Urban Air Quality and Phyto management: Exploring plant based approaches for

pollution control.

Introduction
Developing nations are noticeably at risk from air pollution, particularly in urban areas. The
main contributor to air pollution is the quick expansion of industrialization and urbanization
(Yadav and Pandey, 2020). The main environmental threat is pollutant that is present in the
surrounding air (Pandey et al., 2015b). Both natural and human-made processes allow metal
to circulate in the environment. Natural processes include soil creation, evaporation from
oceans, volcanic eruption, forest fires, and mobilization from rock (Ugulu et al., 2012). Motor
oil, rubber tire wear, electroplating industries, vehicle repair shops and gasoline combustion
are a few examples of urban sources (Nadgórska–Socha et al., 2017). Pollution of the water,
air, and soil is caused by an increase in the concentration of metals brought on by
anthropogenic activity and natural processes (Dang et al., 2022). As heavy metals are cannot
biodegrade, they can be easily mobilized and amassed in the environment (Hachani et al.,
2022a). Roadside metal hotspots are caused by heavy metal pollution in areas with strong
anthropogenic pressure (Khalid et al., 2019). When compared to places with minimal traffic,
locations with high vehicle traffic have soil that is more concentrated in heavy metals (Liu et
al., 2022). This is true in cities with heavy traffic (Huang et al., 2009). These metals and
metalloids gradually infiltrate the food chain and affect humans by causing oxidative stress,
enzyme disruption, etc (Roy et al., 2020). If roads travel through agricultural areas and
farmlands, the environment and public health may suffer. Additionally, pollutants may enter
into food chain via plant absorption, particularly edible wayside plants (Khalid et al., 2019).

There has long been a tradition of using plants to purify the air. The reliable replacement for
the conventional air monitoring techniques exercised to detect the presence of contaminants
is the biomonitoring method (Hosseini et al., 2020). They move traces of materials from the
environment of nonliving things to that of living things (Hu et al., 2014). They have a history
of absorbing and storing potentially harmful substances (Pandey et al., 2015b). There are
significant relationships between atmospheric and plant heavy metal concentrations (Ugulu et
al., 2012). The quantity of heavy metals in plants is influenced by the bioavailability of soil
nutrients, soil acidity, and root uptake. The amount of heavy metals in plants is also
influenced by the amount of dry and moist trace element deposition on the outer leaf surface
(Nadgórska–Socha et al., 2017). Because they provide a significant surface area for
pigmentation, absorption, and accumulation of air pollutants, plant leaves act as a sink for the
environment (Balasubramanian et al., 2018). Therefore, it is possible to efficiently construct
green belts while also improving the air quality in vulnerable urban areas by using extremely
tolerant plant species (Xiao et al., 2019) Pollution of the water, air, and soil is caused by an
increase in the concentration of metals brought on by anthropogenic activity and natural
processes (Dubey et al., 2012).

The use of physical, chemical, and biological techniques to cleanse or lessen the metal
pollution has been the subject of much research for many years. Physical and chemical
remediation techniques while these are expensive and hazardous to the environment,
necessitating the use of phytoremediation, a novel and secure technology (Moghaddam et al.,
2020). There has been a drive to adopt green Phyto remedial systems despite using a variety
of methods to remove metals from water and soil contamination in recent years. The
biological approach became well-liked in the end of 1990s. It is a safest, most
environmentally friendly methods for reducing metal waste without harming the environment
(Ramamurthy and Memarian, 2012). The least expensive and most dependable natural
approach for decontaminating soil is phytoremediation, which involves plants absorbing
extract and accumulating heavy metals in above-ground portions (Muthusaravanan et al.,
2018). Some natural plants, both wild and cultivated, effectively remove soil pollution by
accumulating high metal concentrations in their above-ground sections in polluted locations
(Kumar Sharma et al., 2007).

Physiological, metabolic, and morphological traits of a plant determine its capacity to

withstand air pollution (Balasubramanian et al., 2018). The innate ability of plants to
withstand air pollution is described by the Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI). This
process provides more realistic results as compared to physical instrument, especially in case
of costs and retrospective monitoring. Test organisms are used in biomonitoring that are
existing or developing in the research field or any area for the quantitative and qualitative
evaluation of the environment condition and it also helps to know about the pollutant
exposure and their presence in the ecosystem (Ashraf et al., 2019)
2. Sources of air pollution
Air pollution is one of the rapidly growing problems of today’s world. The pollutant is
emitted from different sources directly or indirectly to the ambient atmosphere. When one or
several pollutants are present in the air in such a level for a long period of time that can have
some harmful effects on environment.
There are two major categories of air pollution sources
2.2.1 Anthropogenic sources
These are the results of various human activities such as fossils fuel combustion, industries
emission, emissions from agricultural activities, transportation, mining etc. The most
widespread anthropogenic sources are identified on the basis of emission factor (Boubel et
al.1994).
2.2.2 Natural sources
These sources linked to earth processes, which release huge quantities of pollutants into the
atmosphere within a very short period, include volcanic eruption, dust storms and forest fire.
Few some other natural sources also released some pollutants but in significant amount such
as grazing animals and lighting. Biogenic emissions are also a pert of natural sources and
gases through their biological activity e.g, vegetation and microbial activity in soil. (Zunckel
2007).
2.2.3 Stationary sources
These sources are limites to a particular region while emitting pollution and typically
connected with fixed structures like buildings and frequently release noxious wasrws that
remain moderately steady in due course of time like factories, power plants etc, It is further
divided into –
2.2.3.1 Point sources
It is a single, identifable source of pollution with fixed geographical coordinates, they are
usually high over the ground level with a small outlet diameter. The term point source is
frequently used for industrial smoke stacks and flare stacks. There are several point source
processes, which released a significant amount of the criteria air pollutants into the
atmosphere such as external combustion boilers, industrial processes, petroleum and solvent
evaporation.
2.2.3.2 Area sources
They have relatively larger horizontal dimensions. This is an area where stationary sources
are grouped together whose collective emission can be significantly high as compared to
individual emissions. Mines and quarries are considered as area sources.
2.2.3.3 Fugitive sources
These are indefinable sources which are difficult to identify. It may include seepage from
industries, oil spills, leak valves and pipes that releases pollutants into the atmosphere.
2.2.3.4 Volume sources
They have comparatively huge horizontal and vertical dimensions. These include sand piles,
coal piles, limestone piles where wind may liberate particulate matter or dust.
2.2.4 Mobile sources
These are mostly associated with transportation and may be classified into on road vehicles
(motorcycles, cars, buses) and non-road vehicles (aircraft, heavy equipment, boats).
2. Types of air pollutants and its impacts
The Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970 identified six common air pollutants of concern called
criteria air pollutants these are particulate matter, tropospheric ozone, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and lead. Pollutants categorized into primary and secondary
polutants. Primary pollutants are released directly into the atmosphere from their respective
sources, whereas secondary pollutants formed through the atmospheric transformation
reaction in participation either with primary pollutants or other chemicals (Ashmore 2005).
Air pollutants Description Environmental References
impacts
Particulate matter Mixture of particles Atmospheric
varied in size from 2.5- haze, scattering
10 µm. of light.
Ozone Colourless gas which is Global climate
produced due to the change.
chemical reaction
between oxides of
nitrogen and volatile
organic compounds.
Carbon monoxide Olourless and odorless Oxidativestress to
gas released due to the biotic
incomplete combustion components of
of fossil fuels environment,
Sulfur Dioxide Colourless gas and Acid rain,
highly reactive which Eutrophication
 released due to the
combustion of fossil
fuels.
Nitrogen Dioxide Poisonous and non Acid rain
flammable gas.
Volatile organic Carcinogenic in nature Eutrophication,
componds and Poly climate change.
aromatic
hydrocarbons

3.1 Impacts on human beings

Every unusual particle in the air which impairs the normal functioning of human system are
referred to be a air toxicant.( 67,68 ).COPD (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease),
coughing,asthma are all respiratory disordres that closely related to shprt term exposure to air
pollutants while cardiovascular disease , chronic asthma are linked to long term exposure.
(5,3,6).

Air pollutants Sources Exposure routes Health impacts

Particle Automobile Inhalation Respiratory and
pollutants emissions,industrial cardiovascular
emissions damage, disturb
central nervous
system.
Ozone Vehicular Dermal route Cancer,dysfunction
emission,industrial of central nervous
activies,reaction system,reduce
between NO2 and reproductive
VOCs. abilities.
CO Motor engine,coal Inhalation, dermal route Disturb
burning,smoke CNS,Respiratory
disordes.
SO2 Fossil fuel Inhalation, dermal Eye
combustion irritation,respiratory
 disorders.
NO2 Automobile Inhalation, dermal Damage
exhaust, fuel liver,lungs,spleen.
burning
Polycyclic Fuel Inhalation,ingestion,dermal Cncer,psycomotor
aromatic combustion,wood damage,respiratory
hydrocarbon fires, vehicular disorders.
emissions

3.2 Impacts on plants

4. Abatement of air pollution by plant
Around 4 million people are predicted to die each year as a result of ambient air pollution.
(Shaddick 2020, neira 2016).Most cities throghout the world have extremely poor air quality
which has a significant influence on the environment.(Franchini 2016).Plants have been
considered as a viable way to improve air quality and increses urban sustainability in order to
accomodate an increasing population.( salmond2016).These plants used as green
infrastructure.(fantozzi 2015). Trees, vegetation, green roofs, vegetation barriers, green walls
are some examples of green infrastructures. These types of structures serves as a porous
bodies that affect the local dispersion patterns and the deposition of pollutants for their
removal.(janhall2015).
Vegetative barriers
These are defined as trees,hedges bushes and shrubs that are placed artificially or naturally
growing along one or both sides of a corridor in open road condition. (Morankinyo 2016).
Similar to street canyon environment, rows of planted trees and other vegetation act as
barriers between the pollutants of road and neighbouring residential areas.Polluted air is
forced to flow over or pass through vegetation. (tong 2016). Pollutants get accumulated on
windward or upwind side of vegetation due to these barriers (AL DABBOUS 2014). Most of
the air passes through the vegetative barriers when there is low density ( high porosity) while
there is no or little filtration when there is high density (low porosity). In this way
concentration of pollutants decreases with increasing distance from the road. (Baldauf 2017).
(lin 2016).
Green walls
These are the vertical surfaces that are vegetated and have plants growing on them through
different mechanism. (castro gomes 2015).These walls absorb nearby pollutsnts from air and
improve air quality.(Morankinyo 2016). Ivy and Lianas species are some common climbing
plants which are suitable for these green walls. (chen 2016).
Green roofs
These structure are constructed on the roofs of building as a passive air pollution control
measures. Building wth green roofs can reduce pollution without any active measures, prior
to being planted on a building’s rroftop, plants like tiny trees, mosses, shrubs are grown on a
growth medium which include growing substrate, drainage materials and insulators.
(vijayaraghavan 2016).By lowering background pollution levels as well as pollutant
concentration from nearby emission sources, green roofs may enhance air qualiy.(jean jean
2015). According to (baik 2012) cooling effect of green roofs and their effects on air quality
in street canyons , there might be a 32% reduction in the concentration of pollutants with a
cooling intensity of 2o C at breathing level. (jaya sooriya 2016).
4.1 Role of plant in removal of particulate matter
According to WHO it was reported that 8.8 million death recorded annually due to the
ambient air pollution. Long term exposure to PM specially from anthropogenic sources like
industrial and construction activities, transportation are the major cause behind it. PM was
determined to be the most hazardous component among the primary air pollutants utilised as
a indicator for air quality. (WHO 2016).Pm is a general term used to describe a mixtue of tiny
particles and liquid droplets wit an aerodynamic diameter of 0.001- 100µm. (popek 2015).
The world’s most significant risk factor in the environment which has been ranked first are
the PM. (cohen 2017). PM fall on the ground as dry and wet deposition on the surfaces that
are available. Wet deposition involves fluid forms including fog,mist,rain and dry deposition
includes gravitional deposition which are influenced by turbulence and rate of air flow.
(panda 2014). Trees act as a sustainable filter for the suspended particles present in the
atmosphere. Leaf charactericts like shape, arrangement, size, texture all influence the
deposition of dust on the plants and their ability to filter the air pollutants present in the
surrounding medium. (beckett 2000, valdamani 2017).

Leaf trait Strong leaf trait Weak leaf trait References

Morphology Trichomes and waxes Glabrous surface
Leaf size Small Large
Leaf surface Rough grooves Smooth surface
Foliage Evergreen Deciduous
Leaf shape Needle, lanceolate, Linear, palmate, broadly
ovate ovate.

4.3 Accumulation of Heavy metals by plants

4.3 Dust capturing potential of plants
The main causes of dust pollution include agricultural practices, roadway dust, power plants,
vehicular exhaust etc. (9,10). Dust contaminants that are released into the environment are
either primary or secondary particles. Primary particles are created and produced straight
from the source and secondary particles are the results of atmospheric reactions like
sulphates, nitrates. (13). Dust particles with pH more or equal to 9 cause injury to the plant
tissues specially foliage. (21,22). Deposition of dust particles on the plant tissues may alter its
surface reflection characteristics in visible and infrared region. (23,24). Generally, the rate of
filtration of dust by plants are much higher than that of other fine particles. (35).

Plant traits Impacts of dust References

Leaf Destroy cells, reduce productivity of leaves,
morphology enhanced senescence, reduce petiole length,
leaf rolling, necrosis.
Rate of Increase in the absorption of infrared
photosynthesis spectrum, reduce reflection and transmission
of radiation, reduce rate of photosynthesis.
Pigments Decrease in the concentration of
photosynthetic pigments (Chlorophyll and
carotenoids), chlorosis, gradual disappearance
of chlorophyll, damage photosystem 2.
Stomata Increase rate of water loss, decrease no of
stomata, alter stomatal function
Sugar Reduce soluble sugar, reduce CO2 fixation,
increase respiration.
Proline content Increase proline concentration, reduce
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS).

5. Biochemical and physiological responses of plants in polluted environment

Accumulation of different pollutants in the environment due to natural and anthropogenic
activities causes several morphophysiological, biochemical and ultra structural alteration.
(yousaf 2016, gill 2015, ali 2015). Air pollutants harms plants mainly in two forms: chronic
injury from long term exposure to low concentration of pollutants and acute injury from short
term fumigation with high concentration of pollutants. (Zeevaart 1976). Maintaining regular
physical activity inside the cells of plant depends on the balance of ions in the plants which
shows how stability of environment. (Vighi 2017).

Plant traits Impacts of pollutants References

Biomass and plant Reduce root length, surface area of
growth leaf, dry weight and negatively affect
the growth of plants.
Roots Root browning, decrease root
diameter, length, numbers.
Leaves and shoots Chlorosis, reduction in the size of
foliage, node size, node dysfunction
necrosis.
Plant yield Reduce grain size and productivity.
Seed germination Inhibition of water absorption,
seedling growth.
Photosynthesis and Reduce net photosynthesis rate,
respiration carotenoids and chlorophyll contents
and stomatal dysfunction, increase
respiration rate.
Nitrogen Assimilation of N decreases, inhibit
metabolism nitrogen uptake and nitrogenase
enzyme activities.
Uptake of minerals Reduces the efficiency of S, Zn, Ca,
K, Mn and P uptake, enlargement of
vascular bundles.
Cell death and Reduce cell division, cell
genetical proliferation, alter and damage the
alterations DNA structure, point mutation, base
substitution.
6. Air Pollution Tolerance Index (APTI)