Internal resistance

In electrical engineering, a practical electric power source which is

a linear circuit may, according to Thévenin's theorem, be
represented as an ideal voltage source in series with an impedance.
This impedance is termed the internal resistance of the source.
When the power source delivers current, the measured voltage
output is lower than the no-load voltage; the difference is the
voltage drop (the product of current and resistance) caused by the Internal resistance model of a source
internal resistance. The concept of internal resistance applies to all of voltage, where ε is the
kinds of electrical sources and is useful for analyzing many types of electromotive force of the source, R
circuits. is the load resistance, V is the
voltage drop across the load, I is the
Battery current delivered by the source, and
r is the internal resistance.
A battery may be modeled as a voltage source in series with a
resistance. These types of models are known as equivalent circuit
models. Another common model being physiochemical models that are physical in nature involving
concentrations and reaction rates. In practice, the internal resistance of a battery is dependent on its size,
state of charge, chemical properties, age, temperature, and the discharge current. It has an electronic
component due to the resistivity of the component materials and an ionic component due to electrochemical
factors such as electrolyte conductivity, ion mobility, speed of electrochemical reaction and electrode
surface area. Measurement of the internal resistance of a battery is a guide to its condition, but may not
apply at other than the test conditions. Measurement with an alternating current, typically at a frequency of
1  kHz, may underestimate the resistance, as the frequency may be too high to take into account slower
electrochemical processes. Internal resistance depends on temperature; for example, a fresh Energizer E91
AA alkaline primary battery drops from about 0.9 Ω at -40  °C, when the low temperature reduces ion
mobility, to about 0.15 Ω at room temperature and about 0.1 Ω at 40 °C.[1] A large part of this drop is due
to the increase in the magnitude of the electrolyte diffusion coefficient.

The internal resistance of a battery may be calculated from its open circuit voltage VNL, load voltage VFL,
and the load resistance RL:

This can also be expressed in terms of the Overpotential η and the current I:

Many equivalent series resistance (ESR) meters, essentially AC milliohm-meters normally used to measure
the ESR of capacitors, can be used to estimate battery internal resistance, particularly to check the state of
discharge of a battery rather than obtain an accurate DC value.[2] Some chargers for rechargeable batteries
indicate the ESR.
In use, the voltage across the terminals of a disposable battery driving a load decreases until it drops too low
to be useful; this is largely due to an increase in internal resistance rather than a drop in the voltage of the
equivalent source.

In rechargeable lithium polymer batteries, the internal resistance is largely independent of the state of charge
but increases as the battery ages due to the build up of a passivation layer on the electrodes called the solid
electrolyte interphase;[3] thus, it is a good indicator of expected life.[4][5]

See also
Norton's theorem
Output impedance

References
1. "Battery Internal Resistance" (http://data.energizer.com/PDFs/BatteryIR.pdf) (PDF).
Energizer Technical Bulletin. Energizer Battery. December 2005.
2. Testing batteries with ESR meter (http://www.flippers.com/esrkthnt.html#battery)
3. Wang, A., Kadam, S., Li, H. et al., "Review on modeling of the anode solid electrolyte
interphase (SEI) for lithium-ion batteries" (https://www.nature.com/articles/s41524-018-0064-
0). npj Computational Material. 4, 15 (2018). doi:10.1038/s41524-018-0064-0 (https://doi.org/
10.1038%2Fs41524-018-0064-0)
4. Understanding RC LiPo Batteries (http://www.rchelicopterfun.com/rc-lipo-batteries.html)
5. ESR Meter For 2 – 6 Cell Lipo Packs - instructions (http://www.progressiverc.com/media/ES
R%20Meter%20Instructions.pdf)

Student Reference Manual for Electronic Instrumentation Laboratories (2nd Edition) -

Stanley Wolf & Richard F.M. Smith
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (4th Edition) - Charles Alexander & Matthew Sadiku

External links
Interconnection of two audio units - Output impedance and input impedance (http://www.sen
gpielaudio.com/calculator-voltagebridging.htm)

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