Integration of Rational Fractions

𝑓(𝑥)
A function 𝐹(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥)
, where 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) Polynomials are called a rational
fraction.
If the degree of 𝑓(𝑥) is less than the degree of 𝑔(𝑥), then the rational fraction is
called a proper, otherwise it is called improper.
Every proper rational fraction can be expressed ( at least) as the sum of simpler
fractions called partial fractions.

Example:
2𝑥+1 2𝑥+1
2 = (𝑥+2)(𝑥+3)
𝑥 +5𝑥+6
𝐴 𝐵
= 𝑥+2
+ 𝑥+3
partial fractions

Classification of Rational Fractions

Case I. Distinct Linear Factors

Denominators consist of linear factors, none of which is repeated.
Case II. Repeated Linear Factors
Denominator consists of linear factors, some of which are repeated.
Case III. Distinct Quadratic Factors
Denominator consists of quadratic factors, none of which is repeated.
Case IV. Repeated Quadratic Factors
Denominator consists of quadratic factors, some of which are repeated.

Distinct Linear Factors

2 2
For the denominator of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, if 𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 , the quantity
2
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 can be factored into real linear factors.
To each linear factor 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 occurring once in a single partial fraction of the form
𝐴
𝑎𝑥+𝑏
, where A is a constant to be determined.
Examples:

(𝑥−1)𝑑𝑥
1. ∫ 2
𝑥 +5𝑥+6

Factor:

2
𝑥 + 5𝑥 + 6 = (𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 2)

(𝑥−1)𝑑𝑥
= ∫ (𝑥+3)(𝑥+2)

Assume

(𝑥−1) 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑥+3)(𝑥+2)
= 𝑥+3
+ 𝑥+2

Solve for A and B

𝑥−1
𝐴 = ⎡ 𝑥+2 ⎤; x=-3
⎣ ⎦
−3−1
= −3+2

=4

𝑥−1
𝐵 = ⎡ 𝑥+3 ⎤; x=-2
⎣ ⎦
−2−1
= −2+2

=− 3

∫ ( 𝐴
𝑥+3
+
𝐵
𝑥+2 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐴∫ 𝑥+3
+ 𝐵∫ 𝑥+2

(𝑥−1)𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 2 =4∫ 𝑥+3
− 3∫ 𝑥+2
𝑥 +5𝑥+6

𝑢=𝑥 +3 𝑢=𝑥 +2

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥

= 4 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 3) − 3𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 2) + 𝐶
4
(𝑥+3)
= 𝑙𝑛 3 +𝐶 Answer
(𝑥+2)
 2
(3𝑥 −4𝑥−1)𝑑𝑥
2. ∫ 2
𝑥 −𝑥−2

= ∫ 3+ ( 2
𝑥+5
𝑥 −𝑥−2 )𝑑𝑥
Factor:

2
𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 1)

−𝑥+5
= ∫⎡3 + ⎤𝑑𝑥
⎣ (𝑥−2)(𝑥+1) ⎦
(−𝑥+5) 𝑑𝑥
= 3∫𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥−2)(𝑥+1)

Assume

(−𝑥+5) 𝐴 𝐵
(𝑥−2)(𝑥+1)
= 𝑥−2
+ 𝑥+1

Solve for A and B

−𝑥+5
𝐴 =⎡ ⎤; x=2
⎣ 𝑥+1 ⎦
−2+5
= 2+1

=1

−𝑥+5
𝐵 =⎡ ⎤; x=-1
⎣ 𝑥−2 ⎦
−(−1)+5
= (−1)−2

=− 2
 2
∫
(3𝑥 −4𝑥−1)𝑑𝑥
2
𝑥 −𝑥−2
= 3∫𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( 𝐴
𝑥−2
+
𝐵
𝑥+1 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 3𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥−2
− 2∫ 𝑥+1

𝑢=𝑥 −2 𝑢=𝑥 +1

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥

= 3𝑥 + 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 − 2) − 2 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶 Answer

2
(3𝑥 +8𝑥−12)𝑑𝑥
3. ∫ 3 2
𝑥 +7𝑥 +12𝑥

Factor:

3 2 2
𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 12𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 7𝑥 + 12)

= 𝑥(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 3)
2
(3𝑥 +8𝑥−12)𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑥(𝑥+4)(𝑥+3)

Assume:
2
3𝑥 +8𝑥−12 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥(𝑥+4)(𝑥+3)
= 𝑥
+ 𝑥+4
+ 𝑥+3

Solve for A, B and C

2
3𝑥 +8𝑥−12
𝐴 = ⎡⎢ (𝑥+4)(𝑥+3) ⎤⎥; x=0
⎣ ⎦
−12 −12
= 4(3)
= 12

=− 1
2
3𝑥 +8𝑥−12
𝐵 = ⎡⎢ 𝑥(𝑥+3) ⎤⎥; x=-4
⎣ ⎦
2
3(−4) +8(−4)−12
= (−4)(−4+3)

=1
 2
3𝑥 +8𝑥−12
𝐶 = ⎡⎢ 𝑥(𝑥+4) ⎤⎥; x=-3
⎣ ⎦
2
3(−3) +8(−3)−12
= (−3)(−3+4)

=3
2
∫
3𝑥 +8𝑥−12
3 2
𝑥 +7𝑥 +12𝑥
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( 𝐴
𝑥
+
𝐵
𝑥+4
+
𝐶
𝑥+3 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
=− ∫ 𝑥
+ ∫ 𝑥+4
+ 3∫ 𝑥+3

𝑢=𝑥 𝑢=𝑥 +4 𝑢=𝑥 +3

𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑑𝑥

=− 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 4) + 3 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 3) + 𝐶

3
(𝑥+4)(𝑥+3)
= 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
+ 𝐶 Answer