sometimes used for roughing
operations. Chamfer mills have an angled nose used to create a chamfer or to deburr parts.
Number of Flutes
Milling tools usually have either two or four cutting flutes. Two flute cutters provide more chip
clearance when milling in close areas. Four flute mills are more rigid, can be fed faster, and are
preferred when greater chip clearance is not required, such as when milling an outside contour.
Center Cutting End Mills
Milling tools are either center cutting or non-center cutting. Center cutting mills can plunge straight
down into material, while non-center cutting tools cannot.
Figure 2 below shows the cutting end view of a center cutting and non-­‐center cutting end mill.
Notice that the cutting edges of the center cutting end mill continues to the center of the tool. The
center of the other has a small hole at the center. Non-­‐center cutting end mills require a pilot
hole, ramping or helical motion to plunge into material.
 Figure 2 End View of Center and Non-Center Cutting End Mill
Face Mill
A face mill has cutting inserts that are replaced when worn. They are rigid, may have up to eight or
more cutting edges, and can remove material quickly. They are often used for the first machining
operation to quickly create a flat finished face on the part.

Figure 3: Face Mill

Corner Radius Tool
Corner radius (also called Corner Round) tools are used to place a fillet on the outside corner of a
part.
 Figure 4: Corner radius tool
Slot Mill/Slotting Saw
Slot mills include side milling cutters, slitting saws, and Woodruff keyset cutters. Slitting saws and
side milling cutters are installed on a special arbor. Woodruff cutters are single piece tools used for
creating slots and undercuts that can be held in a standard tool holder.

Hole Making Tools

Center Spot Drills
Center (spotting) drills are short and very rigid drills used to create a conic on the face of the part.
Because they come to a sharp point and resist bending, they locate the hole precisely. The conic
helps prevent the subsequent drill from wobbling and ensure the drill is located precisely and drills
straight down.
Countersink drills are used to create the conical face for a machine screw. Combined spotting
countersinks are used to create a screw clearance hole and countersink in one operation.

There are many different sizes and tip angles of center, countersink, and combined drills. Be sure
the tip angle of the countersink matches the included angle of the machine screw, and that the drill
diameter is greater than the screw head diameter.
Twist Drill
Twist drills are available in many diameters and lengths. Usually made of high-speed steel, carbide,
or cobalt, they may also be coated with titanium nitride (TiN) for longer life. The tip angle of most
twist drills is 118 degrees. Other tools include taps, reaming tools and counter sinking tools.

Cutting Tool Fundamentals

All tools (except left-­‐handed taps) rotate clockwise (M3) when viewed from the machine spindle
looking down at the part.

Chip Formation
Cutting tools remove metal by shearing action as illustrated in Figure 11 below. As the tool
advances into the material, it causes a small amount of the material to shear away, forming a chip.

Chip Formation Diagram

Chip Load

The thickness of material sheared away by each cutting tooth is called the feed per tooth, or
chip load. As the chip is ejected from the work area it carries with it some of the heat generated
by the shearing process.

One of the best ways to validate cutting speeds and feeds is to observe the chips created
by the machining process. Chips should be curled and may change color due to heating.
Cutting Speeds and Feeds Formulas
The tool moves through the material at a specified rotational speed, defined in revolutions per
minute (RPM), and feed rate, defined in inches per minute (IPM).
CNC mills require calculating speeds and feeds in advance. These speeds and feeds can, and often
are, adjusted at the machine based on chip shape and color, cutting sound, and machine horsepower
meter readings.
Speed Formula
Milling machine cutting speeds are derived from the following formula

Where;
 • Speed is the rotational frequency of the tool (Spindle Speed) in revolutions per minute
(RPM).
• SFM (Surface Feet per Minute) is the speed at which the material moves past the cutting
edge (outside diameter) of the tool in feet per minute. SFM values depend on the tool type,
tool material, and material being machined.
• Circumference is the circumference of the cutting tool in feet.
Because cutting tools are defined by their diameter in inches, the cutting speed formular can be
rewritten as:

Where;
• DIA is the tool diameter in inches.
• 3.82 is a constant derived from 12/𝜋 which converts the tool circumference in feet to
diameter in inches.
Feed Formula
Cutting feeds are in (IPM) and use the following formula:

• Feed is the linear feed of the tool through the material in inches per minute.
• Speed is the result of the speed formula in revolutions per minute.
• CL is the chip load, or how much material each cutting edge of the tool removes per
revolution. Chip load is sometimes referred to as feed per tooth (FPT) or inches per rev
(IPR).
• Num Flutes is the number of cutting flutes. (For a twist drill, this value is one.)

Examples
Example 1
Calculate the cutting speed and feed for a milling operation given the following values:
Parameter Value
 Tool Diameter .500in
Num Flutes 4
SFM 600ft/min

IPR .005in
Solution

Example 1
Calculate the cutting speed and feed for a drill operation given the following values:

Maximum Spindle Speed

In cases where the calculated spindle speed exceeds the machine capabilities, program
the maximum spindle speed of the machine and use this value in the feed calculation.

Example

Calculate the cutting speed and feed for a milling operation given the following values:
 Parameter Value
Tool Diameter .125in
Num Flutes 2
SFM 300ft/min
IPR .003in/rev

Maximum RPM 7,500rev/min

Types of Industrial Robots and Their Applications

Industrial robots to automate tasks, enhance worker safety, and increase overall production output
while reducing waste and operating costs. With industrial robots becoming more prevalent in
manufacturing environments, there has been an increased demand for numerous different types of
industrial robots to fit specific applications and industries.

Cartesian Robots

Cartesian robots, which are also called linear robots or gantry robots, are industrial robots that work
on three linear axes that use the Cartesian Coordinate system (X, Y, and Z), meaning they move in
straight lines on 3-axis (up and down, in and out, and side to side). Cartesian robots are a popular
choice due to being highly flexible in their configurations, giving users the ability to adjust the
robot’s speed, precision, stroke length, and size. Cartesian Robots are one of the most commonly
used robot types for industrial applications and are often used for CNC machines and 3D printing
SCARA Robots

SCARA is an acronym that stands for Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm or Selective
Compliance Articulated Robot Arm. SCARA Robots function on 3-axis (X, Y, and Z), and have a
rotary motion as well. SCARA Robots excel in lateral movements and are commonly faster moving
and have easier integration than Cartesian Robots. Typically, SCARA robots are used for assembly
and palletizing, as well as bio-med application.

Articulated Robots
Articulated Robots mechanical movement and configuration closely resembles a human arm. The
arm is mounted to a base with a twisting joint. The arm itself can feature anywhere from two rotary
joints up to ten rotary joints which act as axes, with each additional joint or axis allowing for a
greater degree of motion. Most Articulated Robots utilize four or six-axis. Typical applications for
Articulated Robots are assembly, arc welding, material handling, machine tending, and packaging.
Cylindrical Robots

Cylindrical Robots have a rotary joint at the base and a prismatic joint to connect the links. The
robots have a cylindrical-shaped work envelop, which is achieved with rotating shaft and an
extendable arm that moves in a vertical and sliding motion. Cylindrical Robots are often used in
tight workspaces for simple assembly, machine tending, or coating applications due to their compact
design.

Delta Robots
Delta Robots, or parallel robots, possess three arms connected to a single base, which is mounted
above the workspace. Delta Robots work in a dome-shape and can move both delicately and
precisely at high speeds due to each joint of the end effector being directly controlled by all three
arms. Delta Robots are often used for fast pick and place applications in the food, pharmaceutical,
and electronic industries.
Polar Robots

Polar Robots, or spherical robots, have an arm with two rotary joints and one linear joint connected
to a base with a twisting joint. The axes of the robot work together to form a polar coordinate, which
allows the robot to have a spherical work envelope. Polar Robots are credited as one of the first
types of industrial robots to ever be developed. Polar robots are commonly used for die casting,
injection molding, welding, and material handling.
Collaborative Robots
Collaborative Robots or Cobots are robots that can directly and safely interact with humans in a
shared workspace. There are numerous types and brands of collaborative robots on the market.
Cobots are typically used for pick and place, palletizing, quality inspection, and machine tending.

COMPUTER INTERGRATED MANUFACTURING AND FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING

SYSTEMS

Computer Integrated Manufacture (CIM) is concerned with providing computer assistance, control
and high-level integrated automation at all levels of the manufacturing industries, including the
business data processing system, CAD, CAM and FMS, by linking islands of automation into a
distributed processing system.
The technology applied in CIM makes intensive use of distributed computer networks and data
processing techniques, Artificial Intelligence and Database Management Systems.
CIM technology offers a range of benefits to managers i.e., when taking decisions. In such cases
computing and human decision-making skills cannot be ignored either, but
• If the decision-makers in the organization have up-to date information on the requested
processes and data,
• If there is the possibility of controlling and analysing large amount of business and technical
data by computers,
• If design and production engineering are integrated; in other words, if the designers can
obtain guidance and feedback from databases, knowledge bases of expert systems, from the
shop-floor and from other levels (e.g., production engineering) of the organisation, on how
to solve certain design tasks to suit the manufacturing facilities best,
• If manufacturing in its broad sense (i.e., not only machining, but also inspection, test,
assembly, etc.) is done mainly by Flexible Manufacturing Systems producing the necessary
work parts on order rather than for stock then the company will have a better chance for
survival in the age of CIM.
Computer Integrated Manufacturing, in this respect, covers all activities related to the
manufacturing business, including:
• Evaluating and developing different product strategies
• Analysing markets and generating forecasts,
• Analysing product/market characteristics and generating concepts of possible
manufacturing systems (i.e., FMS cells and FMS systems).
• Designing and analysing components for machining, inspection, assembly and all other
processes relating to the nature of the component and/or product, (i.e. welding, cutting,
laser manufacturing, presswork, painting, etc.),
• Evaluating and/or determining batch sizes, manufacturing capacity, scheduling and control
strategies relating to the design and fabrication processes involved in the particular
product.
• Analysis and feedback of certain selected parameters relating to the manufacturing
processes, evaluation of status reports from the DNC (Direct Numerical Control) system,
(source data monitoring and machine function monitoring in real-time) and
• analysing system disturbances and economic factors of the total system.
The aim of CIM is to let the advanced information processing technology penetrate into all areas
of the manufacturing industry in order to:
• Make the total process more productive and efficient.
• Increase product reliability and
• Decrease the cost of production and maintenance relating both to the manufacturing
system as well as to the product.
• Reduce the number of hazardous jobs and increase the involvement of well educated and
able humans in the manufacturing activity and design.
In comparison with FMS, CIM is mainly concerned with the information processing tasks at all
levels of the factory and its management, whereas FMS provides the essential computer-controlled
manufacturing tools and systems for CIM to execute the computer-generated plans and schedules
that take account of a total system rather than just one cell or shop.

FLEXIBLE MANUFACTUING SYSTEMS (FMS)

Flexible Manufacturing Systems offer the most fascinating production method for the computer-
controlled factory, since by integrating them into CIM one can:
• increase productivity (often by a factor of 2-3.5),
• decrease production cost (often by 50%).
• manufacture (i.e., not only machine, but test, assemble, weld, paint, package, etc.) single
parts and/or batches in random order, i.e., on order, rather than on stock,
• decrease inventory and work in progress (WIP) to a lower level than ever before,
• provide 100% inspection, thus increasing the quality of the product,
• decrease the amount of often repetitive, or hazardous physical work and increase the need
for intelligent, human work, and
• provide a reprogrammable, often almost entirely unmanned manufacturing facility (again
underlined not only for machining, but for many other processes and for a wide range of
products).
The manufacturing industry and all those involved in its research and development have tried hard
to implement cost-performance effective manufacturing facilities in the past.
FMS SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
To be able to achieve "truly" random production and the above listed economic benefits, the FMS system
architecture must conform to the following basic rules:

• Utilise highly automated and programmable cells (i.e., CNC machines, robots, etc.) capable of
"taking care of themselves" (i.e., incorporating powerful controllers and self diagnostic systems),
able of changing their tools and parts, preferably unmanned, and keeping in touch with a central
computer or with a node controller from where the production plan, the part programs and further
necessary data arrive and are fed back.
• Link these cells into a system by providing preferably direct access, or random material
handling systems (e.g., AGV), rather than serial access (e.g., conveyor
line) between them.
• Create a part, tool and pallet (fixture and clamping device) storage facility (i.e.,
warehouse), and
• Provide high level computer control "inside" and "outside" the system, based on a
distributed processing system, on databases and on the necessary links to other
subsystems, such as CAD, CAM and the business system.
• Ensure that if any cells break down the production planning and control system can reroute
and reschedule the production. In other words, design in the system not only
programmable (i.e., flexible) production facilities, but also ensure that the routing of parts
can be dynamically altered.