Chinese Creative Writing Studies 9789819909315

Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling
Editor
Chinese
Creative
Writing
Studies
Chinese Creative Writing Studies
Editor
Chinese Creative Writing

Studies
Editor
School of Arts and Social Sciences
Hong Kong Metropolitan University
Hong Kong, China
ISBN 978-981-99-0930-8 ISBN 978-981-99-0931-5 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5
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Advisors and Editorial Board
Advisors
Adam Strickson, Dai Fan, Diao Ke-Li, Fang Chang-An, Huang Jing-Chun,
Huang Ping, Li Er, Liang Hong, Mark McGurl, Sun Jian-Rong, Shao Yan-Jun,
Song Geng, Song Shi-Lei, Dianne Donnelly, Wang Hong-Tu, Wen Gui-Liang,
Yang Jian-Long, Ceng Jun, Zhang Sheng, Zhang Yong-An, Zhu Shou-Tong
Editorial Board
Editorial Advisor
Ge Hong-Bing
General Editor
Editors
Xu Dao-Jun
Yi Yong-Yi
Associate Editors
Ye Wei (Liu Ye-Wei)
Zhang Yong-Lu
Editorial Team
Gao Er-Ya, Feng Xian-Dong, Zhou Yu ( Liu Wei-Dong), Li Guang-Xu , Zhang Jing-
Jing, Shao Dong, Yu Wen-Han, Gao Xiang, Lei Yong , Guo Yao, Lu Yong-Lin,
Tan Xu-Dong, Wang Lei-Lei, Wang Yu-Meng, Xu Feng, Xie Shang-Fa
v
Foreword
Chinese Creative Writing Studies journal 中國創意寫作研究 and the Global Confer-
ence of Chinese Creative Writing 世界華⽂創意寫作⼤會, both launched in 2015,
first presented the Proceedings of the Annual Global Conference of Chinese
Creative Writing 世界華⽂創意寫作⼤會年會論⽂集. With the subsequent support
of Shanghai University, it transformed into an annual academic journal. Between late
spring and early summer of 2021, Shanghai University, Hong Kong Metropolitan
University and Wenzhou University convened a meeting at Wenzhou University,
during which consensus was reached on a tripartite collaboration to elevate the
6-year-old academic journal Chinese Creative Writing Studies to a new form of
an international academic publication with three issues annually to be published
bilingually in both Chinese and English.
The meeting among the three universities was held at Wenzhou University between
late spring and early summer of 2021, during which the official opening of the edito-
rial committee of Chinese Creative Writing Studies at Wenzhou University was offi-
cially established, marking the formal elevation of Chinese Creative Writing Studies.
At the meeting, Prof. Sun Lianghao set a blueprint for the endeavor. “The project
Chinese Creative Writing Studies launched by the three universities in Shanghai,
Hong Kong and Wenzhou has not only built an academic platform in the academia
but also actualized the synergy and collaboration among the regions. laying a solid
foundation for the development of Chinese studies, which will be a significant mark
in the history of Chinese creative writing”, he said. “This occasion bears long-term
significance and signals the start of a new era for Chinese creative writing.”
Shanghai University, Hong Kong Metropolitan University and Wenzhou Univer-
sity are at the forefront of building Chinese creative writing as an academic discipline.
The joint effort to develop and enhance the Chinese Creative Writing Studies by the
three universities holds important significance. With the contribution of the Tin Ka
Ping Centre of Chinese Culture of Hong Kong Metropolitan University, which is
led by Dr. Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling, the Book has gained an international perspec-
tive, and its English version has been launched, opening a worldwide window for
the Chinese creative writing studies as an academic discipline. May we extend our
gratitude to the Tin Ka Ping Centre of Chinese Culture of Hong Kong Metropolitan
vii
viii Foreword
University. Integrated with cinematic arts, visual art and new media technologies, the
Master of Arts in Creative Writing at Hong Kong Metropolitan University has devel-
oped its unique characteristics and modes and is well received both in Hong Kong
and in the Mainland. Furthermore, the University’s Newsletter of Tin Ka Ping Centre
of Chinese Culture has always been a prominent journal for cultural and academic
exchanges in Chinese academia, particularly in the areas of visual & performing
arts, literary arts, visual & media arts, etc. The Newsletter often presents impor-
tant outcomes of innovative ideas and research directions in academia, which has
developed a solid foundation for publishing the English edition of Chinese Creative
Writing Studies.
Chinese Creative Writing Studies (English edition), led by the editorial team of
the Tin Ka Ping Centre of Chinese Culture of the Hong Kong Metropolitan Univer-
sity under the leadership of Dr. Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling, materializes the artistic
integration, cross-over of academic disciplines and amalgamation of multi-media,
showcasing the latest development and the pioneering directions in creative writing as
an academic discipline in contemporary China, which is refreshing for the academic
world in China.
Led by Dr. Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling, Chinese Creative Writing Studies manifests
the following characteristics: firstly, an enhancement of interdisciplinary studies;
secondly, a focus on the research on the integration of multiple artistic types; thirdly,
the Book not only contains an exploration experience of academics and academic
institutions in China’s Hong Kong, Taiwan and the Mainland but also the contribu-
tions from frontline academics of other countries and regions around the world as
well as their exploration experience. Following the expansion of the team of authors
and the horizon of investigation, Chinese Creative Writing Studies is indeed moving
toward the grand stage of “globalization”. I’d like to express my special thanks to Dr.
Shawn Shao Dong, Dr. Yu Wen-Han Marvin and the team of Tin Ka Ping Centre of
Chinese Culture of Hong Kong Metropolitan University for their selfless dedication.
We sincerely look forward to your kind support for Chinese Creative Writing
Studies by submitting your works to the Book, and offering recommendations and
advice to the editorial department. The steadfast support and recommendations from
readers shall be the strongest impetus for the development of Chinese Creative
Writing Studies.
Ge Hong-Bing
Editorial Advisor
College of Liberal Arts
Shanghai University
Shanghai, China
Acknowledgement of TKPCCC
As part of the collaboration among the Chinese Creative Writing Centre at Shanghai
University, the School of Humanities at Wenzhou University and the Tin Ka Ping
Centre of Chinese Culture (TKPCCC) at Hong Kong Metropolitan University, this
volume brings scholars of creative writing and humanities in the Sinophone world
and beyond to delve into the field of Chinese creative writing studies. I would like
to acknowledge the help and contribution of all individuals and institutions that took
part in this publication. This volume would not have been possible without any of
them.
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to Tin Ka Ping Foundation for
providing the generous funds for promoting Chinese culture, which allow TKPCCC
to produce different publications in the field of Chinese studies, including this
volume, the Newsletter of Tin Ka Ping Centre of Chinese Culture and other scholarly
works in addition to various academic events.
I am indebted to Prof. Charles Kwong Che-Leung for his great support to
TKPCCC and valuable advice on this volume. His guidance made the progress of
the preparation of this volume much more efficient.
I wish to thank each of the fourteen contributors for their valuable research papers.
My gratitude also goes to the advisers and members of the editorial board, peer-
reviewers, and the editors of Springer Nature.
Last but not least, I would like to extend my thanks to the faculty members
and administrative staff of the School of Arts and Social Sciences at Hong Kong
Metropolitan University for their assistance in the publication.

Volume editor
ix
Introduction: An Overview of the Development
of Creative Writing from China to the World
This book is the first volume of the English edition of the Chinese-language peri-
odical Chinese Creative Writing Studies 中國創意寫作研究. It focuses on aspects
in the field of Chinese creative writing studies that range from the development of
the studies as an academic discipline, pedagogies, cross-media practices, interdis-
ciplinary development, application of cultural industry and new interpretations of
classical culture. It discusses the latest contributions of different Sinophone scholars
in facilitating the development of Chinese creative writing studies and explores new
directions for the development of the studies as an academic discipline as well as
the innovative program designs and practices, showcasing the vitality of Chinese
creative writing in the era of media. This book illustrates that, in the aspects of the
cross-media program designs and implementation of creative writing studies, inter-
disciplinary thinking and community-based workshops carry significant meaning
to the development of creative writing studies as an academic discipline. Further-
more, a number of contributors to this volume affirm the common understanding
that creating writing programs can help students observe, make associations and
imagine; this facilitates their capacity to learn in an interdisciplinary context. These
fundamental practices are important to students who will soon work in the creative
industry.
Classical Chinese cultures have already been substantial resources for the devel-
opment of Chinese creative writing. They do not only serve as teaching materials
but also as inspirations for contemporary writers. Moreover, this volume addresses
the issues that Chinese creative writing has encountered during its development,
such as students’ lack of interest in the subject and creativity, the disadvantages of
teaching frameworks, the low efficiency in monitoring students’ writing progress
and the shortages of exchange platforms for Chinese-language authors abroad, etc.
In addition, in the aspect of pedagogies, the contributors of this volume discover that
interviews, autobiographies, memoirs and online multi-media platforms can facili-
tate the current teaching of creative writing programs and enrich its teaching content.
As contemporary visual culture continues to develop and significantly influences the
interpretations of literary artworks, the thinking logic and methodology of creating
literary works have been constantly changing, too. The creativity, techniques and
xi
xii Introduction: An Overview of the Development of Creative Writing …
practices of creative writing have been shaping the construction of the field’s cross-
media content; the development of creative writing can be facilitated through active
promotions of the self-expansion of creative writing.
This volume, with an eclectic approach, investigates the latest trends in Chinese
creative writing in different aspects through five main parts: theories and research
trends, pedagogies, cross-media practices, classical culture and creative writing
in the global context. Part “Creative Writing Theories and Research in Chinese
Context” consists of two chapters. In Chapter “Therapeutic Writing: As the Oppo-
site of Creative Writing”, Ge Hong-Bing uses Western philosophical theories and
Chinese classics to ascertain the therapeutic effects of creative writing under the
lens of quietism and existentialism. Ge argues that engaging in creative writing
with an author-based approach—which is atypical in the field of creative writing—
allows writers to enter a sanctuary where they can escape from reality and rediscover
self-identity. This provides them with a channel to express traumatic emotions and
improves their mental health. In Chapter “2020 Annual Report of China’s Creative
Writing Studies”, Liu Wei-Dong and Zhang Yong-Lu evaluate the development of
Chinese creative writing in 2020 under the trend of new liberal arts. Their research
illustrates that China saw rapid growth in the expansion of creative writing studies
and other related areas, including training for writers, cultural industries, digital tech-
nology and even primary and secondary education. Their research also deduces that,
while 2020 was a tremendous year for the development of the field, further expan-
sions in research on teaching creative writing and other areas would be necessary for
meeting the demands of China’s market and education.
Part “Teaching Creative Writing in the mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong”
comprises three chapters that discuss the teaching of creative writing in different
regions. In Chapter “Radio Drama Creation and the Development and Training
of Related Industries”, Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling illustrates the phenomenon that
China’s radio drama and Taiwan’s audiobook industry continue to thrive while Hong
Kong experiences a sharp decrease in the production of radio drama due to the rise
of online entertainment. In an effort to address this issue, Leung uses the “Radio
Drama Creation” course at Hong Kong Metropolitan University as an example to
discuss how creative writing education and other related industries in Hong Kong
can be reformed in order to resurge under the current circumstances. In Chapter
“A Discussion on the Teaching of Creative Writing in the Writing Classes of Colleges
in China”, Wang Wei-Zhou argues that the teaching of creative writing studies in
China is still unfledged compared to its counterpart in the West. Wang proposes
that, while many advanced concepts from the West have been introduced to China,
Chinese creative writing studies need to put more emphasis on the development of
a pedagogical framework in order to facilitate the development of creative writing
as an academic discipline in China. In Chapter “Basic Teaching of Creative Writing
as a “Pool of Inspiration”: A Discussion Starting from the Undergraduate Teaching
of Drama and Film Arts in the Creative Writing Programme”, Sun Hui-Xin describes
that a writing methodology that applies creative writing as a fundamental course to
undergraduate programs in drama and film has been developed after years of prac-
tice in teaching. With the aim to advance the development of this methodology, she
Introduction: An Overview of the Development of Creative Writing … xiii
discusses how the application of creative writing as the “pool of inspiration” helps
undergraduate students of drama and film develop writing expertise by scrutinizing
the writing methodology in the aspects of the causes and aims, methods and logic,
and interaction and effects.
Part “Creative Writing and Cross-Media Practices from the Sinophone Perspec-
tive” explores the conversation between Chinese creative writing and the practices
of different forms of media. This part includes three chapters, and each of them deals
with the relationships between Chinese creative writing and a distinct form(s) of
media. In Chapter “Reading for Writing: A Case Study of Multi-Media Presentations
of Reading Achievements”, Ng Mei-Kwan proposes that multi-media tools should
be introduced to students as a form to present their reading achievements through
a case study of an innovative course that requires students to present their reading
achievements with multi-media. By analyzing the teaching outcomes, assessments
and limitations of the course, Ng suggests that having students use multi-media tools
to present their reading achievements can overcome some limitations in traditional
literary education and enhances students’ learning efficiency, particularly for those
in the post-digital generation. In Chapter “Creative Writing in the Narratives of Inter-
active Games—The Cases of Grand Theft Auto 5 and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt”,
Shawn Shao Dong, explores the interactive narration of creative writing in electronic
games through the case studies on Grand Theft Auto 5 and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt.
Shao argues that the interactive nature of narratives in electronic games makes this
genre stand out from any other forms of creative writing in literary and cinematic
worlds. By scrutinizing the dialogs and plots of these two games, this chapter explores
the characteristics of multi-threaded literary narratives. Shao also extrapolates that
creative writing for electronic games has great potential to become a major aspect
of the field and deserves much attention from academia. In Chapter “A Prelim-
inary Study of Transmedia Storytelling: The Case Study of a Special Exhibition
of the Hong Kong Heritage Museum”, Janet Lau Man-Ying explores the dialogs
between creative writing and exhibition studies. Lau argues that, while academia
has paid much attention to the narratives of literary works, little attention has been
given to how museums apply such techniques to exhibitions. Using the methodology
for research in literary works to analyze the narratives on museum exhibitions, Lau
discusses how museums utilize transmedia storytelling in exhibitions and the effects
of such application on visitors through a case study on a special exhibition presented
by Hong Kong Heritage Museum.
Part “Creative Writing and New Interpretations of Chinese Classical Culture”,
which consists of three chapters, examines Chinese classics from the perspective
of creative writing, expanding our understanding of classical texts in China. In
Chapter “A Discussion on “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” and Its TV Series Adapta-
tion from the Perspectives of “Chinese Tragic Consciousness” and “Intertextuality””,
Leung Tak-Wah compares some of the most significant scenes in the long narrative
poem “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” 孔雀東南⾶ to its TV series adaptation under
the lens of “Chinese tragic consciousness” and “intertextuality”. Leung discusses
whether the adaptation has preserved the essence of those scenes in the original
work, and how it changes the way audiences view the ballad in terms of themes. In
xiv Introduction: An Overview of the Development of Creative Writing …
Chapter “Resources for Creativity from Chinese Classical Culture: A Discussion

on the Creative Thinking and Creation Pattern of “Old Tales Retold” and Revela-
tions on the Development of Creative Writing”, Benson Tong Tsz-Ben discusses how
the Chinese classic “Old Tales Retold” 故事新編 sheds light on creative writing, and
thus the teaching of the studies. Tong proposes that the writing style and traditional
stories in “Old Tales Retold” can help students realize the value of classical Chinese
texts in their studies of creative writing as they examine this literary work. Tong’s
research shows that studying this classical work can enhance students’ ability to
enrich the content of their stories and find new approaches to their own creative
works. Tong also argues that teaching students to interpret Chinese classics from a
new perspective would be vital to the development of the teaching of Chinese creative
writing as an academic discipline. In Chapter “The “First Generation” of Creative
Cyber Literature and Its “Genre-Bending Writing”: Thoughts on Using Jun Tian
as a Method”, Zhan Yu-Bing conducts a study on the genres of Chinese cyber litera-
ture, ascertaining how this form of literature evolves from traditional Chinese popular
literature. Zhang uses cyber fiction author Jun Tian’s 君天 works as an example to
discuss the genre-bending characteristics of cyber literature and extrapolates the
trends of this form of literature in China.
Part “Implications of Global Contexts for Creative Writing” consists of 3 chapters
written by scholars of creative writing from different places beyond the Sinophone
world. It aims to keep the studies of Chinese creative writing abreast with the global
trend of creative writing by bringing international perspectives to the field. In Chapter
“Creative Writing Research: What, How and Why”, Graeme Harper discusses the
scope and definition of creative writing research. Harper argues that creative writing
studies are still a comparatively new field; unlike other typical fields in academia,
professional choices in such research can be largely individual, and researchers do
have the opportunity to establish the field. Haper also discusses the distinct research
methods and outcomes of the field. In Chapter “In Praise of Doggedness: On Going
Local & Becoming Global as a Transpacific Poet-Scholar in Hawai’i, the Pacific
Rim, and Coastal California”, Rob Sean Wilson utilizes his career as an academic
and poet, in which he interweaves theories and poetry, to discuss how the char-
acteristic “doggedness” can be a strategy that helps scholarly poets expand their
writing network and survive in the academic and publishing world where, para-
doxically, going local has become an emerging global trend. In Chapter “Toward
a Unified Field: Lore and the Complications of Global Context”, Stephanie Vander-
slice unravels the complexity of the lore in composition studies and its relationship
with creative writing studies. Vanderslice argues that lore, if misused, would remain
a global threat to the development of literary arts. She also proposes that creative
writing studies can learn from the struggles and achievements of composition studies,
and develop toward a globally unified field.
The eclectic range of topics and in-depth studies covered in these fourteen chapters
prove the immense vibrancy and potential of creative writing studies and shed light
on the research and teaching of creative writing. As a pioneering work in bringing
Chinese creative writing studies to the global stage, this volume starts the conversa-
tions between scholars of creative writing in the Sinophone world and beyond and
Introduction: An Overview of the Development of Creative Writing … xv
serves as a bridge between creative writing, multi-media studies and other disciplines
in humanities. In an effort to make continuous contributions to the development of
the field of Chinese creative writing, the editorial board has begun working on the
second volume of Chinese Creative Writing Studies as a sequel to this book. The
upcoming volumes intend to keep the conversations going and continue to expand
the research in the field both in breadth and depth.
Contents
Creative Writing Theories and Research in Chinese Context

Therapeutic Writing: As the Opposite of Creative Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ge Hong-Bing
2020 Annual Report of China’s Creative Writing Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Liu Wei-Dong and Zhang Yong-Lu
Teaching Creative Writing in the mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong

Radio Drama Creation and the Development and Training
of Related Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
A Discussion on the Teaching of Creative Writing in the Writing
Classes of Colleges in China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Wang Wei-Zhou
Basic Teaching of Creative Writing as a “Pool of Inspiration”:
A Discussion Starting from the Undergraduate Teaching of Drama
and Film Arts in the Creative Writing Programme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Sun Hui-Xin
Creative Writing and Cross-Media Practices from the Sinophone Perspective

Reading for Writing: A Case Study of Multi-Media Presentations
of Reading Achievements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Ng Mei-Kwan
Creative Writing in the Narratives of Interactive Games—The
Cases of Grand Theft Auto 5 and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Shawn Shao Dong
xvii
xviii Contents
A Preliminary Study of Transmedia Storytelling: The Case Study

of a Special Exhibition of the Hong Kong Heritage Museum . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Janet Lau Man-Ying
Creative Writing and New Interpretations of Chinese Classical Culture

A Discussion on “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” and Its TV
Series Adaptation from the Perspectives of “Chinese Tragic
Consciousness” and “Intertextuality” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Leung Tak-Wah
Resources for Creativity from Chinese Classical Culture:
A Discussion on the Creative Thinking and Creation Pattern
of “Old Tales Retold” and Revelations on the Development
of Creative Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Benson Tong Tsz-Ben
The “First Generation” of Creative Cyber Literature and Its
“Genre-Bending Writing”: Thoughts on Using Jun Tian as a
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Zhan Yu-Bing
Implications of Global Contexts for Creative Writing

Creative Writing Research: What, How and Why . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Graeme Harper
In Praise of Doggedness: On Going Local & Becoming Global
as a Transpacific Poet-Scholar in Hawai’i, the Pacific Rim,
and Coastal California . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Rob Sean Wilson
Toward a Unified Field: Lore and the Complications of Global
Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Stephanie Vanderslice
Creative Writing Theories and Research
in Chinese Context
Therapeutic Writing: As the Opposite
of Creative Writing
Ge Hong-Bing
Abstract “The studies of Therapeutic Writing” is an approach to treat writing and

is considered writing as a thorough self-diagnosis and treatment. The studies suggest
that writing, not as we imagined in the past, does not contribute to positive thoughts,
moral minds, and life experiences; rather, its value lies more in easing the bewil-
derment at the pandemonium in the world and the anxiety about chaos. Therapeutic
Writing constructs a passive yet soothing “illustrated world” where the people experi-
ence the world in a psychological order in which anxiety is no longer simulated. With
fictional narration and lyricism, the befuddled experience of the world is resolved.
A “fictional soothing connection” is built upon which logical reasoning and prac-
tical argument are no longer prerequisites. “Wrong” and “right”; “good” and “bad”;
“useful” and “useless” are suspended. Therapeutic Writing aims to end emotional
confusions of humans and help them restore emotional peace (From this point, we
can compare therapeutic writing with philosophical Quietism. The former tries to
free humans from emotional confusion, while the latter attempts to liberate humans
from rational confusions, and “hopes to end human confusion as well as to restore a
state of peace”.
Keywords Therapeutic writing · Creative writing · Fictional narration ·

Emotional confusion
1 Quietism or Existentialism?
In the introduction of the contributed volume The Future for Philosophy which
was published in 2004, Brian Leiter divides the philosophy in the English-speaking
world into two orientations: quietism and naturalism. Quietists believe that philos-
ophy, unlike other disciplines, cannot practically solve problems; instead, philosophy
serves as an intellectual therapy. It addresses philosophical issues rather than solving
H. B. Ge (B)
College of Liberal Arts, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: gehongbing@shu.edu.cn
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 3
M. L. Rebecca Leung (ed.), Chinese Creative Writing Studies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_1
4 H. B. Ge
them (Leiter 2004, 2). All so-called problems are superficial and specious pseudo-
problems. Philosophy is a “philosophical prescription” that provides intellectual
treatment for such pseudo-problems that trouble humans deeply; on the other hand,
Naturalism proposes that the problems that plague philosophers (thought, knowl-
edge, action, reality, moral nature, etc.) do actually exist in reality, and Naturalists
seek to explore certain substantive solutions. Coincidentally, Philip Noel Pettit argues
that philosophy plays a role between the spectrum of Quietism and Existentialism.
Quietism believes that philosophy should exist in a peaceful, inert form and that it
is not supposed to try—and impossible—to affect the practices. On the other hand,
Existentialism proposes that philosophy plays a tremendously practical guiding role
in real human life, suggesting that “it ought to be capable of being lived out in prac-
tice” (Pettit 2004, 304) or even the belief that only under the guidance of philosophy
could humans become self-aware of their practices (Chen 2019, 44–51).1
Confucius 孔⼦ thinks that “The Odes serve to stimulate the mind. They may be
used for purposes of self-contemplation. They teach the art of sociability. They show
how to regulate feelings of resentment. From them, you learn the more immediate
duty of serving one’s father, and the remoter one of serving one’s prince. From
them, we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants
(詩可以興, 可以觀, 可以群, 可以怨; 邇之事⽗, 遠之事君, 多識於⿃獸草⽊之
名。).” (“Yng Huo” in The Analects 論語·陽貨). In the Wei-Jin period, Cao Pi
曹丕 defined literature as “a vital work of running a country that has immortal
greatness (經國之⼤業, 不朽之盛事)” (Cao Pi’s Lunwen in Dianlun 曹丕: 典論·
論⽂; in the contemporary age, Liang Qichao 梁啓超 founded the New Fiction 新
⼩説 to advocate “saving the country with fiction” (“On the Relationship between
Fiction and the Government of the People” 論⼩説與群治關係, 1902). Liang Qichao
thinks that fiction plays an important role in practices: “To transform a nation’s
citizens, one must first revolutionize her fiction. (欲新⼀國之民, 不可不先新⼀國
之⼩說)”; fiction can reform morals, religions, politics, customs, skills, minds, and
personalities. He also believes that fiction “has an incredible power to dominate
humanity.” The above viewpoint can be regarded as Naturalism or Existentialism in
literature. Meanwhile, another point of view has also appeared in the same historical
period, giving us another perspective. In other words, Quietism does exist in literature
as well. People have divergent views towards the functions of literature as they do
in the above-mentioned field of philosophy.
From the historical perspective, there has always been a kind of Quietism in
Chinese literature and intellectual history, which started off with Lao Zhuang ⽼莊’s
philosophy. Such ideology emphasizes “the great use of uselessness”, characterizing
itself by the use of “uselessness”. It comprises two main major orientations: using
“uselessness” to avoid external interference and harm; and employing “no desire” to
seek liberation of each individual’s soul. Most of Zhuangzi’s 莊⼦ expressions are
intrinsically literary, and he has a sense of literary consciousness. Zhuangzi thinks that
language has its limits. It is inadequate for expunging the concept of Tao 道, which
1 The discussion in this paragraph draws on the views of Chen, Changshen. See Chen, Changshen
(2019).
Therapeutic Writing: As the Opposite of Creative Writing 5
is completely ineffable. In this sense, Zhuangzi only endorsed a kind of “negative

discourse”: “It is better to remove those elements that are not Tao little by little than
racking your brain to explain what that means” (Qing 2018). While Liang Qichao
and other scholars overemphasized the functions of literature, contemporary scholar
Wang Guowei 王國維 put forward the opinion of “the use of uselessness”. This view
originates from Lao Zhuang’s thought, which directly uses “uselessness” to avoid
the harm of politics and ethics (and even aesthetic utilitarianism) to literature and
employs “the use of uselessness” to adhere to a kind of aestheticism, namely “non-
aesthetic utilitarianism” (Bao 2009, 139–140). This idea of Wang Guowei was later
directly inherited by Zhou Zuoren 周作⼈, Liang Shiqiu 梁實秋, Shen Congwen 沈
從⽂, etc., and even the contemporary writer Mo Yan 莫⾔, in his speech at the Nobel
Banquet, said “compared with science, literature is useless, but such uselessness is
exactly where its greatness lies” (Mo 2013). From this, we can learn that the concepts
of “usefulness”, “uselessness”, “the use of uselessness” (Tang 2018), “the greatness
of uselessness” (Gao 2014) and others are entangled in the field of literature. Such
discussion is not meaningless; in fact, it concerns our fundamental understanding
of how we comprehend the meaning of writing. Is literature useful? To whom is
literature useful, and in what sense? These are the questions that need to be addressed.
The responses to these questions from Quietism and Naturalism (Existentialism) are
entirely different, or even fundamentally opposing.
From the view of “Quietism”, literature is anti-rational (it might not be a rational
creative-thinking process). Literature cannot provide systematic politics, abstract
ethical principles, nor retrieval approaches. Instead, it is attached to life—a senti-
mental, personal way of life with unprocessed abstract thoughts, keeping itself from
being swayed by abstract theories and principles. The quietists even perceive it as
an objection against politics and ethics’ fixation on right and wrong, and good and
bad. Therefore, literature does not lead to a positive opinion and, thus, nor a posi-
tive practice or pragmatic use. On the contrary, it only aims at helping authors (and
partly readers) eradicate their addiction to the so-called truthfulness of the objective
world and the efficiency of practice—it uses an obvious “fictional” method, a way
to re-examine and address questions through re-describing problems in life instead
of actually addressing problems or solving practical problems.
Can literature “bridge” the gap between spirit and life? Quietists suggest that the
gap between the practice of literary reading and writing practice, and practical life is
insurmountable and does not need to be bridged. Literature does not have such power
or the obligation to provide this kind of effort. Literature is supposed to be quiet and
inert in the spiritual realm, and it does not seek to directly wield influence in life, such
as changing people’s personalities, or reshaping people’s perceptions and behaviour
towards the world. It motivates life practice, encouraging people to implement the
formation or reconstruction of life experience, personal traits, and value appeal. From
the perspective of Quietists, literature avoids substantive issues rather than confronts
them; for example, the image of “Grotesque” 畸⼈ in Zhuangzi 莊⼦ seeks spiritual
transcendence and eschews practical issues through “the use of uselessness”, rather
than confronting and addressing difficulties in reality. Zhuangzi’s philosophy—“let
nature takes its course”, “avoid calamity”, “life and death are equivalent”, and “great
6 H. B. Ge
virtues help one become oblivion”—shows a passive rather than initiative “philoso-
phy” and a “method” to avoid the society of the world. It also encourages avoiding
survival dilemmas, forgetting real situations, avoiding secular problems, and forget-
ting about social issues; this image of “Grotesque” also appears in a series of literary
works such as A Dream in Red Mansions, and it even serves as a dominant literary
figure. In Chinese literature, they can form a complete sequence with almost no
missing pieces.
Quietists propose that literature has no appeal to universal principles and substan-
tive theories, using words without presupposition and substantive meaning (including
avoiding nouns and adjectives) to “describe” or “depict” humans’ interaction. There
are no clear viewpoints; everything is placed on the level of life itself and still has
not been reflected, where description, expression, and creation remain in the state of
“recollection”, creating an overall appearance of literature.
2 Constructing “No Self” or Rediscovering “True Self”?
Dr. Li Jiaying 李佳穎 from Zhejiang University, with her thesis on T.S. Eliot, has
proved the therapeutic value of literature. She suggests that Eliot “acquired a sense of
‘embodied consciousness’, of integration of emotion and thought, from his personal
experience of illness.” He even “captured the cutting-edge content of conscious-
ness and cognition, and enhanced the accuracy of poetry’s interpretation of mental
symptoms.” She further addresses that “by imitating neurophysiological structure,
breaking the threshold of perception, and generating symbolic mandalas, the barriers
among different domains are shattered, which allows the fragments to connect and
match, as well as to generate ‘aggregate of non-self’ 無我之蘊, which dismantles
the opposition of the inner and outer self and achieves the unity of such” (Li 2017).
Dr. Li Jiaying attempts to integrate neuroscience, cognitive science, psychiatry, and
psychology, etc., into the context of therapeutic literature. Still, careful readers might
notice that “‘aggregate of non-self’ with the unity of the inner and outer self” (內外
⼀如的 ‘無我之蘊’) is a Buddhist term. Why is Buddhism used as its approach in
this article?
In 2006, American psychologists Wallace and Shapiro (2006) wrote: “Clinical
psychology has focused primarily on the diagnosis and treatment of mental disease,
and only recently has scientific attention turned to understanding and cultivating
positive mental health. The Buddhist tradition, on the other hand, has focused for
over 2,500 years on cultivating exceptional states of mental well-being as well as
identifying and treating psychological problems.” “The doctrine of Buddhism is a
form of psychology, rather than religion or philosophy. The essence of Buddhism,
as described from the perspective of psychology, is generally related to western
psychology, including cognitive science, behaviour modification, psychoanalysis,
and transpersonal psychology. Combining Buddhism with psychology can make
the field of the study more comprehensive and develop more effective treatments”
(Mikulas 2007, 4–49).
The encounter between psychology and Buddhism was not accidental but essen-
tially inevitable. The “self” defined in psychology is not an entity in the sense of
physical embodiment but a virtual embodiment in psychology. Therefore, the usual
“self” and the abnormal “self” in a psychological sense are not a practical entity, but
in the sense of virtual embodiment where healing takes place as oneself enters the
“normal” mind from the “abnormal” one in the virtual sense. Such a healing process
is “involuted quietness” or “inert liberation” in Quietism in the spiritual realm. The
“self” in psychology is similar to the heart in Buddhism. Buddhism asserts that
the world is not reality, and “self” is not real either; everything (including self) is
conjured by the heart. All paths of life can be attributed to “convincing one’s heart”
rather than searching from the outside. When Kui Ji 窺基 explained that “all the three
realms are works of heart” in his Commentary on Heart Sutra ⼼經讚”. He pointed
out that “The imaginary nature of things would only render things false knowledge;
the reliant nature only makes them the knowledge of the conventional truth; and the
consummate nature of things is only the knowledge of the ultimate truth. That is why
all phenomena are attached to the heart (Kui Ji, n.d.). Jing Jue’s 淨覺 Commentary
on the Heart Sutra 注般若波羅密多⼼經 explains that “to transcend illusions (遠離
顛倒夢想), one must meditate to compose oneself; letting the mind remain tranquil
is the answer to quench one’s desire after all (Jing Jue, n.d.)”. He believes that the
world is simply our upside-down illusion, and the fundamental way to shatter it is to
“focus on the heart and seek for the pure (觀⼼看淨)”.
From this point of view, scholars in China who set up a contrast between
psychology and Buddhism are wrong. For example, some scholars believe that “psy-
chotherapists help their patients achieve the state of self-aware’ while Zen practi-
tioners hope to achieve a ‘non-self’ state. Psychotherapists aspire to help patients
develop a well-functioning and well-structured self, which allows them to better cope
with id’s impulses and superego’s self-imposed confinement or, in other words, to
retrieve their ‘true selves’. On the contrary, Zen master hopes that the practitioners let
go of their self-attachment—that is, ‘notions of self, persons, sentient beings, and life
span (無我相, 無⼈相, 無眾⽣相, 無壽者相)’—and experience the meaning of the
idea that “all conditioned things are impermanent, and all dharmas do not have self
(諸⾏無常、諸法無我)”. Buddhism does not face nor solve specific psychological
problems but guides Zen practitioners to perceive that self , which raises all the issues,
is not fixed; in fact, it does not exist at all (Li and Xu 2020, 49–51). This argument
is weaker than Dr. Li Jiaying’s view “‘aggregate of non-self’, which dismantles the
opposition of the inner and outer self and achieves the unity of such”. The former
viewpoint only manages to descry the external self but fails to discern the concepts
of internal self in both psychology and Buddhism are intrinsically compatible.
We cannot change incidents in the past or even what is happening now, but we can
change our perception of these incidents. From the perspective of Quietism, “self”
is not a physical practitioner but a “cognition” of virtual practice. “Events” are just
“reversal illusions”. “Self” is not based on those so-called “objective events” but
is essentially based on the “perception” of those events—that is, a recognition and
wariness of “reversal illusions”. The ideas that “the five aggregates are empty” (五蘊
皆空) and that eliminating negative energy and constructing positive energy through
8 H. B. Ge
recognition is the right mindset. Psychological evidence also supports this argument.
The so-called “harms” and “benefits”, in the psychological sense, are not the objective
attributes of “events”. “According to psychologists’ research findings, deleterious
experience does not necessarily cause trauma. Among veterans, victims of sexual
assault and the bereaved, more than 80% of them would not have permanent mental
disorders. They would gradually recover over time. Whether an event would bring
trauma or not depends on that person’s attitude towards the incident. If emotion stays
in the situation where the injury took place and lingers, causing one to experience the
same feeling repeatedly, it eventually develops into a trauma” (Sun 2020, 65–71).
In daily life, we inadvertently create a world in consciousness through the percep-
tion of eyes, ears, nose, mouth, body, and other senses. However, the perceived picture
is always incomplete because it relies on fragmented experiences, piecemeal feelings,
and unprocessed instincts. The mirror image of the world we build in our minds lacks
the reflection of the stare of self and, thus, a “reversal illusion”. Therapeutic writing
provides this self-reflexive stare. Here, in the sense of the studies of therapeutic
writing, perhaps we have completely different views on writing: any kinds of writing
have the possibility to be self-narrative. Apart from this, unique techniques possibly
do not exist; writing is not entirely a rational “creative thinking” process but an indi-
vidual’s “catharsis”, “self-reconstruction”, and an individual’s “self-identification”
(Chen and Ge 2018, 10–16).
3 Catharsis and Reconstruction: Writing as Therapy
Li Jing 李靜, an internal medicine specialist at the Health Care Centre at Capital
Medical University, conducted the study “The Application of Expressive Writing2 in
Newly Diagnosed Patients with Primary Liver Cancer” in which she compared the
Self-Perceived Burden Scale of Cancer Patient (SPBS-CP) and the Personal Meaning
Index (PMI) of two groups of patients before nursing intervention and four weeks
after. The research found that the group intervened with the practice of expressive
writing received a lower rating on the SPBS-CP overall, and the scores of four aspects,
including the self-perceived burdens of care, of finance to their family, of emotion,
2 The Author considers expressive writing (Expressive writing (EW) is a common psychological
intervention that aims to improve the mental health of traumatized individuals) as a type of Thera-
peutic Writing. Since Pennebaker pioneered experimental research paradigm for writing, (expres-
sive writing is writing that expresses personal emotions and ideas according to a specific theme),
researchers in the medical field have been studying the effectiveness of expressive writing healing
over the past 20 years, targeting different patient groups such as various cancer patients, pregnant
women, and various postoperative rehabilitation patients. The research related to writing effective-
ness is endless. Although some control groups only designed “non-writing” control groups, there
were no “free writing” control groups and most samples are within 100 cases. Most data support
that “expressive writing” is helpful for alleviating mental stress and reducing anxiety. There are also
a large number of researches on the therapeutic effect of expressive writing for veterans, victims of
domestic violence, and autistic patients in the field of social sciences and literature. Their results
are similar to the above-mentioned medical realm.
and of treatment, were lower than the ratings before the intervention as well as the
control group. After the intervention of the practice of expressive writing, the PMI
scores of that group increased, making it higher than those of the control group.
The study confirmed that “expressive writing can improve the self-perceived burden
of newly diagnosed patients with primary liver cancer and enhance their personal
meaning index to a certain extent. This has certain clinical significance” (Li, Zhao
and Ma 2020).
Which types of writing have therapeutic effects? How do they work? That is, the
writing that allows writers to fulfil their wishes that they cannot be fulfilled in reality
and, thus, achieved catharsis. For example, most of the boudoir lament poems in
ancient China have this nature of emotional catharsis and spiritual compensation.
Also, authors of contemporary romance novels and wuxia novels 武俠⼩說 often
put themselves into their protagonists’ shoes, conveying their emotions through the
characters. For instance, some writers would portray the protagonist as a Romeo
who is so effulgent that he receives much attention from numerous women; or depict
the character as a chivalrous hero well-versed in martial arts who enforces justice on
behalf of Heaven. These protagonists replace the authors in real life and achieve their
“life goals” in the imaginary world for them, which achieves the effect of emotional
catharsis and spiritual compensation.
Reconstructing a traumatic event that happened in the past through writing does
induce an equivalent therapeutic effect, too. Such writing lets the authors develop a
positive perspective on the incident which the authors reorganise through writing. For
example, in most of the laments, the loss of relatives is traumatic, especially when
young people lose their parents, older people lose their children and middle-aged
people lose a spouse, etc. Most people are psychologically unprepared when they
experience similar incidents. These can easily develop into some kind of “psycho-
logical trauma” unconsciously, which accumulates at the bottom of the unconscious
mind continuously and affects people’s anxiety, perceived self-efficacy, and scores on
the Benefit Finding Scale. As people suffer from grief, writing genre of such feelings
(such as elegy and others) can often help them construe the death of their relatives in
a “holistic” explanation that is integrated with religious and philosophical thoughts
on the meaning of life, and the law and responsibility inherited from the family line.
By reorganizing, restructuring and integrating the biographies of the relatives and
their final moments, the bereaved can transform and transcend their perspectives of
loss, transmuting the sense of loss and grief into a positive sense of responsibility
towards their life, country, relatives, etc. Changing attitudes towards an event allows
people to bid a meaningful farewell to the incident(s). This helps them eliminate
negative emotions and direct themselves to a positive side.
Traumatic events have such impacts on people because they often bring the subject
a sense of guilt. The main symptoms of this kind of trauma are self-hatred and loss
of self-identity. The movie Life of Pi, based on Yann Martel’s novel and directed by
Lee Ang, serves as an example. The movie’s leading actor Irrfan Khan said in an
interview: “This movie looks like a teenager’s adventure story on the surface, but
there are many hidden metaphors and parallel universes. It is a movie with multiple
layers of meaning.” How do we interpret this layer? Why did the middle-aged Pi
10 H. B. Ge
make up a tiger version of a drifting story for himself? Comparing the tiger version
of the drifting story with the shipwreck tragedy that involves cannibalism, which one
is more authentic? What was his purpose for doing this? The answer is, salvation. Pi
felt guilty for having survived the tragedy of shipwreck cannibalism, so much so that
he could not accept his survival. In the film, Pi’s guilt can first be seen starting from
the scene in which he painfully cried out “I’m sorry, I’m sorry” as he crawled to a
lifeboat (he didn’t close the hatch door as he saw the storm approached, which may
be one of the factors that led to the shipwreck) until the end of drifting (during which
a tragedy of cannibalism occurred). After that, he was lucky enough to survive and
go ashore. However, his soul has never landed with his body; it has been inveterately
immersed in guilt. He needs a story that allows him to regain self-acceptance. From
this, we can understand the line in the film: “The whole of life becomes an act of
letting go, but what always hurts the most is not taking a moment to say goodbye.”
This story is the actual ritual where Pi’s soul says goodbye to drifting. From another
perspective, in my opinion, the tiger version of the story is not an “explanatory” story
that Pi fabricated for the incident of cannibalism (of which Pi’s mother was one of
the victims) after the rafting, but a story that he created during the event. It gives Pi
faith, courage, and motivation and is full of illusions and unreasonable relationships
between people and animals. However, it helps Pi distract himself, ease pain, and
avoid despair. The isolated Pi gains courage and faith with the accompanying of the
story. At the end of the story, he was rescued. The survival manual on the lifeboat says:
“Telling a story is highly recommended.” One of the methods to survive a shipwreck
is to tell a story. Isn’t it strange? Not so, stories can indeed save people who are in
isolation and despair. In the movie, two Japanese insurance agents who interviewed
Pi didn’t believe his story initially, thinking that the story was deceptive. However, as
Pi shifted to another way to tell the story about cannibalism (a story without animals,
cannibal islands, and other illusions), they no longer asked questions and chose to
believe the fantasy story with a tiger.
Thought Co, a U.S.-based website dedicated to providing answers to questions
founded by Dotdash (formerly called About.com), once interviewed 20 professional
writers on the question “What is writing?” and received 20 different answers. Short
story writer Toni Cade Bambara said: “Writing has been for a long time my major tool
for self-instruction and self-development.” Novelist J. P. Donleavy said: “Writing is
turning one’s worst moments into money.” Novelist E. L. Doctorow said: “Writing is
a socially acceptable form of schizophrenia.” Biographer Catherine Drinker Bowen
said: “Writing, I think, is not apart from living. Writing is a kind of double living.
The writer experiences everything twice. Once in reality and once in that mirror
which waits always before or behind” (Qi 2019, 28).3 The five authors above who
directly answered the questions from the perspective of the therapeutic effects of
writing already account for a quarter of all answers, not to mention those answers that
indirectly involve the healing effect of writing: “writing is a struggle against silence”;
“writing is utter solitude.”, “I think writing is really a process of communication”
3The 20 answers regarding the definitions of writing mentioned above are quoted from Qi
Xiaorong’s 祁⼩榮 doctoral dissertation (2019).
and so on. Overall, nearly half of professional writers’ answers concerning “what is
writing” are related to the therapeutic value of writing.
“Writers access the self-healing power of writing by expressing traumatic emotion
through literature, and writing has been widely used as an ancillary treatment in
traditional psychotherapy… Experimental research on therapeutic effects of writing,
however, only appears in the recent two decades” (Zhang 2009). Scholar Zhang
Xinyong 張信勇, in his research “Expressive Writing’s Impact on Post-traumatic
Stress Response and Its Mechanisms” (2009) empirically proved that “writing
about traumatic experiences can significantly reduce individuals’ symptoms of post-
traumatic stress disorder and depression”, and “writing about positive experiences
is better than about traumatic or important experiences in terms of the reduction of
individual depression and anxiety symptoms.” Meanwhile, he thinks that “emotional
expression in writing is a necessary condition for post-traumatic stress responses,
and cognitive processing based on emotional expression is more important.”
In conclusion, we can deduce a research methodology for therapeutic writing
based on Quietism, which does not focus on what writing means to readers (which
is opposed to creative writing studies’ concern with the writings’ market value and
socio-cultural value). Instead, it focuses on the meaning of writing to authors. To
be precise, this methodology concerns the therapeutic value of the author’s mental
state. (And it does not focus on the acquisition and teaching of writing techniques,
and even proposes that there is only one writing technique— “self-writing”. From
this viewpoint, therapeutic writing is opposed to creative writing as well). It investi-
gates “how authors express traumatic emotions and, therefore, achieve self-healing.”
Hence, it is still within the broad scope of the studies of writing. (Psychology tends
to consider this as a psychotherapy technique).
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2020 Annual Report of China’s Creative
Writing Studies
Liu Wei-Dong and Zhang Yong-Lu
Abstract As of 2020, Chinese creative writing studies have more than ten years
of development. The research trend in 2020 focuses on the development of creative
writing studies under the context of new liberal arts; the exploration and categorisa-
tion of regional practices of the teaching of creative writing studies; and the amal-
gamation of creative writing studies and the cultural industry, digital technology,
and the secondary and primary education. The studies of creative writing have been
continuously expanding in these three aspects. In general, Chinese creative writing
studies, with the opportunities brought by the development of New Liberal Arts,
have been simultaneously developing in different areas that revolve around creative
writing studies, including liberal education, writer training, cultural industry, digital
technology and secondary and primary education.
Keywords Creative writing · New liberal arts · General education · Writer

training · Cultural industry
2020 is an extraordinary year for the development of world politics, economy and
cultures. Chinese creative writing, as an explorer of globalization of creative writing,
enters a critical second decade. Against the background where academic exchanges
of creative writing continued to thrive and scholars inspired each other in the field
both within and beyond the nation, Chinese creative writing studies in 2020 high-
lights the discipline construction of “Chinese Creative Writing” in the ‘New Liberal
Arts’ context, sharing of “China’s stories” in educational and teaching practices of
creative writing, continuous development of the “new horizons” in the field of creative
writing studies, creative writing’s educational and teaching practices in primary and
secondary schools and so on. This study reviews the state of the art and main achieve-
ments of Chinese creative writing studies in 2020 based on nearly 350 papers searched
W. D. Liu (B)
College of Humanities, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China
e-mail: wendell@wzu.edu.cn
Y. L. Zhang
College of Liberal Arts, Shanghai University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: zhang_yonglu@163.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_2
14 W. D. Liu and Y. L. Zhang
and referenced from China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), conferences

run by the Global Association of Chinese Creative Writing, and the 40th Annual
Conference of Chinese Writing Association. In general, driven by the construction
of New Liberal Arts, research topics of Chinese creative writing in that year are
more in depth, and the research interests and research topics are more diversified.
Much evidence shows that creative writing with Chinese characteristics seeking its
own legitimacy has made new progress in the dual contexts of sinicization and inter-
nationalization. Chinese creative writing studies have gradually stepped out of the
situation of fighting alone, and further integrated into the mechanism and mapping
produced by Chinese contemporary literature and culture.
1 Active Construction of Chinese Creative Writing

in the New Liberal Arts Context
In 2020, the construction of New Liberal Arts forms a driving force in Chinese
creative writing studies, and the construction of China’s “creative writing” based on
the new liberal arts context becomes an important phenomenon of the year. Macro-
level research studies such as discipline system, discipline boundaries, and paths of
discipline construction have become more comprehensive, which mainly manifest in
five aspects: the preliminary pattern of creative writing theory, creative writing based
on general education, exploration of knowledge resources and theoretical support for
creative writing studies, creative thinking research of creative writing, and discipline
history of creative writing.
1.1 Creative Writing Studies in the New Liberal Arts

Contexts as a New Trend
On the basis of the “Creativity-based New Liberal Arts” proposed at the beginning
of 2020, Ge 葛紅兵 (2020a) explores its possibility, and asserts that “the discipline
of creative writing will play a leading and central role.” In this direction, taking theo-
retical construction and concept boundaries of “creative writing” as a representative,
Chinese creative writing has made new progress in sorting out its own discipline
scope, research interests and so on. The publication of “Creative Writing Theory”
responds to this conception. Ge (2020b, 9) devotes himself to Chinese creative writing
construction, taking “creativity’s cultivation and realization pattern of human beings
using language as media under the current conditions of productivity and cultural
development” as logical origin of creative writing studies. He proposes that “writing
is an aesthetic practical activity on the basis of human being’s ontological practice”.
This is a new development of the earlier argument that “creative writing is a form of
logic, industry, and career”. He reconsiders writing practice’s essence at the creative
2020 Annual Report of China’s Creative Writing Studies 15
ontological level, and creative writing is considered a creative practice of embodying

people’s essential power. His “Ontological Creative Writing” (Ge and Wang, 2020)
has become an important support to “Chinese Creative Writing”. Jin ⾦永兵 (2020)
suggests a forward-looking point of view that takes the perspective of the construc-
tion of New Liberal Arts to point out that “creative writing is an important subject
in the construction of New Liberal Arts. Its goal is to train innovators and creators
with a complex knowledge system contributing to the overall development of cultural
undertakings.” Xu 許道軍 (2020a) considers the construction of New Liberal Arts as
the rectification of name for creative writing, and he believes that the birth of “New
Liberal Arts and the call for New Liberal Arts in the new era provide opportunities
to achieve a proper understanding of creative writing as an academic discipline.”
Zhang Yonglu 張永祿 emphasizes the new opportunities of creative writing as the
paradigm of new liberal arts education, and he thinks that both creative writing and
creative writing as a discipline in the New Liberal Arts rely on creativity, and this
exactly matches the notion and pedagogy of talent training. These studies clarify and
corroborate the relationship between New Liberal Arts’ basic concepts and creative
writing’s disciplinary purpose and practice path, laying the foundation for further
construction of creative writing’s discipline system, and affirming creative writing
development in the New Liberal Arts contexts.
1.2 New Consensus Highlighted by Creative Writing

as General Education
Given that creative writing is closely related to the construction of New Liberal
Arts, Chinese scholars propose general-studies-based creative writing, which is a
form of creative writing studies particularly designed for general studies. Fang
⽅長安 (2020), president of the Chinese Writing Association, thinks that creative
writing has the traits of general education. “Creative writing aims at stimulating
personal potentials, and cultivating individual’s creative thinking, modern values and
writing skills”. Fang Changan’s assurance of the value of creative writing as general
education, and creative writing and the cultivation of individual creative thinking
inspires the in-depth development of creative writing in China. General education is
an important path for creative writing to land in China; on the other hand, general
education forms an important trend for the further sinicization of creative writing
in the context of the New Liberal Arts construction. Xie Xiwen 謝錫⽂, on the
other hand, focuses on the construction of creative writing courses in the context
of the construction of creative writing courses and highlights “reading with writing,
learning with practice”, expanding innovative practice path of general education. Zhu
朱志剛 (2020b) embraces the concept “New Liberal Arts, new Chinese, new skills”.
Combining creative writing studies with fieldwork methodology, he designs a new
curriculum for creative writing’ cross-disciplinary practice, which integrates New
Liberal Arts and creative writing through theories and practices. “Creative writing
serves as a skill enhancement, and it becomes a unique professional skill for new
Chinese talents.“ Besides, the University’s Creative Writing edited by Feng 馮汝常
(2020, 1) directly proposes that “to turn creative writing into a school-wide basic
course or general course.” In the English world, John Tassoni (2020) has discussed
creative writing and general education since Wendy Bishop and other scholars raised
the issues of creative writing and general education in the 1990s. Nowadays, it
has become an important pathway for Chinese creative writing in the context of
new liberal arts construction, which is a consensus among many scholars. How
to consolidate theoretical research on creative writing and general education has
therefore become a top priority.
1.3 New Progress in Exploration of Branches of Creative

Writing Studies
As creative writing studies become new courses and degrees in different faculties and
institutions in China, the research of creative writing, their legitimacy as an academic
discipline, the issues of research boundary, and the spectrum of creative writing as
an academic subject become the new focuses. The representative research by Zhang
Yonglu’s “Visions for Creative Writing Studies and its Branches and Methodol-
ogy” attempts to discuss the legitimacy of creative writing as an academic subject,
and explore new theoretical evidence based on Dianne Donnelly, Janelle Adsit and
other scholars’ studies. Zhang (2020c) suggests that “the knowledge layer of creative
writing research takes literature and writing knowledge as an inner circle of the
field, creativity and pedagogy as the middle circle, and cultural industry and related
art disciplines as an outer circle.“ Given overseas research, they form a concen-
tric circle model of creative writing studies’ knowledge resources. This actually
involves the relationship between creative writing and other disciplines, and how
creative writing studies further establishes its own legitimacy, as well as the relation-
ships cleaning among different fields such as creative writing and film and television
writing, creative writing and cultural industry, creative writing and history and so
on. Zhang research (2020c) questions are the same as Alexandria Peary’s creative
writing (2015, 194) across the curriculum. They discuss research questions from the
perspective of writing as an application of creative practice in different departments
and majors. The forward-looking nature of these studies will be further reflected,
since creative writing takes general education in China and enters English writing
classes, embedding in advertising writing, news writing and so on.
1.4 Creative Writing Thinking and Creativity Promoting

Research and Triggering New Topics
As research on the ontology of creative writing develops in greater depth, research

on creative writing and creative thinking, and creative reading pattern bears fruits
in 2020. Ding 丁伯慧 (2020) proposes that “creative writing is not only a method,
but also a thinking mode”, “and it should also take responsibility in a wider field of
writing.” Writing is regarded as a basic expression ability of modern people, a kind of
thinking training, and at the same time a creative medium for self-development. Lei
Yong’s 雷勇 research (2020a) on Zen and its inspiration for creative writing potential
proposes the idea of “introducing Zen to applied creative writing studies”. Zen’s
theory and practical methods provide research and practical materials for Chinese
creative writing. These studies are in contrast to the exploration of Mindful Writing
developed by English scholars, the relationship between Zen and creative writing
developed by Natalie Goldberg. On the one hand, they explore creative patterns in
creative writing studies. On the other hand, they are an attempt to integrate Zen and
modern creativity based on local cultural resources by Chinese scholars, and a new
exploration after “Chinese classical literature of creative writing serves as resources”
proposed by Yang 楊劍龍 (2015). In these studies, writing, as a creative practice,
uses literary and cultural resources to cultivate individual imagination, and has the
function of communicating literary and media literacy. Scholars such as Dai Fan 戴
凡 noticed early that contemporary English education is full of these concepts. At
present, it is necessary to further trace its origin and sort out its context, so that it can
better support each other with the ontological research of creative writing.
1.5 Research on Disciplinary History of Creative Writing

Expanding New Horizons
As basic theory development of creative writing is closely related to disciplinary

history of creative writing, disciplinary history of creative writing re-emerges as an
important topic in 2020, which is represented by An Xiaodong’s 安曉東 research.
An “A Brief Introduction to the Creative Writing Development in English-speaking
Countries” (2020b) reveals the diverse and complex forms formed during the devel-
opment of creative writing, and points out that “the rise and development of creative
writing are related to the era. To understand creative writing, people need to investi-
gate it from multi-dimensional perspectives of education renovation, literature inno-
vation and cultural industrial development.” Besides, returning to the disciplinary
history of creative writing and reorganising various forms of creative writing form
an important trend. “Four core research questions, namely literature and commerce,
culture and practice, freedom and mechanism, social practice and art practice, contin-
uously evolve” (Liu 2020c), and they are recently an attempt at multiple morpho-
logical interpretation for creative writing. Due to a lack of chronicle and represen-
tation of creative writing’s disciplinary history for more than 100 years, current
academic research and education discussion on creative writing mainly focuses on
creative writing as literary education. However, creative writing embedded in the
cultural industry, public culture, and digital inter-discipline and cross-media is rarely
discussed, which leads to a blind spot in the research scope and is prone to equate
creative writing with writing training, and research questions of creative writing are
limited to “whether writing can be taught”, “writing skills” and so on. Domestic
scholars mainly discuss drama, television and film writing, and new media writing.
However, in many cases, discussions of creative writing primarily concentrate on
writing training. In general, the research on disciplinary history of creative writing
needs to be further developed, stepping out of the disciplinary history’s narrative
framework developed by D. G. Myers. In the contexts of internationalization and
localization of creative writing, we need to take a critical perspective to scrutinize
the disciplinary history of creative writing in English-speaking countries, and study
cases through first-hand sources, and further investigate the pedagogy of creative
writing and institutional history of the writer’s workshop.
2 Telling the “Chinese Story” with Efforts in Creative

Writing Education and Teaching
Corresponding to the research on basic theoretical issues of creative writing, educa-

tion and teaching research also presents a diversified scene this year, which is mainly
reflected on the in-depth studies of workshop pedagogy and mechanism, sinicised
curriculum design and teaching ideas, experience summary of creative writing peda-
gogy in various schools, and Chinese creative writing studies contacting with the
outside world. For example, Chinese scholars took part in the Australasian Associ-
ation of Writing Programs’ 25th Annual Conference, and the 5th Annual Creative
Writing Studies Conference run by American Creative Writing Studies Organization.
They strived to tell the “China’s story” of creative writing both in China and abroad.
2.1 Continuous Exploration on the Pedagogy

and Mechanism of Writer Workshops
Research on the workshop on creative writing pedagogy has entered a new stage. It
begins to move out of the early simple introduction mode, and enters a diachronic
and specialized research stage. Gao research ⾼翔 (2020) focuses on the teaching
experience and pathways and workshop practices. He sorts out and combs through
creative writing’s workshop system in the Western, and asserts that the research
on creative writing workshops overseas mainly is divided into three categories:
“supervisors, participants, and content”. He proposes that “we need to initiate an
inter-disciplinary and cross-media innovative experiment, and develop a pattern
facing various audiences of ‘socialized creative writing system’.” Xu 許道軍 “‘How
Writers are Trained’: A Discussion on Creative Writing Workshops as a Teaching
Approach” (2020b) is an article that systematically sorts out the methods, mech-
anisms and common problems of the teaching of workshops in recent years. It
discusses the “content elements and operational mechanisms” of writer workshops,
and reflects on its flaws in practices. This shows that scholars begin to analyse
workshops as creative writing’s core pedagogy from a rational perspective. They
systematically study the workshop pedagogy, and reflect on it in both theoretical and
practical aspects. However, compared with Western research on workshop pedagogy,
inter-disciplinary workshop teaching, systematic analysis of workshop teaching, and
in-depth case studies still need to be developed urgently.
2.2 The “Sinicization” of Creative Writing’s Curriculum

Design and Teaching Concepts
Creative writing courses, teaching design, and concepts are further integrated with
the reality of China’s education, focusing more on localization. As the representative
scholar of this research aspect, Liu 劉海濤 (2020a) explores the integration of basic
concepts and methods of curriculum design, clarified the concepts and methods
for MOOC’s (Massive Open Online Course) development and design of creative
writing, and proposes that “MOOC textbooks revolve around four core competen-
cies to compile teaching content and design training program”: language construc-
tion and its use, thinking development and enhancement, aesthetic appreciation and
creation, cultural inheritance and understanding. Liu Haitao joins the exploration
of the creative writing’s MOOC and its textbook development and design and the
Chinese higher education in reality shows that the concept of curriculum construction
has become more developed. Zhang 張定浩 (2020a) emphasizes that the training for
creative writing talents needs to pay attention to the issue that “the natures of profes-
sionals and amateurs are interchanging”. He also believes that “a good academy of
creative writing is unlikely to be a place of writing teaching; however, it is defi-
nitely a place where reading, criticism, and theory are taught, which diminishes
amateur writers’ prejudices against criticism and theory.” Ye 葉⼦ (2020b) directly
points out the potential problems and bottlenecks existing in current creative writing
education. She uses American creative writing training as an example to propose that
“its core values and main issues still need to be repeatedly scrutinized and tested”,
and questions the effectiveness and meanings of the teaching of creative writing.
Furthermore, Zhu Jing 朱婧 starts from a “complete observation of creative writing
process”, and concentrates on the writer’s experiences of the transformation and
settlement in creative writing courses” (2020a). She pays more attention to the study
of the relationship between creative writing as an attendant of literary education and
holistic literary production. All of such studies analyse the sticking points of creative
writing’s teaching and research based on Chinese creative writing’s holistic develop-
ment and reality, and they highlight acute sensibility of Chinese scholars on creative
writing studies.
2.3 A Preliminary Summary of Creative Writing Teaching

Practical Experience in Chinese Higher Education
Institutions
In early 2020, “2020: Creative Writing in China”, a large-scale promotion activity of

public-service education, was held on WeChat and other new media platforms, with
the support of Higher Education Press, China Renmin University Press, Shanghai
University Press, Global Association of Chinese Creative Writing, and other organi-
sations, and the promotion of Zhang Yonglu 張永祿, Xu Daojun 許道軍, Li Yanwai
李艷葳, Fan Tianyu 範天⽟ and so on. More than 20 higher education institutions
that first conducted creative writing education and teaching in China were invited to
the event for sharing their respective practical experiences. This activity has become
an annual event since then, and the number of audiences reached more than 3,000
people every year. This activity has become an important impetus for creative writing
education in higher education institutions. Fudan University, Northwest University,
Shanghai University of Political Science and Law, Guangdong University of Foreign
Studies, and Guangdong University of Finance and Economics as representatives
continuously summarize their respective experiences, and concepts, which have laid
the foundation for the next stage of development. Wang 王宏圖 “Creative Writing in
China: Fudan University Model” (2020a) combs through the developed experience
of creative writing at Fudan University for over ten tears, and points out that “we
could effectively make up for the structural deficiency of cultural ecology in China
by training practical talents of creative writing.” Chen 陳曉輝 (2020) identifies the
problems with the construction of the system for training talents, and believes that
“creative writing could expand educational space of literary subjects through func-
tion of emotional mutual aid”. Both of them pay high attention to the direction, path-
ways, and ideas of creative writing’s talent training. Zhang 張怡微 (2020b) ascer-
tains that there are two remaining problems with the “current disciplinary construc-
tion’s research findings of ‘creative writing’: theoretical deficiency and cross-border
diaphragm”, which indicate that academics have the vision and ability to consciously
examine the discipline and the research of creative writing. Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling
梁慕靈 (2020) summarizes that the teaching experience of Hong Kong Metropolitan
University (formerly The Open University of Hong Kong) by “classroom obser-
vation, assignment analysis, performance before and after class, students’ creative
feelings and reflections, evaluation scales, and teaching effectiveness evaluation”.
Shen Wenhui 沈⽂慧 and Yu Quanheng 禹權恒 summarizes the teaching experi-
ences of creative writing at Xinyang Normal University. Dong Yingchun 董迎春
and Tan Cai 譚才 studied literary writing, Creative writing’s introduction and inte-
gration from the perspective of local writing education. It is particularly noteworthy
that Ye 葉煒 (2020a) studies the literary new talents’ training mechanism of Lu Xun
Institute of Literature at literary institution’s level, and proposes that the “new literary
talents’ training at Lu Xun Institute of Literature can draw reference from the devel-
opment approach of creative writing to establish a set of creative writing system,
like how the University of Iowa created their own one through the establishment
of disciplinary programmes(conferral of degree), institutionalisation (writer work-
shops), and systemisation (creative writing system) pathway for training new literary
talents.” Meanwhile, Huang Jianyun ⿈健雲, Zhu Zhigang 朱志剛, Xu Feng 許峰,
Wang Leiguang 王磊光, Wei Wei 魏維, She Fei 佘⾶, and Wang Ziwei 汪⼦瑋also
summarize and study the creative writing education and teaching experience from
various schools. These studies highlight the self-positioning consciousness of the
discipline, and show that the ideas of disciplinary construction have been maturing
gradually.
2.4 Telling Chinese Stories of Creative Writing to the World
The academic communities of creative writing studies in both China and the Western
are growing together, and the dialogue between the two has been effectively devel-
oped in 2020. Chinese creative writing studies in 2020 focused more on international
exchanges. Liu 劉衛東 chose “The Rising Tides: Creative Writing Research in China
2009–2019” (2020d) as the topic for his presentation at the Australasian Association
of Writing Programs’ 25th Annual Conference, in which he introduced the nearly
ten years of development history, main representatives, achievements, and future
trend of Chinese creative writing research. Moreover, he delivered a presentation
on “A Brief History of Chinese Creative Writing 2009–2019” at the 5th Annual
Creative Writing Studies Conference. He reviewed and summarised the develop-
ment history of Chinese creative writing over the past ten years, and demonstrated
Chinese creative writing’s status quo (Liu 2021). These conference papers classified
the research and the development process of Chinese creative writing, and exchanged
ideas with foreign scholars in the field of creative writing in terms of core concepts
such as “creative writers, creative standard, and creative community”, which are a
meaningful thing to excavate consensus on creative writing research in China and
beyond, and promote academic dialogues.
3 Exploring “New Scope” for Creative Writing Research
The relationship between creative writing and the cultural industry was the focus
of the research in 2020 again. The key direction is to discuss creative writing and
talents training in the cultural industry, disciplinary relationships, and the relationship
between creative writing and digital technology such as artificial intelligence, and
media, which mainly highlight four aspects: an increasing number of researches on
creative writing for cultural industry, further exploration for the research on the rela-
tionship between creative writing and cultural industries, the teaching and research of
creative writing attracting attention in the digital age, and creative writing in primary
and secondary schools.
3.1 An Increasing Number of Research on Creative Writing

for Cultural Industry
Corresponding to China’s rapid development of cultural industry, the research on

creative writing for cultural industry has been burgeoning. Wang Leilei’s 王雷雷
“Creative Talents Training for Cultural Industry of the Guangdong-Hong Kong-
Macao Greater Bay Area: Taking Creative Writing as a Pathway” (2020b), based on
the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay’s cultural industry studies, proposes
that we could use creative writing to train cultural creative talents in the Guangdong-
Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay. Given the rapid development of cultural industry in
the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay and numerous demands for creative
talents, creative writing education forms an important training mechanism for creative
talents. Wang 王宇闊 and Zhu 朱國華 (2020) investigate the intrinsic nature of
creative writing in the notions of the production of new media and arts from the
perspectives of cultural industry and media technology. Their research, based on
the current situation of new media, explores the fundamental theoretical issues in
creative writing studies. Meanwhile, scholars in China began to focus on the local-
ization of creative writing and explore new pathways. For instance, Xu 許峰 research
(2020c) concentrates on the disciplinary practices. He aspires to optimise the existing
traditions and systems, and emphasizes deriving wisdom from traditional writing in
addition to the studies of creative writing in different parts of the world. He also
discusses the conversion of traditional writing resources into contemporary resources,
exploring Chinese creative writing’s own pathways. These studies focus on specific
issues of local talent training, local resource exploration, and local cultural production
practice, showing a clear sensibility.
3.2 Gradual Clarification of the Relationship Between

Creative Writing and Creative Industries
Cultural industry establishes a vital context for the contemporary development of

Chinese creative writing. It offers opportunities for diversification of creative writing
and interdisciplinary practices, promoting the rapid development of creative writing.
Liu 劉賽 research (2020b) focuses on the importance of creative writing’s educa-
tional system to Nanjing, the city of literature, in terms of creativity and the devel-
opment of the cultural industry. An 安曉東 essay (2020a) ascertains the affinity
between cultural industry and creative writing. Lei 雷勇 (2020b) believes that “cre-
ative writing provides support for content, values, and aesthetics”. It is found that
scholars in China have clarified the relationship between creative writing and the
cultural industry and achieved a basic consensus in the aspects of the research on
industrial talents and academic studies. In addition, the teaching of creative writing
for undergraduate publishing programmes and the design of interdisciplinary degrees
in creative writing and publishing have entered the research scopes of scholars in
China. They noticed that “some courses such as creative writing, non-fiction prose
writing, and advanced creative writing do not provide knowledge in the field of
publishing; they only provide students with basic knowledge of literature and writing,
which accentuates the characteristics of such specialisation and equips students who
will devote themselves to publishing work with knowledge in humanities” (Zhang
et al. 2020). These studies come through the relationship between cultural industry
and creative writing, and lay a foundation for sincisation of the cultural industry.
3.3 Creative Writing in the Era of Digital Technology

as an Emerging Research Sub-Field
With the process of digital development, the relationships between creative writing,
new media, and media technology have been in the spotlight. Research on creative
writing and new media has gradually increased, especially since the East China
Normal University offered a degree in media and creative writing. He 賀軍 (2020)
takes Changsha, the city of media arts, as an example to discuss the local pathways
of creative writing education. He proposes that “the development of cultural creative
industry and creative writing education need to focus on media, and explore a field
of new media arts”. Zhang 張悅然 (2020d) believes that “with the economic society
developing and cultural industry arising, creative writing has received wider attention.
The popularity of new media has made writing a necessary literary for contemporary
people.” She also points out that the impetus from the cultural industry arises in
creative writing and new media. It is the combination of technology and media factors
that enables the socialization and industrialization of creative writing to become a
self-contained entity, and enters a broad creative practice based on the current literary
creativity. In general, as the practice of industrialization continues to use new media,
digitization and virtualization, the research on creative writing in the digital age has
become a natural extension of the topic. This also makes the research on theories
and practices of creative writing and contemporary Chinese cyber-literature, and new
media interlaced, opening up the horizon for subsequent cross-studies.
3.4 A New Upsurge of Research on Creative Writing

in Primary and Secondary Schools
The research on creative writing education in primary and secondary schools has
become a new upsurge in 2020. Such research is represented by Shanghai University’s
Tan Xudong, Southwest University’s Rong Weidong, Communication University of
Zhejiang’s Ye Wei, Yuwen Bao Press’s Ren Yanjun, The Affiliated High School
of Peking University’s Li Ren, and Guo Xueping, a special grade Chinese teacher
of Jiangsu Province. Little Luka’s Creative Writing Course for Literary Olympiad
《⼩魯卡的奧⽂創意寫作課》” written by Ge Hongbing, and “Creative Writing
in Primary Schools series 「⼩學創意寫作」系列 written by Ren Yanjun 任彥
均 indicates that the research on the development of Chinese creative writing in
primary and secondary school and its textbook has made a breakthrough. Ge (2020c)
proposes that “creative writing as a teaching approach” needs to focus on three parts:
self-excavation, mutual awareness and stereotype awareness. Tan 譚旭東 research
(2020) focuses on the relationship between creative writing and China’s primary
and secondary school education, and it concentrates on the relationship and integra-
tion of creative writing and creative composition, creative writing and composition
education reform. He points out the improving effect of creative writing’ on the
current language education’s “teaching materials, teaching approaches, exams, and
composition teaching”, and developed an approach to implement creative writing,
emphasising the design of creative writing’s poetry workshop and story workshop.
Rong 榮維東 analysis (2020) is based on various modes of China’s composition
education, and he proposes the idea that “using creative writing skills to improve
teaching ability in writing.” In addition, Ye Wei 葉煒 and Zhang Haitao 張海濤
took the lead in designing creative writing teaching approaches for rural centres.
Guo 郭學萍 research (2020) on “multiple dynamic evaluations” of primary school
creative writing is a further advancement after the proposal of “the development of
creative writing curriculum for primary and secondary schools.” As a whole, the
research on creative writing education in primary and secondary schools is the result
of the continuous deepening of creative writing sinicisation, and it shows that creative
writing’s abilities of participation and integration have been continuously improved
in the context of a more complex environment of Chinese writing education.
4 The Further Exploration, Problems, and Expectations

of the Research on Chinese Creative Writing
The research on basic theories of Chinese creative writing is steadily advancing

in 2020, with a new atmosphere and a batch of new results. The “innovation” is
mainly reflected in the deepening of existing research questions, the systematization
of curriculum design, the diversification of discipline practice, exploiting a research
sub-field, and actively expanding to primary and secondary schools. The reform of
creative writing education has been fully implemented in higher education institu-
tions, and responds to liberal arts education’s ideas and actions, becoming a leader
of it. The interdisciplinary nature of creative writing has also been reflected in prac-
tice. Numerous literary scholars and contemporary literary scholars, including Sun
Ganlu 孫⽢露, Zhang Qinghua 張清華, He Ping 何平, Wu Changqing 吳長青, Xiang
Jing 項靜 and so on, began to devote themselves to creative writing education, and
proposed vital arguments. Writing 寫作, Zhongshan 鐘山, Chinese Creative Writing
Studies 中國創意寫作研究, and the Journal of Xiangtan University (Philosophy
and Social Sciences) 湘潭⼤學學報 (哲學社會科學版) have successively launched
exhibitions and columns on creative writing education and research. Some scholars
proposed constructive views on creative writing development at the 40th Annual
Conference of the Chinese Writing Association. Many well-known contemporary
literary scholars and experts in literary theory began to think about the relationship
between creative writing and contemporary literature, literary theory, and cyber-
literature. This is closely related to the internal integration of creative writing in
literary discipline. However, creative practical integration of creative writing and
new media, artificial intelligence is in the ascendant, which requires further responses
from the creative writing research.
4.1 The Research on Creative Writing Continues to Deepen

and Echo Each Other
The research on creative writing continues to deepen, and many research interests
have new achievements, echoing each other in 2020. Dai Fan’s 戴凡 exploration of
the framework of English creative writing teaching methods received attention in
English creative writing research that year. The research findings on “creative writ-
ing” and “creative ontology” are applied in vocational education, interdisciplinary
writing, and basic education. Against the background of comparison of creative
writing at home and abroad, Kang Chunhua 康春華 proposed the question “how
to train creative masters?”, which is related to the development of creative practice
research. Song Shilei 宋時磊 mentioned that creative writing emphasizes practices
but lacks research, which is closely related to the rise of creative writing studies.
Zhang Yonglu’s 張永祿 investigation into the disciplinary boundaries of creative
writing and the multifaceted aspects of creative writing knowledge compliments
each other. Zhang Yueran 張悦然 discusses “the basis of concentrating on social
reality” which is related to critical creative writing. These studies reflect the vitality
of Chinese creative writing studies. They also show that the research scope of the
field has been expanded, and research questions are further explored; the research
scopes in China have kept abreast of their counterparts in other parts of the world.
4.2 Bottlenecks with Urgent Signals in Chinese Creative

Writing Studies
Many problems existing in Chinese creative writing studies hit the bottlenecks in the
research scope and its own legitimacy construction. For example, how to avoid falling
into the gap between academic research and creative practice (Wang and Zhan 2020),
and how to break through in a new development process. With the development of
creative writing sinicisation and New Liberal Arts construction, Chinese creative
writing studies have become a main part of current literature education, literature
institutions, and literature ecology. A scholar pointed out that “creative writing will
inevitably become the most important part of Chinese contemporary literary ecology
in the future” (Ye 2020b). On the other hand, the following issues still need theoretical
breakthroughs: how to tackle the relationship between contemporary literature and
contemporary writing based on the concept of New Liberal Arts construction; how
to hone the design of the curricula of creating writing with the integration of the
studies cyber-literature and new media with Chinese classical writing’s resources
based on the development of digital humanities. Furthermore, how to cultivate talents
with outstanding creativity and capability of critical thinking remains one of the
top-priority problems to be solved.
4.3 Continuous Development of the New Consensus

and the New Ecology in Creative Writing Studies
In the process of sinicization of creative writing, the internationalisation of creative

writing has taken an important step. In terms of sinicization, taking the research
scopes of Xu Daojun 許道軍, Ye Wei 葉煒, Ding Bohui 丁伯慧, Ye Zi 葉⼦ as
examples, creative writing and contemporary literary ecological issues have received
attention. In terms of creative writing and general education, Fang Changan ⽅長
安, Xie Xiwen 謝錫⽂, and Feng Ruchang 馮汝常 have similar ideas. In terms of
internationalization, scholars who are in the community of Chinese creative writing
studies have introduced the developing progress of Chinese creative writing studies
strategically and gradually through international platforms in 2020. China Renmin
University Press introduced Cambridge Introduction to Creative Writing to their
creative writing book series; Shanghai University’s creative writing book series is
constantly introducing new achievements in the field. Chinese creative writing studies
and a practical ecological atmosphere have gradually improved and laid an important
foundation for subsequent development.
5 Conclusion
In 2020, Chinese creative writing studies continually deepen in the areas of the
development of New Liberal Arts, and the research teams in the field continued to
expand. They have reached consensus in various aspects; higher education institu-
tions, social education organizations, cultural non-profit units, and organizations in
the cultural industry echoed each other and initially formed a joint force. However,
creative writing is not yet to form an independent discipline in China. The talent
training mechanism lags behind the market and education needs, and the overall
scale of the research team is small; the researchers lack the research results display
and exchange platform. The international exchanges and promotion of the field have
just started. The digital writing areas under the studies of creative writing such as arti-
ficial intelligence writing have been combined with other professional courses. The
dialogues among the studies of Chinese classical writing, and the traditions and expe-
riences of contemporary writing education need to be further explored. The current
research questions on Chinese creative writing that need to be further explored are
how to handle the two-way relationship between Chinese and international creative
writing, and how to use the new opportunities brought by the construction of New
Liberal Arts to promote the basic theoretical research of creative writing, and facili-
tate disciplinary development by integrating Chinese literature and cultural ecology
into Chinese creative writing studies.
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Teaching Creative Writing
in the mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong
Radio Drama Creation
and the Development and Training
of Related Industries
Abstract Hong Kong once experienced the burgeoning era of radio drama that
lasted for decades; in the mainland of China, as radio drama can be easily produced, it
became a vital channel of dissemination for the young country after its establishment
in 1949 and has had long-lasting influences since then. However, the number of radio
dramas produced in Hong Kong has dropped significantly in recent years due to
the rise of Internet entertainment and a popular tendency to opt for online leisure
activities. Audiobooks and audio creation have developed rapidly in recent years in
the mainland and Taiwan. To illustrate the huge development potential of the radio
drama industry, this article will analyse the radio drama industry of the mainland and
Taiwan, particularly the expeditious development of audiobooks and audio creation.
In addition, the “Radio Drama Creation” course in the curriculum of the program
Creative Writing and Film Art at Hong Kong Metropolitan University (formerly The
Open University of Hong Kong) will serve as an example to illustrate how creative
writing education can be reformed in line with the development trend of cultural and
creative industries and how it can cultivate talents of the next generation who devote
themselves into this promising writing industry.
Keywords Radio drama · Audiobook · Hong Kong Metropolitan University ·

Audio · Creative writing
1 Introduction: The Development of Radio Drama

Creation and Its Related Industries in Recent Years
Hong Kong once witnessed the burgeoning era of radio drama that lasted for decades.
It started off with the establishment of the wired radio station Radio Rediffusion
麗的呼聲 in 1949, and then Hong Kong experienced the golden age in which three
major radio stations were in intense rivalry in the 1950s and 1960s. In the 1970s and
1980s, Radio Television Hong Kong established a drama team which broadcasted
M. L. Rebecca Leung (B)

School of Arts and Social Sciences, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong, China
e-mail: rmlleung@hkmu.edu.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_3
34 M. L. Rebecca Leung
52.5 hours of radio dramas every week. In the 1990s, idol voice acting in radio dramas
went viral, and a number of important radio drama scriptwriters became well-known.
However, the number of newly produced radio dramas in Hong Kong fell sharply in
recent years after it had reached its peak which lasted for years. For instance, since
the late 1950s, the appearance of television stations has gradually impacted radio
stations in Hong Kong. Apart from the longest-running radio drama 18/F Block C ⼗
八樓C座, the total number of newly produced radio dramas is gradually decreasing.
In recent years, due to the rise of Internet entertainment and a popular tendency to
opt for online leisure activities, the development of radio drama has been further
impaired. Over the past two decades, Hong Kong’s radio dramas have relied more on
having celebrities or well-known producers as voice actors to attract audiences. Take
Commercial Radio Hong Kong as an example, its large-scale radio dramas produced
from 2012 to 2019 have used these methods to increase listenership (See Appendix
1). This approach is significantly different from that of the mainland of China where
hosts and talk show producers mainly play as voice actors.
In the mainland, amidst the rapid development of drama before 1949, radio drama
producers were mostly drama scriptwriters, such as Hong Shen’s 洪深 Beating the
Gong of Ship 開船鑼 (1936) and Xia Yan’s 夏衍 The Day of July 28th 「七‧⼆八」
那⼀天 (1937). After 1949, the China National Radio broadcasted a number of radio
dramas provided by the Central Broadcasting Art Troupe 廣播⽂⼯團, bringing radio
drama production into a new stage of development. After the establishment of the
People’s Republic of China, radio dramas became a vital channel of dissemination
because of the intrinsic nature that they could be easily and inexpensively produced,
and they have had long-lasting influences since then. Due to a diversity of reasons,
the development of children’s radio dramas is the most exceptional and has huge
development potential. On the mainland, there are approximately 700 million parents,
who would listen to radio dramas together with their children, making the target
market for children’s radio dramas enormous.
The audiobook industry in Taiwan has also been developing quickly, where audio-
book sales increased significantly in 2020. That year also became an epoch-making
year for audiobooks in Taiwan. The number of audiobooks on sale has increased by
486%, and the total sales amount has reached a growth rate of 850%. Among the 400
categories of audiobooks, “teenagers and children”, “literary novels” and “business
and finance” took the top three positions. The total listening time of 2,500 audiobook
listeners was 700,000 min. This development trend leads to industrial innovation in
digital reading devices and the training of voice actors (Yeung 2020).
Therefore, this article will analyse the rapid development trends in the above-
mentioned regions in the radio drama industry, particularly the expeditious growth
of audiobooks and audio works, and illustrate the huge development potential in
this area. In addition, the “Radio Drama Creation” course in the curriculum of the
program Creative Writing and Film Art at Hong Kong Metropolitan University will
serve as an example to illustrate how creative writing education can be reformed in
line with the development trend of cultural and creative industries and how it can
cultivate talents of the next generation who devote themselves into this promising
writing industry.
Radio Drama Creation and the Development and Training of Related… 35
2 Development of Radio Drama and Audiobook Creation

in mainland and Taiwan
With the increasing competition in the traditional publishing industry, readership

has gradually become saturated; the physical book publisher’s industry needs to be
reformed in response to these changes. At the same time, the advent of the digital
age has changed people’s radio drama listening habits and brought a revolution
in reading habits, reinforcing the creation and development of radio dramas. As
mentioned above, the production of radio dramas relied heavily on radio broadcasts
in the past. For example, Shanghai’s famous long-form radio drama Interpol 803
刑警 803 received massive production support from Shanghai Radio. In the 1990s,
its production was implemented with radio marketing, marketing planning, and co-
creating with listeners (Lei 2009). While the listenership of radio stations has been
declining nowadays, the rapid development of the Internet has led to the skyrocketing
growth of audio platforms in the mainland of China. In fact, the listening habits of the
audience have not changed significantly. For instance, audiences still listen to radio
dramas during their commute or leisure time. However, educational audio programs
have become the main content that more and more people hope to obtain over a
short period of time. Therefore, with the audiobook and audio platforms developing
vigorously, radio drama has regained a new momentum of development.
Take Dragonfly FM (蜻蜓 FM), the first online radio platform in the mainland,
which was established in 2011, as an example. Unlike traditional radio broadcast, it
uses the Internet as its operating platform as an advantage, making its total number
of users exceeds 450 million, among whom over 100 million were monthly active
users and 25 million daily, according to the data from 2019 (Zero2IPO Research 清
科研究中⼼ 2019). Dragonfly FM has a wide variety of radio channels for different
categories, including storytelling, cross-talks, talk shows, children and radio dramas1 ;
its radio dramas have various styles, such as romance, fantasy, thriller, amusement,
youth, military affairs, ghost stories, etc. The number of listeners who listen to radio
dramas through this platform is very large. For example, a radio drama album called
New Ghost Talk FM 新鬼話調頻 has more than 26 million listeners (Dragonfly FM,
n.d.). Apart from this, Dragonfly FM also has invited more than 12,000 celebrities
or well-known hosts such as Gao Xiaosong ⾼曉松 (creative artist, talk show host),
Ye Wen 葉⽂ (host, recipient of the Golden Microphone Award ⾦話筒獎), Liang
Hongda 梁宏達 (host), etc. Dragonfly FM has adopted many approaches to expand
its market audience share. For instance, it cooperated with car brands such as Ford,
Volvo, BMW, Audi AG, etc., to provide content connectivity and signal reception in
its vehicles (Xiao 2017).
There are some studies on the audiences of Dragonfly FM via surveys, and they
found that the listenership of online platforms surpassed traditional radio broadcasts
in 2015, and most of those who listen to audio programs through Dragonfly FM was
at a young age. Audiobooks and other non-live-stream audio programs in Dragonfly
1For more information with regard to the detailed classifications of the Dragonfly FM website,
please visit: https://www.qingting.fm/.
FM have soundly outstripped traditional broadcasting that focuses on everyday infor-

mation in 2015 (Jin 2017). From these data, one can prognosticate that pre-recorded
radio dramas would gradually rely more on online platforms rather than traditional
radio broadcasting as the main form of dissemination. This will inevitably initiate
reforms in the writing, thinking, aesthetics and production of scripts. Taking the
above-mentioned New Ghost Talk FM radio drama album as an example, based on
data of the existing 137 episodes from Dragonfly FM, most of them are short audios
that last less than 10 min. In comparison, thriller radio dramas on Hong Kong Radio
20 or 30 years ago usually last 30–45 min per episode and have a serial structure.
From such comparisons, it is found that the way in which radio dramas are produced
has changed significantly (Radio Television Hong Kong 2021). In addition, signif-
icant changes in style are also obvious. Take the above two kinds of ghost-story
radio dramas into account. The four-episode Fantasy File: Murder Hunt with the
Sixth Sense 奇幻檔案之靈感追兇 directed by Yang Lixian 楊麗仙 of Radio Televi-
sion Hong Kong in 1998 is an example. Its plot revolves around the investigation of
terrorist murders, which is different from the strange-storytelling radio dramas of the
same kind created in the 1970s in terms of style; however, the above-mentioned Drag-
onfly FM’s radio drama New Ghost Talk FM is popular for amusing ghost stories,
and “funny ghosts” 逗逼鬼 are created specifically for this theme. This radio drama
was advertised as “a thrilling story with an amusing ending” that even the faint of
heart can enjoy. This style not only shows a new direction for creation but also the
changes in radio drama production between the two places and different eras.
Among the many types of radio dramas and audio channels, there is a huge demand
for children’s dramas and related content. One of the innovation and entrepreneur-
ship projects at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, The Deer Mother ⼩鹿
萌媽, is an example. It won the National Gold Award in the 6th Internet + Inno-
vation and Entrepreneurship Competition in 2020 第六屆互聯網 + 創新創業⼤賽
全國⾦奬 in China. This is the only winner that was categorised as a language and
cultural project among the gold award recipients. This radio drama uses the Internet
to transmit information that integrated sinology. Through the efforts of teachers and
students at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, audiobooks and physical books
were created for children aged 3–12. The content features stories related to traditional
Chinese culture and spirituality. The Deer Mother shows various directions for radio
drama production. It was recommended by the Guang Dong Broadcasting and Televi-
sion Network Company Limited in 2020, and its Chinese audiobooks were launched
on the official platform of the Central Propaganda Department, Xuexi Qiangguo 學
習強國, and it was awarded “Lingnan Cultural Ambassador” by Guang Dong Broad-
casting and Television Network Company Limited’s app YueTing 粵聽 (Guangwai
chuangyi xiezuo zhongxin 廣外創意寫作中⼼ 2020). For instance, The Deer Mother
Tells 100 Stories of Princesses series ⼩鹿萌媽講 100 個公主故事 consists of 100
stories about princesses in China and beyond across centuries such as “The Sensible
Beauty-Diao Chan” 貂蟬, “Mu Lan” 花⽊蘭, “Rose Princess” 薔薇公主 of Japan,
and “Princess with blond hair” of Eastern Europe, etc. All of these stories are recorded
in Putonghua and are mainly told from a single-person perspective. However, the most
special thing is that some stories are told in Cantonese, such as “The Princess Who
Likes to Listen to Lies” 鍾意聽⼈講⼤話的公主, “The Silent Princess” 唔講話的

公主. This shows that audio creation in dialects is strongly supported in the mainland
(Yueting 粵聽 2021). On 4 November 2019, “Guangdong, Hong Kong and Macao
Youth Audiovisual Content Entrepreneurship Incubation Base” 粵港澳青年視聽內
容創業孵化基地 was officially launched in Guangzhou which aims at promoting
the development of audio and video projects in universities, young enterprises, and
new media studios in the three regions. In total 20 innovation and entrepreneurship
projects are undertaken by Hong Kong and Macau youths by January 2021 (Kong
2021). The audio industry has enormous developmental potential in the future.
The development of audiobooks in Taiwan has been accelerating in recent
years. For example, Rakuten Kobo, eReader produced by Rakuten Incorporated
that supports traditional Chinese ebooks, was on sale in Taiwan in 2016, and in
2018 its audiobooks became available in the market. So far, readers of Kobo audio-
books mainly aim at foreign language reading and learning, and there are more male
users than females. Regarding the types of audiobooks, unlike in North America,
the highest-selling audiobooks in Taiwan are non-fiction, followed by romance,
horror, thriller, autobiography, fantasy, personal development, and children’s. Scien-
tific fiction was expected to be a popular one, but it turns out to be one of the
least popular genres. In terms of audiobook usage, the most common times to listen
to audiobooks were during holidays, followed by leisure time, doing housework,
commuting, and time in bed. According to the data from Taiwan’s Kobo Chief of the
Information Department, Hu Huijun 胡惠君, Taiwan’s publishing industry primarily
focuses on physical books and then on e-books and audiobooks. In comparison, the
mainland is more flexible in this aspect. For example, some editors would consider
their books as second-tier in the physical book market but first-tier in electronic and
audio markets, and such differences suggest differing positioning of the same product
across markets (Open Book 閱讀誌 2021).
With the advent of audiobooks, changes take place in voice recording work. Unlike
dub voice actors, audiobook reading and radio drama production need voice actors
and voice directors. Unlike dubbing anime and movies, sound production for audio-
books (and broadcasting) requires voice actors to make appropriate adjustments.
For instance, some minor modifications of difficult words would be needed in order
to save the listeners the trouble of looking up the dictionary while listening to the
audiobook. Regarding voice performance for audiobooks, voice personnel can be the
authors themselves, celebrities, or voice actors, depending on the nature of the work.
It is suggested that in the radio drama and audiobook industry, the importance of
the training for voice actors would gradually increase in the future (Taiwan Creative
Content Agency ⽂化內容策進院 2021).
The rapid development of audiobooks has also directly affected various aspects of
the training for radio drama, including voice performance, script creation and produc-
tion technology. Traditional processes of radio drama production, from scriptwriting
of radio drama to audio content editing, marketing, and reader/audience attraction,
will inevitably be changed in response to the rise of the IP film and television industry.
In the past, it was necessary to combine the three elements of editing, directing and
acting after the script was completed for radio drama production. The “e-theatre”
is different from the traditional; the former cannot be adjusted through lighting and
scenery and can invoke audience’s imagination through sound only. Therefore, vocal
expressions in radio dramas are very important. In addition to basic sound elements
such as music and sound effects, actors need to highlight their emotions in the voice
and express them through recording or live broadcast. Radio drama directors need
to guide the audience to visualize the characters, time and space, scenes, emotions
and other elements that make up the plot. However, audiobooks are often guided
by one single voice actor. Since audiobooks are similar to storytelling, audiobook
performance bears resemblance to the “one-person radio drama”, which appeared
in the early history of radio dramas in Hong Kong. For example, the Sky Novels
天空⼩說 created around the 1950s was performed by the famous radio actor Li
Ngaw 李我 who worked both as the director and voice actor, captivating audiences
from Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Macao. All radio dramas produced by Li Ngaw
are entirely improvised without a page of script written. He sometimes even played
eight different roles on the same show. Other Hong Kong radio drama actors of this
period include Tang Kee-chan 鄧寄塵 and Chung Wai-ming 鍾偉明, who were deft
at creating and performing one-person radio dramas (Fung 2013, 82–83). This kind of
one-man radio drama faded away gradually in traditional broadcasting because of the
change in audiences’ needs; however, in recent years, it has re-emerged together with
the rise of audiobooks. Take the audiobook of the novel The Stranger (L’ Étranger) by
Albert Camus, produced by Taiwan’s Rye Field Publishing Company as an example.
The actor performed as the narrator as well as the main characters, stepping back in
the tradition of the performance of one-person radio drama (Rye Field Publications
⿆⽥出版 2020). Regarding children’s radio dramas, the development of audiobooks
is even more vigorous. Taking the Little Bear Books of Book Republic 讀書共和
國出版集團 as an example, its audiobook Dodo’s Birthday ⼩鱷⿂家族: 多多的
⽣⽇is performed through storytelling. The voice actress performed as the narrator,
mother and child while the voice actor performed as the father. Overall, the way the
audiobook is performed resembles a one-person radio drama (Little Bear Books ⼩
熊出版 2017).
3 The Course “Radio Drama Creation” in the Curriculum

of the Program Creative Writing and Film Art
Curriculum at Hong Kong Metropolitan University
Based on the above-mentioned development trends of radio dramas and performance,

the Creative Writing and Film Art course in the Department of Creative Arts at
Hong Kong Metropolitan University has been offering “Radio Drama Creation” since
2008. The course addresses the history, development and transformation of local
radio dramas, allowing students to learn the historical background and operational
processes of radio media. Students not only learn how to write radio scripts but also
gain an understanding of different elements of radio drama such as pronunciation,
music and sound effects for story-telling. Over the 13-week course, instructors deliver
lessons on different topics. For example, Moon Reflected on the Second Spring ⼆泉
映⽉, by E Yunwen 鄂允⽂, Liu Baoyi 劉保毅 and Rong Lei 榮磊, is taught in the
course to illustrate the structure and creative characteristics of single radio dramas.
For long-running series, The Deer and the Cauldron 鹿鼎記, which is the radio
drama adaptation of Jin Yong’s ⾦庸 novel by Tsang Yuet-ngor 曾⽉娥 produced
by Radio Television Hong Kong, is taught in class as an example of such genre of
radio drama. For the creation of long-form dramas the course focuses on the study of
Interpol 803: Online Fishing 刑警 803: 網上捕⿂, a popular radio drama from the
mainland, and 18/F Block C, Hong Kong’s longest-running broadcasting series, to
are taught to demonstrate the methods to create broadcasting programs. Regarding
radio drama adaptation and creation, instructors use two radio dramas produced
by Radio Hong Kong as examples. One of them is the romantic drama Rouge of
The North 怨女 adapted from Eileen Chang’s 張愛玲 novel, and another one is
the science-fiction drama The Wesley’s Mysterious File 藍⾎⼈, which is adapted
from Ni Kuang’s 倪匡 novel of the same name. Besides, the course also teaches the
creation of radio dramas for children, using Xi Peilan 奚佩蘭 and Li Ronggui’s 李
榮歸 The Second Half of Edison’s Life 愛迪⽣的後半⽣ and Li Man’s 李曼 The
Distress of the Ancient Tomb 古墓遇險 as teaching materials. Other topics include
mini-radio dramas, experimental dramas, and Chinese opera radio dramas.
At the beginning of the stage of the course that covers children’s radio drama,
the instructors first introduce students to the fact that children of different ages have
different needs as radio drama audiences; therefore, there are huge differences in the
needs of radio dramas among preschoolers, primary school students and secondary
school students. Radio dramas for preschoolers should feature a slow, repetitive
speech with appropriate explanations so that they can imitate repetitively. Primary
school students can understand faster-paced stories, so producers may include suit-
able educational content in radio dramas. However, imposing ideas on secondary
school students is not appropriate; instead, inspirational allegories can be introduced
to them. The needs of preschoolers for radio dramas receive the least attention among
the three cohorts. This is because most adults think that it is too unchallenging for
them to produce radio dramas for children of this age; as a result, the repetitiveness
and playfulness of the productions are often neglected. According to Zhang Mini’s
張美妮 research, preschoolers need to experience society through happiness and
learn about social norms to achieve socialization. Therefore, radio dramas created
for children of this age group are supposed to prioritise entertainment over education
(Zhang 2001). Useful methods include using action-oriented plots and rich sound
effects; with these methods, preschoolers tend to be more willing to play the roles in
the stories.
In addition, there is a close relationship between voice actors, the production of
radio dramas, and audiobooks. This course features lessons devoted to radio speaking
and skills training. Given the fact that Hong Kong students rarely receive special-
ized training in Cantonese pronunciation, these lessons cover the most common
mispronunciations among Hong Kong students, correcting the pronunciations that
occur often in productions of radio dramas and voice performances. In addition,
instructors also teach the volume of voice, speech pace, articulation and other voice
performing skills. These lessons are popular among students, and many graduates
have joined the radio or broadcasting industry after graduation. In the future, this
course will be reformed, and more teaching content related to audiobooks and audio
production will be added to the course in order to better prepare students for the
ever-changing society.
4 Conclusion
In summary, radio dramas and related industries have tremendous potential. In terms
of forms, radio dramas have gradually become independent from traditional broad-
casting platforms as they can now be transmitted through audiobooks or internet
radio stations; in terms of genres, children’s radio dramas receive priority attention.
In the future, Hong Kong Metropolitan University will adjust and update its teaching
direction and content in a timely manner based on this development trend and devote
itself to the education of this industry and its technology by investing more resources
in the education of voice actors and instructors.
Appendix 1
Examples of Commercial Radio Hong Kong’s ⾹港商業電台 Radio Drama.

2019: The Accumulation of Loneliness 寂寞的總和 (Edmond Tong 湯駿業,
Fiona Sit 薛凱琪).
2016: Hot Kitchen 熱廚房 (Jan Lamb 林海峰, Pun Siu Tou 潘⼩濤, Ken Yuen
阮⼦健).
2015: Spring Breeze 銀河歲⽉ (Alan Tam Wing Lun 譚詠倫).
2014: Tales of Walled Village ⼤城⼩故事 (Miriam Yeung Chin-wah 楊千嬅).
2012: Love in Time 等‧我愛你 (Sammy Leung Chi Ki 森美, Kitty Yuen Siu
Yee ⼩儀, Bosco Wong ⿈宗澤).
2012: Prince in the Forest 公⼦森林 (Sammy Leung Chi Ki 森美, Kitty Yuen Siu
Yee ⼩儀, Leila Kong Lai Na 唐寧).
2012: Vani in Love at the Theater: Goodbye to my lovers 雲妮鍾情劇場: 告別
我的戀⼈們 (Leo Ku Kui-kei 古巨基, Charlie Young 楊采妮, Mak Ling Ling ⿆玲
玲).
2012: Ex-Girlfriend 前女友 (Jim Yan Chi Hong 占).
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Apr 2021
A Discussion on the Teaching of Creative
Writing in the Writing Classes
of Colleges in China
Wang Wei-Zhou
Abstract Creative writing has been developed for over seventy years in Western
developed countries. It has gradually become a mature academic subject with a
complete system for nurturing talents, which serves as a crucial channel to nurture
writers, as well as experienced writing teachers. Regardless, there are various disputes
over the mode of training in creative writing within the industry. Some believe that
writing is unteachable; some suggest that there are still many problems with the
existing pedagogy, which, for example, lacks flexibility]. The education of writing
in high education in China has a long history too, but there are deviations in the notion
of central idea between the teaching of such and creative writing. Since the twenty-
first century, numerous Chinese colleges have become eager to learn the advanced
concepts in creative writing from the West, and they have employed teachers and
started developing their creative writing programmes. Through four aspects of the
discussion, viz. the relationship between teaching and writing, the historical origins
of creative writing, the development of creative writing in China, and the pedagogy of
creative writing, this chapter explores how educators of literary writing can pursue
creative writing pedagogy against the framework of university writing classes in
order to promote the development of creative writing as an academic discipline in
China.
Keywords Creative writing · Writing courses in higher education · Pedagogy
1 Preface
The 25th Taipei International Book Exhibition (25屆臺北國際書展) took place on

10 February 2017. Chinese-American writer Ha Jin 哈⾦ came to the Exhibition
This paper is supported by the Key Project of Humanity and Social Science Research Program of
Chongqing Municipal Education Commission (Grant No. 22SKGH332).
W. Z. Wang (B)
Department of Foreign Languages, University of Putra Malaysia, Seri Kembangan, Malaysia
School of Arts, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Chongqing, China
e-mail: wzwang@sanxiau.edu.cn
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_4
44 W. Z. Wang
with his new work The Boat Rocker 折騰到底 and delivered a speech. Later in
the hotel, he had a dialogue with writer Wu Mingyi 吳明益. Ha Jin rose to fame
when he clinched the American National Book Award with his novel Waiting 等
待. He is currently teaching at Boston University, USA, and heads creative writing
projects there. Wu Mingyi is a professor of the Department of Sinophone Literatures
at Dong Hwa University, Taiwan; his works include Fu Yan Ren 複眼⼈ (The Man
with the Compound Eyes) and so on. Since they are writers and teachers at univer-
sities, this dialogue is particularly unique and significant. As such, the association
is established between the two independent fields: writing and teaching. Writing is
a profoundly unpredictable artistic creation. Can this be taught? Writing is unlike
piano. Piano can be taught at a very young age. Piano skills can be introduced to
children when they have yet to develop any receptivity; they can improve their skills
through daily practice. As for writing, in addition to continuous practices and the
guidance one receives, it is evident that one’s inborn talent is at play, which cannot
be taught. Professor Chen Pingyuan 陳平原 of Peking University pointed out that,
“Luo Changpei 羅常培, Dean of Chinese of the Southwestern Associated Univer-
sity in China during the Anti-Japanese War; and Yang Hui 楊晦, Dean of Chinese of
Peking University during the 50 s and 60 s have both openly claimed that: the faculty
of Chinese does not nurture writers” (Luo and Zhou 2014).Anyone who has studied
in faculties of Chinese would understand that faculties of Chinese cultivate future
academics who conduct research on literary works and literary writings, not writers.
This type of concept has now gradually become a norm. Nowadays, not too many
young people would study in the faculties of Chinese with the aspiration to become
a writer. Writers would have already entered the workforce at an earlier stage of life.
However, another party of people holds the view that not only can writing be
taught, but also writers can be nurtured through education. Similar to intensively
specialized professionals such as lawyers and architects, who attain their degrees
through specialized programmes in universities, writing can be a type of specialized
profession that deserves recognition, too. In the U.S., most writers hold a master’s
degree in creative writing, and they usually return to universities to teach creative
writing. This has formed an interesting cycle, such that more and more writers with
creative writing degrees are produced and that the faculties of creative writing in
universities continue to expand, gradually leading to an unprecedented development
trend. According to MFA vs. NYC: The Two Cultures of American Fiction edited by
writer Chad Harbach (2014) from the United States, there are two camps in the world
of novels in the U.S. today. One is the “Creative Writing Department”, prevalent in
various universities; the other one is the “New York camp”, rooted in the Manhattan
publishing industry. In other words, one is “academicism” while the other one is
freelance writers. The two major camps are mutually confrontational, while their
writings also head in different directions. There is a free and glamourous market on
the one hand, and a simplistic ivory tower on the other hand. It is certain that in terms
of quantity, academician writers across the nation have gained the upper hand. So,
why are there so many writers entered campus and started teaching?
The root of it is the “money” issue. Ha Jin wrote in the appendix of his work, The
Writer as Migrant 在他鄉寫作, “Literary writers should have a stable income so
A Discussion on the Teaching of Creative Writing in the Writing Classes… 45
that they can survive failures in the market.” While in the dialogue with Wu Mingyi,
he also pointed out, “In the U.S., the environment for survival is not quite the same.
No matter how successful he is, it is quite possible that he fails to produce any work
after three or five years and loses the title of writer. Sometimes, even when you
have published an excellent book, the publisher is crestfallen when the sales fall
short of the ideal. If you do not have a formal job, the publisher would not be too
willing to publish your work. I believe this is the actual case. After considering the
various situations, it should be better to have a formal job, whatever sort of a job it
is” (Cui 2017) Coincidentally, a dialogue between Donald Hall and Ezra Pound has
been recorded in the book MFA vs. NYC, which precisely pointed out the relationship
between literary writing and teaching at university:
Hall: At present, American poets are primarily teachers. As you see it, what is the relationship
between teaching in university and writing poetry?
Pound: The cause is economic. One has to afford to pay the rent. (Harbach 2014, 5)
Of course, those who do not teach in university have become freelance writers in
the “New York Camp” or have gained recognition in the market for a long time and
have made some fortunes; or they may have specialized in a particular genre and are
fully confident entering the market. They need not worry about paying the rent.
With such a close association with “money”, how did the teaching of creative
writing in America gain such prestige worldwide? And how do they train up cohort
after cohort of outstanding writers who eventually return to campus?
In China, writers not only have difficulties earning a living; writers rarely take the
initiative to teach in colleges. From my point of view, creative writing specialisation
and the writing classes prevalent in colleges in China are in the early stages of
exploration. In the current prevailing trend of developing applied undergraduate
programmes, as college teachers and writers, we need to seriously consider how to
link up the industry writing, and how to conduct innovative teaching of writing.
2 Old Warriors Never Die: The Prominence of Creative

Writing
In recent years, war veterans have often attracted extensive attention from American
society because of the Gulf War. The world may speculate that they have undergone
such horrors on battlefields. How would these war veterans face their mental world?
They have returned from the battlefields, and many of them have great difficulty
integrating into society. They may be suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD), so they can only join the Veterans Mutual Aid Association. However, quite a
number of war veterans have trodden alternative paths and chosen to write about their
psychological burdens. Kevin Powers and Phil Klay are some of the representatives.
They have both performed military service in Iraq for one year and have witnessed the
cruelty of war in person. Kevin Powers published the novel The Yellow Birds in 2012
46 W. Z. Wang
and narrated his personal experience in the War of Iraq. Once published, the book
triggered wide discussions and was shortlisted as a finalist in the American National
Book Award. Phil Klay published his collection of short stories Redeployment in
2012. All twelve short stories, with no exceptions, focus on the state of existence of
American soldiers on battlefields. The collection of short stories won the American
National Book Award in 2014.
With All Quiet on the Western Front (Im Westen Nichts Neues) as a start, it
seems that all portrayals of the depression from war and the descriptions of war are
similar. War has such strange yet similar powers that influence one’s course of life.
After discharge, Kevin Powers returned to campus and attained a master’s degree in
creative writing at the University of Texas, Austin. As for Phil Klay, he enrolled in
the Master’s Degree in Creative Writing at the Hunter College of the City University
of New York after his return from Iraq. At present, they are active in the literary
world in America in their capacity as war veterans.
In fact, it has long become a tradition for war veterans to return to the campus
to pursue creative writing degrees; this is a good opportunity for them to reintegrate
into society. To trace back to the origin, war may have implicit significance to the
flourishing creative writing field in the U.S. After the Second World War, there
was an unprecedented development in tertiary education in the U.S. The number of
tertiary institutions soared; correspondingly, the number of degree-granting academic
disciplines also increased, giving rise to writing classes. Furthermore, in 1944 the
U.S. Congress enacted the “The G.I. Bill of Rights” to ensure the proper placement
of war veterans after the war. The Bill involved offering the veterans with education
subsidy that aims at helping service members whose education has been interrupted
by their military service to continue their studies on campus. The Bill has changed
several millions of war veterans’ post-war lives and triggered a wave of veterans
returning to college. Due to the interruption of war, many veterans have missed the
best time for learning professional knowledge, so they have no choice but to choose
some academic disciplines with lower professional requirements and, thus, creative
writing programmes. Under the guidance of their teachers, these veterans trace back
their memories to face their darkest nightmares. They were guided to express the
sights and scenes they experienced during the war in literary forms, thus giving rise
to some of the finest war literature.
It is evident that the prominence of creative writing came from its origin. With
regard to this, the University of Iowa, which is crucial to the literary world in the U.S.,
cannot be neglected. During the Great Depression, the University of Iowa, famous
for academic freedom and imagination, nurtured numerous artists in painting, music
composition, and writing to offer some gaiety to those depressing times. The creative
writing project of the University of Iowa began to develop on the right track under
such cultural and artistic enrichment. In 1931, Mary Hoover Roberts’ collection
of poems, “Paisley Shawl”, was the first master’s degree dissertation in creative
writing that gained recognition from the University. Roberts was then followed by
writer Wallace Stegner and poet Paul Engle. Engle’s master’s degree dissertation
was a collection of poems entitled Worn Earth, which garnered The Yale Younger
Poets Prize in 1932. It was the University of Iowa’s first formally published master’s
dissertation in the category of poetry. In the 1930s, the Dean of Arts, Norman Forester,
promoted the development of the creative writing programme. In 1937, when Paul
Engle joined the teaching staff in the School at the University, he endeavoured to
found the Iowa Writer Workshop. In 1943 he became the head of the department
(Earnshaw 2017, 12). In the two following decades, under the management of Engle,
the Iowa Writer Workshop gradually reached its climax and attracted many famous
writers to teach there. Most of the students of the programme became professional
writers, and they went to various universities to lead creative writing programmes.
As such, creative writing as an academic discipline began to grow in the U.S. At
present, the originator of the Iowa Writer Workshop still ranks number one on the
chart of professional creative writing programmes throughout the U.S.
In retrospection, it can be said that Paul Engle has laid the foundation for creative
writing in the U.S. and the development of creative writing throughout the world.
3 The Seeds Sown by the IWP
Paul Engle had a close connection with China. He was the husband of renowned
Chinese writer Nieh Hualing 聶華苓. He often travelled in China with his wife and
had exchanges with many Chinese writers. He wrote a collection of poems entitled
Images of China. During his 25-year tenure as head of the Department, the number of
students of the Iowa Writer Workshop reached a new milestone and began to expand
internationally. In 1967, Engle and Nieh Hualing jointly organised the International
Writing Program (IWP), in which writers from different countries are invited to write,
attend lectures, and teach on campus every year. Amongst these excellent writers from
all over the world, Chinese writers are the least negligible group. Among the most
significant writers in the contemporary Chinese literary world, almost all of them
have participated in the IWP of the University of Iowa. Since 1979, more than 90
Chinese writers have been to Iowa. Some of their names are familiar to us: Mo Yan 莫
⾔, Wang Anyi 王安憶, Yu Hua 余華, Ge Fei 格非, Su Tong 蘇童, Bei Dao 北島, Can
Xue 殘雪, Bai Xianyong ⽩先勇, Dung Kai-Cheung 董啟章……their novels, poems
and drama involve various creative fields with varying backgrounds of daily living.
However, these have not obstructed their immersion in literary thoughts on the lush
green campus of Iowa. No doubt, the experience of participation in the International
Writing Program has widened the literary perspective of Chinese writers. Quite a
number of writers started making intentional changes in their literary creations after
their return to China.
At that time, we would not have thought that the names mentioned above would
have become the pillars in the Chinese literary world three decades later. In the early
twenty-first century, they have become vital members of academia at the rise of the
creative writing profession in China.
Colleges in China do have a tradition of teaching writing. In fact, almost every
university has its writing classes. The idea that “faculties of Chinese do not nurture
48 W. Z. Wang
writers” was fully reckoned with since the Anti-Japanese War. Then, how did teaching
come into practice in the relevant writing classes?
From the 80 s of the last century, literary writing was only a type of genre theory
dependent upon “the fundamentals of writing”. It had not reached the practical stage
where students could engage in writing yet. In reality, teachers would give a brief
introduction of different genres such as poetry, novels, prose, drama, etc., in class,
and there were no sessions for writing practices nor discussions. However, since
the 80 s, the status of writing has been elevated. The universities made writing
classes independent from the “Fundamentals of Writing”, or offered as electives in
which specialised teaching materials were taught. Along with these changes, some
teaching materials became available on the market, including Wenxue Xiezuo ⽂學
寫作 (Literary Writing) edited by Zhang Wentian 張⽂⽥ (Peking University Press,
1986), Wenxue Xiezuo Xue ⽂學寫作學 (Literary Writing as an Academic Discipline)
edited by Peng Kaiqi 彭愷奇 et al. (Central South University, 1995 edition), Wenti
Xiezuo ⽂體寫作 (Genre of Writing)” edited by Chen Jiamin 陳佳民 (Guangdong
People’s Publishing House, 1999 edition) (Liu 2005) and so on.
Despite the change of view toward writing classes in colleges, some deviations
still exist, which can be reflected from three perspectives: the managers, teachers, and
students. To the managers, they adhere to one concept: instead of facing the unknown,
it would be better to take a more practical approach. As an educational institution for
nurturing talents, colleges would eventually need to fulfil the market’s demands for
human resources. Given this, the managers would be pleased to nurture professionals
with compatible writing skills. However, this notion of “writing skills” is not the
same as that in the literary context. Instead, they have to master the writing skills
of various practical writings such that they can complete various jobs assigned by
their employers. In this situation, literary writing is useless. Therefore, the managers
would place a greater emphasis on practical writing in education instead of the
seemingly meaningless education in literary writing. To teachers, literary writing
is somewhat unfamiliar. While teachers in college mostly have received rigorous
academic training and immersed themselves in writing meticulous scholarly papers
in their specialized field for years, they may have insufficient experience in creating
literary works. Practice is the most important part of the teaching of creative writing;
therefore, it requires teachers to utilize their own experience in creating literary
works to teach students writing knowledge. From this perspective, the teachers of
writing courses should not only be teachers, but also professional writers. Due to
the change of view toward university writing courses, teachers may have insufficient
means and experiences in teaching; the students would be affected subconsciously.
If the managers take an imbalanced approach, students might be discouraged to
pursue their dreams of creating literary works and put their best effort into practical
writing for employment instead; teachers would be disinterested in teaching while
the students would not pay much attention to the teachers or the teaching materials
in class. The three of them co-exist, and they are interrelated. They influence one
another to generate the butterfly effect. This situation is indeed the reality that occurs
in most of the writing courses at universities in China.
Due to the various issues of the traditional writing classes, the intellectuals start
to resort to the studies of creative writing in the West. In recent years, there has
been a trend for colleges to employ writers to serve as professors and allow the
writers to participate in the teaching and research of literary writing. For example,
Bi Feiyu 畢⾶宇 is invited by Nanjing University, Jia Ping’ao 賈平凹 by Northwest
University, Wang Anyi by Fudan University, and Yan Lianke 閻連科 by the Renmin
University of China, etc. Unlike past arrangements in which writers were invited
to give talks or to act as writer-in-residence, those writers are employed as faculty
members of the universities, and they enjoy the social network on campus. Having
the foundation of qualified teachers established, creative writing begins to flourish
in China. In 2009, Ge Hongbing 葛紅兵, Professor of Chinese at Shanghai Univer-
sity, organised the Creative Writing Centre of Shanghai University with the vision
to offer undergraduate creative writing programmes. In 2010, the master’s degree
in creative writing at Fudan University, headed by writer Wang Anyi admitted its
first cohort of 12 students. The Faculty of Chinese of the Guangdong University of
Foreign Studies began to admit undergraduate students in Chinese Language and
Literature (Creative Writing) in 2012, which is the first undergraduate programme
specialising in creative writing in China. In 2014, Peking University also launched
a master’s degree in creative writing with the aim to nurture talents in practical
writing. Meanwhile, in the same year, the Faculty of Arts of the Renmin University
of China started to admit students of creative writing. Different from other universi-
ties’ creative writing programmes, the creative writing programmes at the Renmin
University of China only admit young writers who have already achieved certain
accomplishments in creative writing; therefore, their expected teaching outcomes are
different from other colleges. Subsequently, a number of colleges in China succes-
sively launched creative writing programmes, or even founded a school of creative
writing. It is worth mentioning that this phenomenon does not only happen to pres-
tigious universities in China. This is happening in many regional undergraduate
intuitions, too. For example, Chongqing College of Mobile Communication estab-
lished a programme in creative writing with a focus on practical and applied creative
writing, which is different to other intuitions.
It is believed that, along with the gradual development of literary pedagogy and
higher education, more colleges in China will launch creative writing programmes;
there will be more writer-turned-educators returning to campus where they guide
people through the paths they took.
4 Sensory Literature: Senses of Sight, Hearing, Taste,

Feeling and the Mind
During the development of creative writing in China in the past decade, educators
in literary writing have gradually understood “what it is” (the concept and origins of
creative writing), “what to teach” (the course set-up and course standard of creative
50 W. Z. Wang
writing); but the question of “how to teach” (teaching methods for creative writing)
remains unclear. How to effectively teach writing without compromising writing
traditions in China? First of all, the strengths of teaching creative writing in the West
can be widely adopted.
In the West, creative writing is mainly taught through two modes: Workshop
and Seminar. The two modes have different sizes of audiences and are mutually
complementary in terms of content. Unlike common university lectures, 10 to 20
students would sit in a circle in the centre of the classroom in a workshop. As the
organiser, the teacher would stand in front of the students or sit in the middle of the
circle, which resembles the ancient storytelling tradition around a bonfire, and the
class begins in form of a discussion. Ha Jin mentioned in an interview, “At the post-
graduate level, there is no need for textbooks. Textbooks are for undergraduates.
There are similar teaching materials within China. The perspective of narration,
dialogues and so on. But poets and novelists usually do not read these; their teachings
will base entirely upon their own experiences. They will require you to read many
works that they select for you” (Zhu 2017). No teaching materials, no fixed teaching
steps; there will only be a certain theme or a specific book. The teacher will guide
students to develop an association of ideas and discuss a theme or book to stimulate
their thoughts and, thus, the arguments.
Workshops place greater emphasis on the mutual cooperation and discussion
between the teachers and students while seminars focus on the speaker, who mainly
shares his or her experience and answers questions. Compared to workshops, the scale
of seminars seems larger, with usually no less than 20 persons and as many as 200
persons. The speaker(s) would usually be a non-faculty expert(s) or writer(s). There
may be one or more speakers delivering talks on a specific theme. After delivering the
speech, there shall be an exchange session or a question-and-answer session. This
mode undoubtedly increases the students’ chances to have in-depth conversations
with magnates of the industry or experienced writers. Students can ask for advice
directly from the writers, which is helpful for students to solve various issues that
they may encounter in their practical writing process.
However, the teaching mode of writing classes in colleges in China is still based
primarily on the teachers and, secondarily, the students. The students would only
listen, and they rarely have the chance to exchange and discuss. Nevertheless, it
would be impracticable to “replicate” the Western creative writing pedagogy. Firstly,
the teaching facilities and environment in colleges in China have yet to be up to par
with the objective requirements for organising workshops and seminars. Secondly,
the manpower of teachers and writers clearly cannot cover all tertiary institutions;
writing classes will eventually become a contest amongst the prestigious institutions
only. In my opinion, under the current environment of writing classes in tertiary
institutions, the approach of “sensory teaching” can be adopted.
Understanding the essence of literature is crucial for developing its own features.
But what is the essence of literature? It has been well said by scholar Hu Xiaozhen
胡曉真, “Literature is the expression of feelings and of mind. It is the integration
of imagination, fabrication, application and reality. It is a way to face life. It is
an interlocking joint among persons to persons, persons to objects, and persons to
history. It is also the art of rhetoric. The interpretation of literature is the in-depth
study of the conveyance of sentiments, sounds, scenes, and even smells carried out by
the details of texts; the exploration of humanities and the entangled minds” (Hu 2017,
7). Hu Xiaozhen took the perspective of a literary researcher to explain the subtleties
of literature. Nevertheless, he has unveiled some parts of the truth: literature is an
expression of the senses of sight, hearing, taste, feelings, and mind. In the world of
literature, it is applicable to any means of expression, whether literary creation or
literary research. Literary writing often requires the use of sensory systems of the
whole body or the mastery of one or several. For example, Perfume (Das Parfüm)
of Patrick Süskind is about the sense of smell, and My Name is Red (Benim Adım
Kırmızı) of Ferit Orhan Pamuk portrays colours and concerns the sense of sight.
Therefore, during the course of teaching, teachers can use their senses as the gateway
to put themselves into their students’ shoes. With the integration of related theoretical
knowledge into the practices, they can achieve unexpected results.
Take the creative writing pedagogy of the Department of Chinese and History of
the City University of Hong Kong as an example. Despite that the university does
not offer any creative writing programmes, there is a core course “Chinese Creative
Writing” in the curriculum of the Master of Arts in Chinese programme. The course
is taught by Hong Kong writer Ma Ka Fai. According to the course outline, the
course is delivered in four forms: lecture, tutorial, discussion presentation and final
presentation. The lectures are delivered by the instructor, and in the tutorials, students
are to raise questions, interact, and conduct group discussions, followed by a 500-
word discussion report written by each student which summarises and describes the
main points and the details of the discussions. By the end of the semester, each
student is to submit 5,000-word creative prose or novel under a theme.
Same as a seminar, there is a theme for each class. these different themes are
all related to the senses. After attending the last class, the course unfolds itself as
a unified symphony of sensory that happens once a semester. The main sections
would be observation of all directions; the eyes: the mysterious colours; the ears: the
trivial sounds; the nose: the subtle smells; the tongue: the allure of the taste buds; the
body: the weight of the universe; the mind: the waves in minds; gender: the actual
differences between men and women; identity: the power of status. The theme sets
a framework for the topics to be discussed. A fixed selection of books is used for
lectures, discussion, and writing practices. Compared to the boundless exploration
of workshops, this is easier to enhance the sense of presence for students and anchor
their attention so that the teaching will become more efficient.
5 Conclusion
In Europe and the U.S., creative writing has a history of seventy years. Under the influ-
ence of the literary explosion and the World War, it has become a mature academic
discipline with a comprehensive system to nurture talents. From undergraduate to
postgraduate students, from bachelor’s degree to doctoral degree, from the choice
52 W. Z. Wang
of genres (poetry, novel, prose, drama and so on) for dissertation to other decisions,
creative writing can fulfil the learner’s needs in different aspects and suffices to
be respected as other traditional academic disciplines. Perhaps from the viewpoint
of conventional academic disciplines, creative writing is still a new discipline. The
foundation of creative writing is not firm yet, and it has been overly marketized.
This implies premature demise. The English creative writing programme launched
by the Department of English of the City University of Hong Kong was discon-
tinued in 2015. This caused uproar in the industry. Madeleine Thien, a Canadian
novelist who wrote the book Do Not Say We Have Nothing was a faculty member
of that programme. She frankly said that the discontinuation of the master’s degree
programme in creative writing at the City University was caused by internal and
external complicated politics.
It is undeniable that creative writing is obstructed throughout the world by such
issues as limited revenues, lack of funding, disdain by the management etc. Partic-
ularly in tertiary institutions in China, creative writing is a young academic subject.
When the central government has yet to give full recognition (in tertiary institu-
tions where creative writing programmes are launched, the conferment of degree has
to rely on a mature specialism in Chinese language and literature), strides forward
cannot be exceedingly big. Educators need to consider how to teach creative writing
in a unique way under the framework of college writing classes, so as to promote
creative writing studies and to grow this sapling of creative writing into a big tree.
References
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Ha Jin and Wu Mingyi]. Jiemian News 界⾯新聞, 23 February. http://www.jiemian.com/article/
1130599.html
Earnshaw, Steven. 2017. The handbook of creative writing. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
Harbach, Chad. 2014. MFA vs NYC: The two cultures of American fiction. Farrar: Straus and Giroux
Hu, Xiaozhen 胡曉真. 2017. Mingqing wenxue zhong de xinan xushi 明清⽂學中的西南敘事
[Sinophone literary writings in Southwestern China during the Ming and Qing dynasties]. Taipei:
National Taiwan University Press 國⽴臺灣⼤學出版中⼼
Liu, Haitao 劉海濤. 2005. Zouxiang xin shiji de wenxue xiezuo jiaocai ⾛向新世紀的⽂學寫作
教材 [Toward a new generation of teaching materials for literary writing]. Blog. http://zjliuht.
bokee.com/2321010.html
Luo, Wenhua 羅⽂華 and Zhou, Huaizong 周懷宗. 2014. Gaoxiao zhongwen xi weishen me buneng
peiyang zuojia ⾼校中⽂系為什麼不能培養作家 [Why departments of Chinese in tertiary
institutions cannot nurture writers]. People Digest ⼈民⽂摘 4: 35
Zhu, Youke 朱又可. 2017. Ha Jin: Wo zai Meiguo daxue li jiao xiezuo 哈⾦: 我在美國⼤學裡教
寫作 [Ha Jin: My teaching of writing in american universities]. Southern Weekly 南⽅周末, 8
June
Basic Teaching of Creative Writing
as a “Pool of Inspiration”: A Discussion
Starting from the Undergraduate
Teaching of Drama and Film Arts
in the Creative Writing Programme
Sun Hui-Xin
Abstract The study of the definition of “creative writing” and the nurturing of
talents can be pursued on two levels: first, it can be studied as a newly independent
academic discipline, and, second, as a specialized required subject or as an elec-
tive in other relevant disciplines. As a new independent discipline, creative writing
programmes have gradually been set up in some tertiary institutions, mainly focusing
on education and teaching at the master’s degree level; while as a foundation course
of relevant disciplines, the role which creative writing courses play at the under-
graduate level cannot be neglected. On one hand, it is fundamental and directional,
reflecting common knowledge and basic principles which allow students to have
understanding and choice in the relevant aspects in their subsequent work or studies.
On the other hand, it reflects its function as a “pool of inspiration” for creative writing
in the broader sense of writing, which stimulates more abundant writing outcomes
in the broader sense. Therefore, creative writing programmes and relevant training
have been generally set up and used under drama and film subjects. In long-term
pedagogical practice, drama and film subjects have formed more complete peda-
gogical experience in creative writing, which forms the “pool of inspiration” for the
pedagogical methodology for creative writing at the undergraduate level. This paper
shall comb through undergraduate pedagogy in drama and film in creative writing
programmes as a “pool of inspiration” from the three aspects of causes and aims,
methods and logic, interaction and effects, and shall summarize the methods formed
and the directional outlook.
Keywords Creative writing · Pool of inspiration · Drama · Film studies
There is an intricate relationship between creative writing and writing for drama and
film. Take Mainland China as an example, Fudan University’s creative writing came
under the auspices of the drama (creative writing direction) specialization of the
Department of Chinese Language and Literature, leading to the award of a Master
of Fine Arts degree. Nanjing University’s creative writing course was under the
H. X. Sun (B)
Artistic Theory Specialism, The Central Academy of Drama, Beijing, China
e-mail: 18800179307@163.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_5
54 H. X. Sun
drama (creative writing) specialism of the School of Arts, leading to the award of
a Master of Fine Arts degree. Peking University’s creative writing specialism was
first launched jointly by the Department of Chinese and the School of Journalism
and Broadcasting, which led to the award of a Master of Arts degree; while change
was made in 2017 for it to be jointly offered by the Department of Chinese and
School of Fine Arts, leading to the award of the Master of Fine Arts degree. Drama
and film were upgraded in 2011 as a first-level academic discipline in fine arts.
Before then, it has been classified under literature as a second-level discipline in
drama and film literature, and graduates were awarded a degree in arts. Whether
it is considered to be creative writing classified under literary writing in fine arts,
or artistic screenwriting to be classified under the literary subject, it demonstrates
the complicated, intertwining and inseparable relationship between the two. More
professional disciplinary studies tend to delineate their similarities and differences,
but it is undeniable and not negligible that creative writing and screenwriting are a
set of twins.
In fact, it is possible for creative writing and screenwriting to be mutually inclusive.
For creative writing to possibly cover screenwriting, as pointed out by Zhang Yiwei,
broader connective relations should be established and borders of disciplinary theo-
ries of contemporary literature should be broadened; but at present, “the exchange
between ‘creative writing’ and drama subjects is delayed” (Zhang 2020a, b, c), this
not only “betrays the original intention for nurturing artistic talents for the discipline
of the fine arts”, but also let “graduates in ‘creative writing’” lost “broader platform
for professional practice”, which breaks the “dynamic balance” of the “pedagog-
ical aims, employment direction and market needs” (Zhang 2020a, b, c). There is a
richer and more diverse possibility for screenwriting to cover creative writing. From
the start of screenwriting to becoming a professional subject in tertiary education,
training in creative writing has been included in the subject, 3 to stimulate creative
potential and imagination. In the current research, creative writing and screenwriting
are often separated from each other. This paper shall return to their starting points
and shall set a foothold on the influence and functions of creative writing courses on
screenwriting to analyze their existence as a “pool of inspiration”.
1 Professional Direction of “Pool of Inspiration”
Before making an in-depth investigation, first of all, we must clarify the meaning of
a “pool of inspiration”. What are the aims of creative writing courses or the relevant
training in the specialism in screenwriting? What ideal effects are to be achieved? In
other words, what is the professional direction?
In the Stan Lai on Creativity, Stan Lai summarized a model of a “creativity pyra-
mid” by consolidating his years of creative and teaching experience. He quoted the
definition of “creativity” by Robert J. Sternberg and Todd I. Lubart, psychology
professors in the USA, that, “Creativity is the ability to produce works. These works
are new (that is, original and unpredictable) and appropriate (that is, suiting some
Basic Teaching of Creative Writing as a “Pool of Inspiration”: … 55
purpose), which suits the limitations set by their targets” (Lai 2011, 22). Stan Lai
merged “new” and “appropriate” and called them “the two mysterious parts of creativ-
ity”; they can also be called “desire” and “expression”, “conception” and “exe-
cution”, “imagination” and “integration ability”, “perceptual work” and “rational
work”, “inspiration” and “production”. In short, it is the “creative” and “ability”
in “creativity”. The two parts are used by Stan Lai as the two major parts in his
“creativity pyramid”, viz. fields for training “wisdom” and “living” and fields for
training “method” and “art”. Not a single one can be omitted, but Stan Lai pointed
out that, the current educational system often separated the two, “Education all over
the world attaches importance to the right side of the postcard, i.e., ‘method’, or even
teach only ‘skills’ on the right side”; while “wisdom” and “living”, which are more
important, have been forgotten.
The aforementioned sufficiently demonstrates the existing issues today. In increas-
ingly professionalized disciplinary training, screenwriting mainly stresses training
on “methods”, “skills”, and “standards”, which teaches a type of professionalized and
standardized writing method, such as “substance”, “inspiring event”, “plot layout”,
“principles on the portrayal of villains” (McKee 2014, 1) mentioned in screenwriting
for television and film; while5 drama writing talks about “conflict”, “contradiction”,
“event” etc. The basis and source of all such skills are observations and feelings about
living, which is the left half of the diagram above: living, wisdom and inspiration
from the content. Without such “content”, all the professional “forms” on the right
side would have nothing to attach to and to come into play. This is what it means for
creative writing programmes, and its relevant training serves as a “pool of inspira-
tion” for screenwriting for drama, film and television, as they carry the roles on the
right half of Stan Lai’s “creativity pyramid”. It demonstrates that through writing,
students encounter life, record the details, express their feelings, and preliminarily
absorb objective existence as internal knowledge to pursue original, raw and intuitive
creative works; with this as a basis, their deeper inspiration, conception and creative
desire will be ignited.
In concrete terms, there are three professional directions for the “pool of
inspiration”.
Firstly, students have to be assisted to turn from writing to fulfill examination
requirements to artistic writing. University freshmen are mostly deep-rooted with
the ideas of writing to fulfill examination requirements, i.e., they have to rely on
flowery syntax, literary set phrases, historical allusions, and habitually conclude the
“key idea”, making effort to give a “theme” to all the words written; however, this
is not the focus of problems. The problem is, there is a void behind these elegantly
written pieces. As a “pool of inspiration”, creative writing programmes and the
relevant training would firstly need to accomplish this hugely difficult task, i.e., to
free students from the lock and key of writing to fulfill examination requirements,
and to allow students to actually enter into artistic writing or professional writing.
In the actual writing, there is no “format” that must be adopted and no essential
“theme” whatsoever, while existing methods and standards can be surpassed; the
only objective is to portray and reveal the human soul as far as possible with sincere,
rigorous and substantial speech.
56 H. X. Sun
Secondly, students have to be guided to build sensibility toward living. Observing

daily living is a form of frequent training for writing; not every type of observation
could induce feelings that would ignite inspiration for writing. The endpoint for
training to observe daily living is not just to “be able to see”, but to “be able to sense”
things in the sensory organs, and to “be able to understand” them in the mind, such
that it will be an all-rounded sensory experience in the body and mind. Therefore,
in the “Preparation for Script/Screenplay Creation” in the “Elementary Course for
Writing of Script/Screenplay” of the Central Academy of Drama, students’ narration
and writing of a piece of prose is not purely a record of an event, it is about the
feelings brought about by recording the event: “About fear and sense of security”
concerns “the sense of touch, smell and hallucination” (Yang and Zhang 2013, 1)
etc. Therefore, there is significance in guiding students to pay attention to and record
their feelings about living. This will not only open up their perspective but will also
build up an early archive of writing materials.
At the same time, students’ basic writing ability has to be trained. As sayings
go, “I write my heart”, the “heart” is certainly important, but how to “write” with
my hand to deliver such feelings is an indispensable ability. However, it is worth
noting that, the standard of elegant syntax does not apply in this instance, instead the
standard should be the degree of living that is reflected through syntax. Similarly,
the standard for judging the actual effects of drama as pointed out by the American
playwright Arthur Miller, “Any form of drama is a kind of technique, which is to
turn subjective feelings through a public symbol into a kind of way to understand
things … basing on the original imagination and feelings, we can judge how much
has been lost or distorted during the change.” (Martin 1987, 151).
In summary of the above, for creative writing programmes and relevant training
to serve as a “pool of inspiration”, it is an inevitable step to move toward
professionalized writing.
2 The Logic of Implementation for the “Pool

of Inspiration”
After clarifying the meaning and professional direction of creative writing

programmes and relevant training as a “pool of inspiration”, integration shall be made
with experience in pedagogical practice to discuss the logic of its implementation.
The foundation for the implementation logic of the “pool of inspiration” is
the creative system by groups in workshops. Workshop has currently become a
phenomenon of scale in the studies and practice of creative writing in China. As
pointed out in the ‘2019 Annual Observation on Chinese Creative Writing Studies’,
“the continued in-depth studies of workshop experience and theoretical studies in
China and overseas, the main line of creative writing practice and studies for the year
shall be constituted”, also, “upon the basis of workshop studies, studies on work-
shop teaching experiment consciously focus on the development and implementation
of concrete courses and activities in creative writing pedagogy in China” (Liu and
Zhang 2020, 65); at the same time, it is the best method for teaching creative writing,
as pointed out by Xu Daojun 許道軍 in Fifteen Lessons in Creative Writing, “Cre-
ative writing workshop is a landmark in the teaching method for creative writing.
Creative writing workshop is directed by creative writing or creative writing educa-
tion, discussions or related works as such, they are organised in group activities with
a certain number of participants”. Compared to the teaching of traditional writing,
it has such advantages as “multiple feedback/brainstorming”, “professional feed-
back”, “timely feedback/simultaneous trial-and-error and error correction”, “would
not explain unless one is interested”, “switching of objective”, “switching of themes”
(Xu and Feng 2019, 280). In the practice of teaching drama, film and television, the
group-based creative system in workshops usually materializes in the form of small
group teaching, roundtable discussion, steered by works, etc.
Based on the principle above, the logic for implementing creative writing
programmes as a “pool of inspiration” can be divided into three stages, viz. “Pre-
participation of reading and appreciation”, “Main participation by mind and body”,
“Ultimate participation in writing and critique”.
2.1 Pre-participation of Reading and Appreciation
Accumulation by reading is an essential pre-requisite for creativity, while effective

appreciation is a pre-requisite for it to take effect. On how to pursue “reading and
appreciation”, the answer given by Xu Daojun is “to read like a writer”. Creative
reading should not stop at external analysis, instead, we should come out of the mode
of reading traditional literature, and instead make writing the main subject to achieve
the generation of artistic practice by nature in creative writing. In the portrayal of
characters, we delve deep into the character’s feelings and relationships etc.
Meanwhile, Xu Daojun pointed out, “In the realm of reading, the focus is on
literature; however, it should not be limited to the only corner of literature; the scope
should be widened to cover multimedia, the mix of types, and mix of genre.” (Xu
2019). If we continue to see this according to the principles of Stan Lai’s “creativity
pyramid”, on the one hand, one can accumulate the learning and borrowing of artistic
forms through reading and observing widely, on the other hand, one can form feelings
and understanding on the contents of living. Therefore, on a macroscopic view of
reading appreciation, whether it is fiction, script, biography, documentary literature,
society news, feature articles, drama, film & television, or any format of online
writings, new media webisodes, etc., so long as the content truly reflects and shows
a living, it can be a source of material for the “pool of inspiration”. Take the fiction
Laoshi Haomei ⽼師好美 as an example. the author, Yan Geling 嚴歌苓 adapted
her novel based on the 2007 murderous news of a love affair between a student and
a teacher in No. 6 Middle School. The film Mystery 浮城謎事 was adapted from a
lengthy post on Tianya Community 天涯社區 in 2009 entitled This Is How I Punish
a Cheating Man And His Mistress 看我如何收拾賤男和⼩三. The drama One Fine
58 H. X. Sun
Day 美好的⼀天, presented the narratives about the daily life of 19 ordinary persons;
the ideal of the director, Li Jianjun 李建軍, was to create a “commoners’ theatre” to
explore theatrical aesthetics through daily living. The above outcomes demonstrate
the importance of reading and appreciating widely.
2.2 Main Participation by Mind and Body
The main process for implementing the “pool of inspiration” can be divided into two
aspects, i.e., the mind and the body. Participation of the mind attaches importance
to expression and exchange by way of writing or dialogue while participation of
the body attaches importance to physical performance and presentation of scenes.
The two should be an organic combination in the delivery of workshop participants’
highly efficient and all-rounded participation.
2.2.1 Participation of the Mind in Expression and Exchange
According to the successive process, participation of the mind can be classified

into three stages, viz. “self-introductory writing with the introduction of a third
person as the starting point”, “writing from recollection through the route of sensory
experience”, and “writing of scenes with an aim to inspire imagination”.
Self-introductory Writing with the Introduction of a Third Person

as the Starting Point
Self-introduction is a basic training at the elementary level that has been mentioned
both in the “Elementary Course for Script Writing”, which is the teaching material
for the literary screenwriting specialism of the Central Academy of Drama, and
the “Basic Course of Literary Writing”, which is the teaching material of the literary
screenwriting specialism of the National Academy of Chinese Theatre Arts. However,
this is not an ordinary self-introduction of one’s name, but a self-introduction using
the introduction of a third person as a starting point.
Self-introduction is a commonly used method in writing classes to enhance under-
standing between teacher and students and amongst the students. It can effectively
break the ice during the first class; it helps participants to feel relaxed and is helpful
for cultivating a relaxed atmosphere in class which is conducive to mutual trust. But a
simple self-introduction lacks fun, while a monologue of self-narration and pouring
out about oneself is not helpful for the training in writing. Therefore, self-introduction
using the introduction of a third person as a starting point can be adopted in a writing
class to bring self-introduction from a point to a plane, and to allow the expansion of
the perspective of concern from the self to “my living self”, so that observations, feel-
ings and narration about one’s life can be penetrated into the details. If one introduces
oneself using third-person narration, one can observe oneself from the perspective
of a bystander. Or one can introduce a relevant person adjacent to oneself by telling
an event that took place between the two of them. These can effectively complete a
self-introduction process through relatively objective writing.
Writing from Recollection Through the Route of Sensory Experience
Sensory writing is extremely strong literary and artistic writing. As Wang Zengqi 汪
曾祺 wrote on the sense of taste, “The characteristics of salted duck’s egg of Gaoyou
⾼郵 are the fine texture, soft egg white (unlike such eggs from other places which
are dry, powdery and feels like chewing lime preserve in the mouth) the oily yoke
is outstanding which eggs from other places cannot compare”; Bi Feiyu 畢⾶宇
wrote on the sense of touch, “The intensity of pressure in Tui’na 推拿 depends on
the depth of feeling, the pressure is rather intense, pressing downwards, vigorous,
firm and certainly thorough, which can penetrate deep into the muscles”; German
writer, Patrick Suskind, wrote on the sense of smell in Perfume; playwright Wang
Huiling 王蕙玲 wrote about food in the film “Eat Drink Man Woman” 飲食男女,
etc., sensory writing is an excellent form of presentation. Food and colours appeal
to our senses; the impressions penetrate directly into our hearts, feelings and our
mental world. Similarly, sensory writing is also an excellent training method, using
the sensory experience as a way to write from recollection can guide students to draw
from their feelings from past experiences and train their ability to finely express these
feelings in writing. Lopsided sensory writing is a means and not an end. Eventually,
integrated training which combines the dispersed fragments would be needed, i.e.,
sensory experience is used as a route for writing from recollection. For instance, when
Stan Lai taught a class in 1984 in Taipei Cardinal Tien Cultural College 耕莘⽂教院,
“Please express in any way an important experience in your life” was an assignment
topic he gave his students. Eventually, the assignment turned out to be the drama,
We grew up this way 我們都是這樣長⼤的 directed by Stan Lai with a performance
delivered by the School of Theatre Arts of the Taipei National University of the Arts.
These recollections shall be preserved in the form of inspiration. Stan Lai’s
creative experience in A Dream Like a Dream 如夢之夢 explains the importance
of accumulation of inspiration, “… I certainly feel that I am “full of inspirations”
when I write, but I would not call it “inspiration” itself, instead it is a high degree
of focus of attention. The linkage prior is the most important; the integration of the
events that took place the previous night. On the next day, I would only need to focus
my attention, and I could ‘output’ everything in my mind onto paper, and combine
everything inside into a legitimate form.” The consciousness of previous life expe-
riences is the most important. Therefore, he pointed out, “In order for that kind of
inspiration to happen, two events need to take place: (1) many events experienced in
my life must already be stored somewhere; (2) a kind of mechanism must be started
with an awareness of where to find such events, and which event could be linked
up with other events.” “When ‘inspiration’ dawned on me from externally, it would
be a spark, a catalyst, instead of an archive. External stories or events can become
60 H. X. Sun
some catalysts, stimulating our internal operation system, but such external stories
or events cannot replace the operating system. We can rely only on our own well to
obtain water. The volume of water in one’s own well depends on one’s accumulation
over the years.” This is the importance of writing to relive our recollections.
Writing of Scenes with an Aim to Inspire Imagination
After the end of the training on writing “objectively”, an attempt can be made on
the creation of fabricated scenes by motivating imagination to write “subjectively”.
Here, the issue of the relation between artistic work and the real world must be
clarified. According to semiotics expert, Susanne K. Langer, “Art was the creation of
a symbolic form of human feelings”: “The mission of artists is to offer and maintain
this fundamental illusion, and to apparently break it away from the real world, and to
clearly express its form until it can be accurately and unmistakably consistent with
feelings and life” (Langer 1986, 80). Creative work breaks away from the real world
but at the same time complies with human feelings, therefore training in the writing
of scenes that aims to inspire imagination is required.
As to ways to connect the real world with artistic works in the practice of writing,
Prof. Zhong Ming 鍾鳴 has offered an excellent method in Elementary Course in
Literary Writing ⽂學寫作基礎教程. In the book, an experiment carried out by
Elizabeth Loftus, psychologist of Washington State University, was mentioned. She
prepared a handbook for each of the 24 participants in the experiment; four of their
childhood incidents were recorded in the handbook, three of which were real incidents
offered by their family members, and the fourth event was fabricated by Roftus
about losing one’s way in a shopping centre. The participants read the handbook and
were asked to write the relevant details from memory; in case one could not recall
the incident, one would only need to write “I cannot remember this”. A surprising
outcome of the experiment is that not only one-fourth of the participants could
“recall” themselves losing their way in a shopping centre, but they could also vividly
describe many details that had been given. According to Roftus, “The human mind
habitually mixes facts and imagination, remade recollections would be taken as actual
happenings. This demonstrates the human mind detests emptiness and cannot face
the emptiness, therefore, we try to fill everything up” (Zhong 2015). Based on this
psychological experiment, Prof. Zhong Ming formulated an interactive lesson, i.e.,
on the condition of no discussion and exchange, each student recalled and made the
best effort to give fine details of three day-to-day incidents, two of which were real
scenes in the common experience of the teacher and the students, the third one was
the fabrication of a scene in the common experience of the teacher and the students.
The effect of this interaction was that, when reviving the incident from memory,
students would usually employ imagination to supplement details and to complete
the fabricated scene. This process exactly reflected that writing requires imagination,
the power to feel, the ability to portray the set details, and the ability to relive the
scene. As mentioned by Prof. Zhong Ming, “Human beings have a considerably
strong tendency to fabricate things, and the influence is wide”, it is rooted in our
mind and instinct and would be ignited with the slightest stimulation.
2.2.2 Performance and Demonstration of Bodily Participation
“Pool of inspiration” not only requires the participation of the mind but also relies on
the joining in of the body. As pointed out in the article ‘Ontological outline of creative
writing – studies on the practice of writing based on the individual sensory body’,
“From the perspective of creative writing, creativity is a fundamental practice for
self-actualization by humans. Only when humans accept themselves as practitioners
of creativity, they could actually accept the true nature of their own life, and with such
a basic principle, they would strive for self-realization. Writing is thus understood to
be an acceptance and an act of acceptance of the true nature of creativity by the main
body.” (Ge and Wang 2020). According to Russian theatre theorist, Stanislavski, in
his acting theory of “psychology – physique”, the mind and the body are at interplay in
organic unity. Actors should create the character from the logic of action, to stimulate
and find as reflex action the corresponding logic of feelings as well as subconscious
psychological state. The reality of the mind is inevitably linked to the reality of the
body, while the participation of the mind also needs the participation of the body.
Ultimate Participation in Writing and Critique
The above training would eventually require the output of an intrinsic piece of work
as an outcome, that is, a piece of narrative prose. In A Course on Prose, Zhang Yiwei
combed through the definition of “prose” as a literary form, and spoke highly of it, “A
lyrical poem directly portrays the true nature of the quiescence of life, drama concerns
conflicts in life, only narrative prose demonstrates the true nature of continuity in the
flow of experience.” “What is prose? It is the touchstone of feelings.” “Contemporary
prose is the style of writing which expresses the complicated feelings in the heart
with modern vernacular.” In the end, she quoted the “three-point principle” which
defines prose from Yang Mu’s 楊牧 book, Prose, “There is a definite theme with
all aspects covered within a certain length. There is consistent syntax, tidy tone
of colour and distinct image. There is a consistent structure with an impeccable
plot of twists and turns.” It was also pointed out that Yang Mu opined that “Prose
does not preclude such genres of experimental novels, poetry or drama, and invades
the territories of other literary types” (Zhang 2020a, b, c, 197). It shows that not
only essays portraying characters or recording incidents can be classified as prose,
but biographical sketches and outlines of ideas can also be considered as prose.
The advantages are the elegant and free characteristics and the tradition of truthful
feelings. To be the “pool of inspiration” as the outcome of creative writing of prose,
such duties have to be fulfilled. Meanwhile, not only the “writing” is important, the
“commentary” process is equally indispensable. “Multiple commentaries on a piece
of work” allows the writer to be able to receive more thoughts during the process.
62 H. X. Sun
3 The Interactive Effect of the “Pool of Inspiration”
While collecting students’ thoughts and opinions after the creative writing course,
the author can sum up three relatively clear tendencies.
Firstly, there is a tendency toward expression, exchange and creativity. Students
are expected to discuss specific works or topics in class, exchange ideas, and pursue
brainstorming; meanwhile, they expect more chances to create their own work. There
is a traditional impression that for students who grew up in an examination-based
education system, their minds and desire to express themselves would be worn away
or suppressed, but in fact, after some “reheating” and given sufficient room for
exchange, students would show a strong desire to express in creative works. The
author is of the view that in the initial stage of the fundamental teaching of creative
writing course, the teacher should offer students sufficient encouragement and recog-
nition, and create and formulate with scientific methods adequate opportunities for
students to express and pursue creative work; give directional guidance while students
should be left to take initiative, so they can express like water that flows along the
way until it reaches the boundless ocean. However, from another perspective, such
a tendency would bring along certain inadequacy, i.e., when students’ own founda-
tion is rather shallow, there may not be too much substance available for exchange,
therefore, the exchange sessions would mostly become mediocre discussions or even
debates; even if there was strong creative desire, it would often turn out to be some
twisted venting of one’s own life, or even an indulgence in narcissistic expression,
without giving effort to actually revise one’s work and to broaden one’s mind. To
avoid the probable issues above, the teacher would need to take proper control of the
contents of the lessons.
Secondly, there was a tendency toward interaction, participation and games.
Compared to the traditional model of lessons where there is a “blackboard behind the
lectern and notetaking in front of the lectern”, students are extremely interested in
interactive lessons. Games in class that require students to move their bodies would
usually have stronger participation of the mind. A student would expect the shadow
of some certain “practical experience” in class, or that they might be able to fulfill
more solid aims, for instance, on the direction of work, the learning, and discussion
in class might eventually take shape to become a piece of work after class; for the
direction of practice, the classroom activities might be simulation and rehearsal of
some certain practice in society; on ceremonial direction, the classroom activities
themselves might form independent meaning, etc. Overall speaking, students expect
to quickly see the “meaning” of the lesson. On the one hand, this is a type of teaching
practice “with immediate results”; on the other hand, this does not fulfill the prin-
ciple of delayed satisfaction in education, as short-term learning cannot actually gain
in-depth knowledge. In this process, ensuring the achievement of teaching outcomes
within the teaching cycle without reducing the interactive games to games for sheer
fun would still require the teacher to maintain proper control and balance.
Lastly, the tendency to expect commenting on assignments and analysis of set
samples. Regarding their own work, students would expect to hear solid comments for
improvement; on the overall content of teaching, students would expect to see solid set
examples of works. The author considers that this tendency would have to be treated
seriously, i.e., this is a type of solidified thinking to expect “set examples” and “model
answers” which is a habit from examination-based education. There are no “set
examples” or “model answers” in writing; a real piece of work cannot be produced
to fulfill some certain “rules”. So, to replace this type of “single-and-exclusive”
method for comments and analysis, there can be an introduction to classical works,
reading comprehension and discussion, to allow students to discover the issues at a
distance from the classical works. It can also be an appreciation of the varying styles
and schools, to widen the students’ perspective of appreciation; or it can be a group
appraisal of a certain piece of work to widen the scope of variation in appraisal and
to allow the generation of some noise in the appraisal, which shall be passed on to
the writer for reference comparison and assessment. All in all, caution must be taken
when giving out a “model answer” which kills imagination and possibilities.
The conclusion above is only faceted, microscopic, or even individual and private
experience sharing. Writing is an endless adventure that is risky, curious and alluring;
it is hard to offer definition, and harder to determine the ways around; we need to
continuously accept new thinking, new matters, and new routes on both the part of the
student and the teacher. During course planning for medium and high-level writing
courses in drama and screenplay, the writing duties shall be directed at script writing
for films, script writing for television drama, writing of a one-act play, writing of
theatrical drama, writing of adaptations, etc. The basis of all these would be creative
writing courses and the relevant training which will serve as a “pool of inspiration”.
Laying a good foundation for the “pool of inspiration” is an important issue that
requires continuous exploration in building the infrastructure for writing courses for
drama and screenplay.
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Creative Writing and Cross-Media
Practices from the Sinophone Perspective
Reading for Writing: A Case Study
of Multi-Media Presentations of Reading
Achievements
Ng Mei-Kwan
Abstract With the case study of the teaching of literature reading and writing for
a general education course and reference to differentiated instruction and indepen-
dent exploration, this chapter illustrates how to assist non-Chinese-major students
in developing their interests in literature reading by requiring students to use multi-
media tools to present their reading achievements. The emphasis on the subjectivity
of interactive learning mode helps students develop their interests in reading liter-
ature and motivation in learning creative writing. This chapter also explores how
this teaching module goes beyond the limits of the conventional literary pedagogy
that the form of literary report is confined to texts, and how it helps the post-digital
generations, who are accustomed to multi-textualization both in and out of class-
rooms, to develop multi-intelligences and become lifelong learners who are good at
re-construction of meanings of words through images and characters.
Keywords Multi-Media · Reading reports · Interactive learning mode ·

Differentiated instruction · Independent exploration
1 Introduction: Limitations of Written Report in Reading

Presentations
As it is always known, reading can stimulate learners’ interest in writing and enhance
their writing skills. They develop independent thinking as they read and write (Zou
2017). Writing requires skills rather than knowledge, and its process is related to
the development of cognitive skills. Thus, activities such as story reading, compre-
hension, and reasoning can enhance writing efficiency (Celik 2016). Nowadays,
the written reading report in the conventional sense, as an approach to present the
reading achievements through transmuting reading to writing, not only confines the
forms of presentation to printed media, but also the learning, mainly, to the indi-
vidual level. Such kind of reports also restricts learners to solely using language
M. K. Ng (B)
Hong Kong Literary Criticism Society, Hong Kong, China
e-mail: hklitcritics@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_6
68 M. K. Ng
(verbal or written) to present their reading achievements directly. Another common

reading pedagogy in Chinese-language societies is reading comprehension, which
is also the most popular reading method. The classic book concerning methodology
for reading How to Read a Book defines this kind of comprehension “activity” as
the level of inspectional reading, which teaches students to read through, or even
pre-read a text quickly within a certain time limit. Skimming systematically is a
usual reading practice (Adler and Van Doren 2014), yet this kind of reading strategy
has constraints. Long-termed practices of speed reading, skimming, and pre-reading
would diminish the practices of literary-related reading strategies, such as intensive
reading and continuous reading, that are beneficial to transmuting reading to writing
ability. The biggest problem is the gap between the reading habits of the new digital
generations in the twenty-first century and the pedagogy for reading and writing
in classrooms (Andrews and Smith 2011). Richard E. Meyer (2021), an expert on
multi-media learning, has conducted a number of experiments and research on the
effectiveness of multi-media learning which provided a vital reference in the past
decade. He applied the theory of educational psychology to prove that the repre-
sentations of words and images through organisation and integration can facilitate
meaningful and cognitive learning. However, many examples he used are related to
engineering and sciences, such as learning how an air pump for vehicle tires works
or lighting is formed (2003). Few examples related to humanities or liberal studies
are mentioned.
For the post-digital generations who adapt to multi-textualization, the education
for literary reading and writing has to go beyond the constraint of conventional way of
literary education through written reading reports and allow them to facilitate writing
ability through reading. I have been the Course Coordinator of the subject “Reading
and Writing” at the HKU School of Professional and Continuing Education. I set up
the learning expectation for the students of the course that they should apply multi-
media tools to present their reading achievements. This study will take a first-hand
case of multi-media presentation for reading achievements as an example to explore
how the interactive learning mode helps non-Chinese-major students to develop their
interests in reading and writing in literature and cultivate their learning motivations
in creative writing. The case will be analysed in three aspects:
1. How to develop a form of interactive reading reports, which surpasses those
in the traditional literary education mode, in order to suit the generation of
digital reading’s multi-textualized reading habit. According to the course design,
students’ presentation of reading achievements no longer relies on written reports
solely.
2. How to consider the demands and advantages of differentiated instruction and
independent exploration through literary education. When teachers instruct
students to use images and words to construct meanings, their interests in literary
reading are enhanced, meanwhile develop to become lifelong learners.
3. How the reading-for-writing approach benefits the course in terms of course effec-
tiveness. Connecting and integrating different visual media and literary readings
can promote the application of various perspectives to review literary works by
Reading for Writing: A Case Study of Multi-Media Presentations… 69
then induce the intention of writing, as well as arouse the continuous learning
motivation of writing as writers instead of organising words just for emotional
expressions.
2 Disconnection Between Reading and Writing Inside

and Outside the Classroom
The post-digital generation has stultified genre-based language acquisition. In real

life, digitalized texts are ubiquitous. The word processing of computers, laptops, and
tablets has completely changed the conventional reading and writing mode, which
only requires pens and papers as the media. Portable reading devices enable books to
become mobile tools for information or entertainment purposes. In fact, electronic
mobile tools connected to the Internet around the clock, collaborating with cross-
text reading or collaborative reading modes, expand the conventional paper-based
reading. The post-digital era does not sentence printed publications to death. On the
contrary, the increasingly complex digital reading habits have rescued the fading
consumer market of conventional reading (Cardoso, Ganito, and Ferreira 2012). The
biggest problem is that the gap between post-digital generations’ reading habits in
the twenty-first century and the teaching of reading and writing in the classroom
has emerged. Students’ writing is mostly irrelevant to life, so it is understandable
why they ask, “What is the point of my undertaking five-paragraph-essay training, or
writing to this particular formula, when such kinds of writing do not exist outside the
classroom?” (Andrews and Smith 2011, 18). Scholars from England, America, and
Australia have realised that writing education needs to be transformed from solely
text-based reading mode to multi-media modes. Text digitization and multimodality1
both bring challenges to the pedagogy of reading and teaching. To adapt the reading
habits of the digital generation, increasing multi-media interactions to the course
requirements for presenting achievements, which surpasses the conventional idea of
only using words to present their accomplishments in reading, can help to enhance the
confidence and interest in literary reading of the students of the digital generation.
“Reading is the activity of seeing, perceiving, comprehending and making sense
of all words, sentences or writing with all its elements.” In other words, “Reading
is an activity of deriving meaning from written symbols through the collaboration
of cognitive behaviours and psychomotor skills” (Celik 2016, 209). Thus signals
include not only text, but also images or videos etc.
Richard Andrews’s research on writing education development for fostering
writers mentioned several major challenges in language education of the post-digital
generation: (1) Tiredness of the text-based genre approach, such as simplifying genres
with formats, or over-emphasising the form and structure such as worksheets: In the
1Multimodality refers to diversity of communicative symbols in oral or written communication.

Images, sound, characters, colours, spaces, actions, and other multimodal elements appear simulta-
neously, meanings are constructed by different multimodal, presenting and expressing in common
communicative process (Shu 2013).
70 M. K. Ng
past, teaching relied too much on formats and structures, and overlooked purposes
and motivations of writing, connection with readers, thought formation and other
elements are often more important during the writing process. (2) Exhaustion of
targets and product-oriented assessment systems: It overemphasises the use of the
assessment systems for business production. This leads to the phenomenon where
writing is solely for grading purposes and diminishes the writing atmosphere in the
classroom. (3) Disconnection between writing in the classroom and writing outside
classroom in reality: Students do not have many opportunities to write once they have
completed the writing exercises in classroom. The real life outside the classroom
provides works with readers, so they would become more eager to write accurately
and connect to reality. (4) Multimodality and its challenges to conventional writing
pedagogies: Andrew believes that constructing ideas in writing cannot be generated
without the understanding of multimodality. Vision, image, and sound are all simul-
taneously connected to writing. (5) Since the upcoming era of digitization of text,
digital text is no more just an extension of printed text. The way of word processing
on computers, laptops, and mobile phones has completely changed the reading and
writing mode. People can process information from different interfaces simultane-
ously. (6) Dearth of creativity across the range of writing genres: Not only do conven-
tional writing of prose, novels, and poems emphasize creativity, but non-fictional and
fictional writing also need creativity (Andrews and Smith 2011, 17–28). Based on
studies of writing, Andrew’s arguments on these five challenges demonstrate the
multimodal characteristic of the post-digital generation.
3 The Reading Habit of the Post-Digital Generation
Writing education has over-emphasized grammatical paradigms and limited writing

to rhetoric and genre cognition since the 1950s. Later, it began to emphasise personal
expression as the foundation of imagination and creative writing. In terms of the usage
of language, more focus has been put on real-time practice in the classroom. The
possibility of benefiting one’s writing skills through reading in the literary educa-
tion for Chinese-language writing has not yet been fully explored. The conventional
reading report focuses on individual one-way learning; that is, presenting students’
reading achievements without getting feedback. Meanwhile, reading comprehen-
sion tends to train students to take inspectional reading as a major reading strategy,
that only allows readers to comprehend the assigned texts in a short amount of
time, lacking the training of intensive and close literary reading. Students are often
required to present their reading achievements through written reports, lacking rele-
vant training on related literature knowledge and usage of literary terminology. Since
educators may not be able to address each student’s needs due to their differences
in writing and literary knowledge, the gap among the students’ knowledge further
widens, but students are still having many difficulties in improving their writing
abilities even though they did a lot of reading comprehension. On the other hand,
since the 1980s, educators of literature have realised the importance of psycholin-
guistic and discourse patterns as well as the obligation to nurture writers of the next
generations. Thus, drafting, editing, group learning, and interacting became more
important (2011, 3–5). Entering the twenty-first century, it is imperative to rethink
literary education, and to address how to match the inter-textualization characteristics
of young people from the digital age to the post-digital age.
4 The Case Study of Presentation of Literary Reading

Achievements
This case study is based on the course titled “Reading and Writing”, which is a 3-
credit course for one semester. The objective of the course is to focus on intensive
training in literary reading and writing through the interactive learning of “reading”
and “writing”. “This course covers masterpieces of different genres, writers, and
styles, and it aims to synergise ‘reading’ and ‘writing’. In this course, students are to
start off their studies with extensive reading, cultivating students’ reading interests
and enhancing their capacity to self-teach. This process also allows them to learn
the writing skills for different genres.”2 This course was originally a compulsory
course for an associate degree programme in arts. It was also a compulsory course
in the curriculum of the Chinese (Honours) programme, which was designed for the
HKU School of Professional and Continuing Education when I served as the course
coordinator of that programme between 2008–2015. This course is level four in Hong
Kong’s educational qualifications framework, equivalent to the literary education in
the first-year general courses in universities, so it is connected to the second-year
university study. Students do not need to have rich experiences in reading modern
literature, but they are required to read literary works on four levels. According to
the course outline, there are several learning outcomes. After completing this course,
students will be able to:
1. Employ different reading strategies such as intensive reading, continuous reading,
repetitive reading, extensive reading, and imaginative reading to analyse how
modern and contemporary literary works become masterpieces through the
combination of theme, content, intelligence, historical background, language,
style, and creativity.
2. Complete high-level reading through text studying, deconstructing, interpreting,
and criticising.
3. Equip with the ability to complete the writing process, which starts from
conceiving ideas, planning, writing, titling, modifying, and reviewing. They
should also be able to use creative thinking and imagination when writing.
4. Write different genres of literary works (e.g., essays or novels).
2It quotes from the Chinese descriptions on the course information of “Qualifications Framework
Level and Credit Assignment Form” for the course titled “Reading and Writing in Chinese” in
2008–2015.
72 M. K. Ng
5. Improve students’ language literacy through reading and writing literature

independently.
This course transforms written reading reports into the form of a multi-media
workshop in groups, and requires students to read thoroughly with reference to the
four reading levels3 according to How to Read a Book (Adler and Van Doren 2014).
The students are instructed to apply reading strategies such as intensive reading,
continuous reading, repetitive reading, extensive reading, and imaginative reading to
observe, perceive, understand, analyse, imagine, appreciate, organise, compare and
criticise. After that, they presented their reading achievements to their fellow students
in form of a workshop. This course helped the students improve their reading ability
and expand their reading spectrum. Students would discuss contemporary literary
works (see Appendix 1) interactively. The teaching plan designed for the workshop
would implement the above-mentioned learning outcomes (1, 2, and 5) from three
perspectives:
1. A 30-min presentation in workshop: Each group has five to six students, and
they are required to select one novel for presentation in the workshop. Students
could use visual instruments or multi-media equipment to demonstrate or adapt
a work, or to employ creative ideas for derivative creation based on the multi-
media interactive mode. This course has been delivered for over seven years.
Students not only used images as media, but they also employed interaction of
sound, image, drama, video, mixed media theatre, film, slide show, shadow play,
radio drama, recitation, singing, dance, games, magic and so on. Some students
composed songs and, even choreography and played magic tricks to present their
perceptions and interpretation of the works. Given that students could choose the
forms of presentations according to their advantages, some students who were
not good at writing could also express their deeper understanding of the literary
works. They learned more about literature through creation.
2. The advantage of group presentation is that “students could digest the reading
works, and combine it with their personal experiences so as to transform it into
self-accepted knowledge; and further deliver self-knowledge to other persons”
(Zheng and Huang 2014). Discussion, argument, and negotiation are included in
the multimedia information process, which would spark ideas and help students
solve problems (Mayer 2003). Through this learning process, students not only
would be able to focus on their comprehension of the work, but also learn how
emotion and materials transmute into writing through narrative, and how writers
think.
3. Students could use appropriate multiple reading strategies to complete high-level
literary reading. They are required to start with content and context, and freely
select appropriate and unique perspectives to interpret: Any subjects, such as
cultural studies, sociology, psychology, philosophy, history, religious studies, and
3 The four levels of reading mentioned in How to Read a Book (2014) are: studying, deconstructing,
interpreting, and criticising.
gender studies, can be employed. Students are free to choose forms of presen-
tation and auxiliary media, and demonstrate reading achievement by speech,
dialogues, PowerPoints and other interactive exchanges as the forms of verbal
presentation.
5 A Case of Presentation Through Multi-Media Reading

Achievements
Wong Leung Wo’s 王良和 “Crab” 螃蟹, for example, was selected for the presen-
tation workshop. This novel adopts magical realism and anachronism. The narrator
enters his inner memories and consciousness to create an exotic space for dialogues.
What makes his work outstanding from the other novels is that it looks directly into
the disappearance of the body (death), in addition to explore the problem of manip-
ulation and anti-manipulation through a kind of body discourse. One of the interpre-
tations of the carb carried around by the main character is a symbol of manipulation
(Ng 2008),4 which is not easy to understand. Many students choose to present the
message of this literary work with microfilm. This chapter takes the “crab group” (see
appendix 2) as a case study. All group members were non-Chinese-major students,
and they demonstrated the reading process, from studying to interpreting, in their
multi-media presentation. This group produced a shadow play to re-organise the
timeline of the story from the displacement of the narration in both time and space.
They also fabricated an awards ceremony, in which the work won the Hong Kong
Film Awards, and the prizes of best actor, the best supporting actor, and the setting
were all used to explain the character’s metaphors and symbolic meaning of key
images. These group members wrote a modern poem after completion of the work-
shop because they became so interested in the work (see Appendix 3). The poem
was a response to their interpretation of the tension of manipulation and resistance
between the father and son in the novel. The poem was not a designated assignment
of the course. It was simply because those students were so inspired by the work that
they decided to write the poem on a similar theme. This demonstrates that it is more
common in groups with better performance that presentation triggers autonomous
writing. Other groups produced short films, dramas, and instrumental compositions
for reading achievement presentations, demonstrating the endless possibilities of
imagination that literature can inspire.
From comprehension to reconstruction, literary works can be analysed in three
notions: “implications beyond lines” ⾔外之意, “images beyond images” 象外之
象, and “scenes beyond scenes” 境外之境. Chan Ping Leung 陳炳良proposes that
such a process involves five levels.
1. The literal level: Decoding word for word
4The symbolic meaning of the “crab” in the fiction is not limited. There are more possible inter-
pretations, such as it symbolizes the linkage between the reality and memory of the father &
son.
74 M. K. Ng
2. The grammatical and word order level: Understanding the literary work through
syntax
3. The rhetorical level: Understanding the images and metaphors
4. The thematic level: Studying the literary work under the lens of inter-
textualization and comparison (starting up the phrase of reflective interpretation)
5. The dialogue level: Reconstructing meanings (Chan 2012).
When students enter the dialogue level from the level of word order and grammar,
they would enter the inter-text reading state. By then, instructors require students to
use words, images, and multimedia text to explore meanings of more detailed context
in the classroom and extend the reflection of mutual reference. The workshop creates
an interactive, intellectual and challenging multimedia environment. Students are
required to learn the use of multiple media from images and texts that they encounter
in daily life. From the perspective of the undergraduate students, they would prefer
literature courses that allow them to engage with audio, video, and non-language
facilities, which would benefit the students who immerse themselves in a multi-
media environment both inside and outside the classroom (Piro 2001). This would
enhance students to think in both images and language simultaneously. Tapscott, D
believes that a multimedia reading classroom can affirm the learning environment of
multiple media (Speaker 2004, 241), including:
1. High independence: Students can choose the media that group members are
good at to present their reading achievements, which emphasizes students’
independence, initiative, cooperation and a sense of identity.
2. Enhanced inclusiveness: Students would be able to examine issues from a local or
national point of view to a global perspective through virtual and online communi-
ties. Students can also have access to other information when they present reading
achievements, and use other software or carriers simultaneously. Students regard
the assigned works as cultural texts, and their theme of demonstration may involve
sociology, history, philosophy, culture and so on.
3. Accessibility: Students would have access to much information, and their rights
to be heard are respected.
4. Experimentality and verifiability: Students could explore ideas to understand
their genesis, and investigate various possibilities of technologies. In Hong Kong,
such a demonstration approach to reading extended to all industries such as
the “Literature & Film Short Video Competition” run by Hong Kong Public
Libraries, and “Literature Streaming” launched by me, when I was the Chairlady
of the Literary Arts Committee of the Hong Kong Arts Development Council
in 2013–2016. It has promoted interactive dialogues and creative performances
of local literature and other media, and that is why related concepts have been
explored more in higher education afterwards.
5. Immediacy: It is expected to have instant access and exchange of information,
providing a richer experience in a short amount of time than off-line does.
Students in the workshop are required to demonstrate in-depth reading and design
interactive media and images texts within 30 min in class for their presentation.
This requires skills to process large amounts of text and multi-media in a short
amount of time.
6 Teaching Outcomes, the Assessment, and Its Limitations
This multi-media presentation of reading achievement, compared with the conven-

tionally written reading report, is not only more effective in evoking students’ learning
motivation, but also more successful in demonstrating the teaching outcomes and
facilitating creative writing. In comparison with simply written reading reports, the
multi-media presentation of reading achievement requires students to read indepen-
dently, and employ diversified thinking methods, improving their ability of observa-
tion, organisation, fluency, imagination, criticism, connection, comparison and other
abilities of creative thinking. Besides, as students learn independently, they can freely
choose the works, and conduct a group reading by themselves. They can discuss the
possibilities of different levels of reading at the dialogue level, through the phrase of
reflective interpretation, which is more suitable for the post-digital generations. As
reading is networked and digitised, texts have acquired a new kind of malleability.
Electronic corpus and network data provide massive literary records. The tradi-
tional literary reading method, which only involves printed texts, cannot satisfy this
generation’s needs for fierce social competition and cultural change (Abblitt 2019).
Excellent literary works can attract readers to study the texts intensively. But
they can do more than that. The assessment of the course (see Appendix 4) shows
that it no longer focuses on whether students can understand and interpret texts;
instead, it focuses on whether students can construct and verify text interpretation. It
relies more on how students use various strategies to construct text interpretation for
enhancing their understanding and inferring the author’s writing purposes. Students
take several perspectives to connect the text to social and historical context, and
to generalize and apply the themes through the strategy of cultural dialogue. This
reading assessment encourages students to be open to literary texts. Literary works
tend to be ambiguous, and have dynamic implications. Students are required to
demonstrate reading achievements in a process of interpretive reasoning. Interpretive
reasoning is not an easy skill to master, nor can it be easily learned on its own. People
usually learn how to interpret texts by participating in groups that care about the
meaning of specific texts, which is akin to participation in other discourse in the
communities (Deane 2020). This is the advantage of studying in groups. Another
benefit of such is that it solves the problem of learner differences and fulfils their
need for self-exploration.
Literature reading serves as a general skill training, or as a literature basic course
for freshmen. It is inevitable that students have individual differences. However,
there is little research on literary reading education for junior college students. A
Preliminary Research on the Teaching of Reading for Learner Differences and Self-
Exploration 分層教學、⾃主探究語⽂閱讀教學初探 (Dong, Kong, and Liu 2004)
76 M. K. Ng
is a book focusing on reading education for primary and secondary schools. It anal-
yses the “teaching of reading for learner differences and self-exploration” in detail.
Its operation procedure is similar to the above-mentioned teaching plan, and it aims
to instruct the interpretation of literary texts. It transforms reaching purposes into
students’ internal needs:
1. Self-exploration: With students’ intentions-based, they can choose chapters and
call for group members independently. They make associations through existing
experience and collect information to support each other.
2. Discussion: Students think, exchange, negotiate, and argue together at the work-
shop. They need to discuss a theme that they decided on. Different groups need
to demonstrate and develop different themes by using different media in order to
enrich their understanding of the texts.
3. Learning before teaching: The instructor teaches writing after students’ presenta-
tions. Students will have a good understanding of genres after participating in the
workshop on literary reading. They would understand how an author develops a
work when it is their turn to write. Fewer errors in genres are found and students
would find it is easier to transform emotions into works then.
The biggest limitation of this teaching plan is the teacher’s knowledge of multi-
media. In many cases, college students are better at digital media skills than the
instructors (Speaker 2004), which makes the assessment more difficult. It is also
limited by the basic knowledge of group members. Since reading is a complex
cognitive psychological process, it is still worthwhile to develop the pedagogy of the
multi-media presentation of reading achievements by students.
Appendix 1· Reading Work Examples of Students’ In-Depth

Reading Achievement Demonstration
1. Lu, Xun 魯迅. Gudu zhe 孤獨者. In Panghuang 彷徨; and Lu Xun Quanji 魯
迅全集
2. Lu, Xun 魯迅. Shang shi: Juan sheng de shou ji 傷逝涓⽣的⼿記. In
Panghuang彷徨; and Lu Xun Quanji魯迅全集
3. Yu Hua 余華. 1990. Wo wei shenme yao jiehun 我為甚麼要結婚. In Huanghun
li de nanhai ⿈昏裏的男孩. Taipei: Rye Field Publishing Co. 臺北⿆⽥出版
4. Yu Hua 余華. 2009. Xianxue meihua 鮮⾎梅花. In Xifeng huxiao de zhongwu
西風呼嘯的中午. Hong Kong: Ming Pao Monthly Publication ⾹港明報⽉刊
出版社
5. Yang Jiang 楊絳. 2003. Women sa shisan le 我們仨失散了. In Wo men sa 我
們仨. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press ⾹港⽜津⼤學出版社
6. Shi Tiesheng 史鐵⽣. 2004. Nainai de xingxing 奶奶的星星. In Ming ruo
qinxian命若琴弦. Taipei: Ecus Publishing House臺北⽊⾺⽂化
7. Shi Tiesheng 史鐵⽣.1988. Duyao” 毒藥. In Zhongguo xiaoshuo yijiu baliu 中

國⼩說⼀九八六. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Joint Publishing Co. Ltd. ⾹港三
聯書店
8. Mo Yan 莫⾔. 1989. Touming de hong luobo 透明的紅蘿蔔. In Touming de
hong luobo 透明的紅蘿蔔. Beijing: Zuojia chuban she 北京作家出版社; and
Taipei: Linbai chuban she 林⽩出版社
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hong luobo 透明的紅蘿蔔. Taipei: Linbai chuban she 林⽩出版社
10. Su Tong 蘇童. 2011. Xiangcao ying ⾹草營. In Xiangcao ying ⾹草營. Beijing:
Haitun chuban she 海豚出版社
11. Wang Pu 王璞. 1998. Yi ci mudi buming de luxing⼀次⽬的不明的旅⾏. In
Zhigeng niao 知更⿃. Hong Kong: Chinese Christian Literature Council Ltd
⾹港⽂藝出版社
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xiaoshuo bai nian jinghua ⾹港短篇⼩說百年精華. Hong Kong: Hong
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三聯書店
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meigui 名字的玫瑰. Hong Kong: Pop Workshop ⾹港普普⼯作坊
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島和⼤陸. Hong Kong: Wah Hon Publishing 華漢⽂化事業
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dongda tushu 臺北東⼤圖書
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wudao jiaoshi 曼娜舞蹈教室. Taipei: Unitas Publishing Co. 臺北聯合⽂學出
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xiangnian de jijie 最想念的季節. Taipei: Sansan shufang 三三書坊
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Hung-fan Bookstore 臺北洪範書店
21. Wong Leung-wo 王良和. 2002. Pangxie 螃蟹. In Yuzhou ⿂咒. Hong Kong:
Youth Literary Press青⽂書屋
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zhongguo wenku jingdu: Gao Xingjian 2000 年⽂庫當代中國⽂庫精讀: ⾼
⾏健. Hong Kong: Ming Pao Publication ⾹港明報出版社
23. Gao Xingjian ⾼⾏健. 2008. Xiejiang he ta de nu’er ⾼⾏健鞋匠和他的女
兒. In Gao Xingjian duanpian xiaoshuo ji ⾼⾏健短篇⼩說集. Taipei: Unitas
Publishing Co. 聯合⽂學出版社
78 M. K. Ng
24. Huang Fan ⿈凡. 1988. Ruhe celiang shuigou de kuandu 如何測量⽔溝的寬
度. In Dushe shenghuo 都市⽣活. Taipei: Sitak Publishing Co. 臺北希代書版
有限公司
25. Xiao Sa 蕭颯. 1984. Xiaoye ⼩葉. In Si le yi ge guozhong nusheng zhihou 死
了⼀個國中女⽣之後. Taipei: Hung-fan Bookstore 臺北洪範書店
Appendix 2 Reading Achievement Demonstration Cases

of Multi-Media Literature
Workshop Proposal
Reading work “Crab” 螃蟹 written by WONG Leung Wo王良和

Performance form Awards Ceremony
(Shadow Show, Recitation, Drama, Interactive games, Speech)
Teammate Zhang Shu yi 張淑怡 (leader), Xu Xueli 許雪麗, Liu Yusheng 劉裕⽣, Luo
Yijun 羅宜峻, Liang Weiyan 梁葦妍
Awards ceremony flow Form Purpose

Review of events Plot rearrangement Shadow show Fictional plots
(chronological)
Best actor Characters and their Recitation Character analysis
relationships
Best video editing Key sentences and Drama Key sentences
structure analysis deconstruction
Best props Symbolic meanings by Drama Images and
deconstruction symbols
Best actors Thematic Interpretation Vote by audiences Theme analysis
Finale performance Respond to the theme by Percussion and Re-sponce
presenting a poem newly recitation
created poet
Curtain call & others “Crab” and other works Speech Further reading
written by WONG Leung
Wo
Appendix 3: Students’ Poem for Response: The Hourglass

of Time 時間的沙漏
It is written by a group of second-year students (Associate Degree) in 2008–2009

at the HKU SPACE Community College.
I stand in the shadow of the tree,

我站在樹蔭下,
Slowly look up at the kaleidoscope of sky
緩緩抬頭看望天空的萬花筒
Refracted a picture after another through the leaves
從樹葉間折射出⼀格又⼀格的畫⾯
I can’t open my eyes, but I want to take a closer look, and look again
我睜不開眼, 卻又想細看, 再細看
As soon as I step into the door, I surmise the mystery of the vest bag
⼀踏進⾨, 我猜度著那個背⼼袋的玄機
Is it a candy? An ice cream? Or a toy?
是糖果?是雪糕?還是玩具?
All my favourites
都是我的最愛
The door bangs loudly
房⾨砰⼀聲巨響
I am trembling under the dining table, almost choking,
我在餐桌下顫抖, 快要窒息,
Breathing the anger,
呼吸著那團怒⽕,
My teeth tremble and close involuntarily
我的牙不由⾃主的開合
Is it a ruler? A rattan? Or a hanger?
是間尺?是騰條?還是衣架?
How can it be in love?
怎會帶著愛的緣故?
That merry-go-round keeps spinning
那隻不斷旋轉的⾺,
Those footloose fish
那些悠悠⾃在的⿂兒
That hot stove with sausages,
那烘著⾹腸熱乎乎的⽕爐,
That badminton flying over my forehead,
那個從額頭擦過的⽻⽑球,
That urging voice…
那催促的聲⾳…
"Quick! Have breakfast and go to school!" "Okay"
「快吃早餐上學去!」「嗯」。
“Quick! Do your homework!” “Okay“
「快做功課去!」「嗯」。
“Quick! Go to bed now!” “Okay“
「快睡覺去!」「嗯」。
The sonorous fragments echoed my childhood,
擲地鏗鏘的⽚段迴盪著我的童年,
Hope to keep those forgotten moments
80 M. K. Ng
希望挽留那些被遺忘的時間
But they slipped away unknowingly between fingers,
但它在⼿指縫間不知不覺地溜⾛,
Try to block the hourglass of time,
竭⼒堵塞著時間的沙漏,
Capture every moment of being together…
捕捉每⼀刻相處的時光…
Appendix 4: Rubrics of multi-Media Reading Achievements

Presentation
Criteria Excellent Good Fair Poor Score

Interpret Ideas are Ideas are good; Sufficient Unreasonable
related ingenious; demonstration understanding of idea; failed to
concepts and in-depth with insights; the work; clear express through
ideas expression; ideas are ideas; little demonstration;
Dialectical transformed is creativity; skills poor skills
interpretation; appropriately need to be
ideas are and creatively; improved
transformed using relevant
sophisticatedly, demonstration
appropriately, strategies;
and creatively; good skills;
Using rhythm and
demonstration speed control
skills can be
proficiently; improved
rhythm and
speed are well
controlled
40% 31–40 21–30 11–20 0–10
(continued)
(continued)
Understanding In-depth Good Correctly Generally
of work interpretation understanding understand most improper, or
of the work, of the work’s parts of the work; incorrect
involving theme, using reading understanding;
themes, techniques of strategies to try to failed to
presentation expression, read deeper properly use
techniques, and style; literary reading
unique styles; present partial strategies; lack
showing how literature of focus
the work elements;
combine using
different appropriate
elements; use reading
appropriate and strategies;
diverse reading thematic focus
strategies selection
proficiently; shows having
select thematic read in depth
focus to enter
dialogue
reading,
reflecting high
literary
knowledge
30% 21–30 11–20 10 0–9
Report & Fully explain Generally and The relationship Idea expression
Speech the relationship accurately between idea is unclear and
between the express the expression and the significantly
purposes of the relationship work is generally inaccurate; The
work and between the demonstrated with speech lacks
perform form; work and some organization
smoothly perform form; misunderstanding;
connect with less speech is
each part; unsuccessful acceptable
speech is clear cohesion; good
and excellent speech
20% 13–20 9–12 7–8 0–6
Interaction & Time allocation Time Overtime; Improper
Participation for each part is allocation for questions and control of time;
appropriate; each part is answers with seldom
excellent acceptable; inappropriacy participation in
performance in Participating discussions and
questioning and in questioning exchanges
exchanges; and exchanges;
active good
participation performance
10% 9–10 7–8 4–6 0–3
(continued)
82 M. K. Ng
(continued)
Final Score
Comments
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Creative Writing in the Narratives
of Interactive Games—The Cases
of Grand Theft Auto 5 and The Witcher 3:
Wild Hunt
Shawn Shao Dong
Abstract The gaming industry is a thriving form of new media in the entertain-
ment industry. With its interactive and immersive mode of experience, it is popular
amongst the new generation of young people. With the focus on two electronic games,
viz. Grand Theft Auto 5 and The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, this research studies how
they complete their complicated multiple threads of literary narratives and multiple
outcome narratives upon an interactive visual basis, and analyses the necessity and
special features of creative writing in this new type of new media through a study of
their narrative features and hidden interactive narrative clues.
Keywords Electronic game · Grand Theft Auto 5 · The Witcher 3 · Immersion

experience · Interactive narratives
1 Introduction: Multistranded Narratives in Different

Media
Since the twenty-first century, with the rapid development and reform of technology
and media, electronic games, which were considered to be electronic heroin or fierce
wildlife in the past, have gradually become a significant means and platform of
entertainment for different age groups. From a general understanding of entertain-
ment and in addition to its functions as leisure and a tool to channel emotions,
many gaming industry practitioners gradually emphasise the unique interactive and
immersive experience of electronic games. This interactive media has opened up
more possibilities and forms of arts and created a batch of unprecedentedly high-
quality interactive narrative works. The gaming narrative has gradually become an
important issue in academia and developed characteristics that are different from the
narratives found in other media. According to Watanabe and Nakamura (2015, 73),
the crucial narrative elements in games are to explain to players the roles, objects,
space, and signs in the game, and the mixture of these elements form the fictional
D. Shawn Shao (B)

e-mail: dshao@hkmu.edu.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_7
86 D. Shawn Shao
time and space so that the player would head toward the next fictional event and
space.
The most essential characteristic of a gaming medium is to make use of visual
effects to guide players to participate in the narrative story; that is, the interactivity of
narratives. In a 90-min movie with not one minute more or less, the scene in which the
main protagonist appears on screen will not be brought earlier or delayed according to
the personal preference of the audience; likewise, there will not be any changes to the
angles of each shot. Similarly, the text of the story, the sequence of the narratives, and
the content of the story will not change according to the reader’s personal preference
either. In a game, however, interactivity constitutes a considerably important feature.
In many open-world games, you can simulate your own life and choose to have
different conversations with various characters, or choose between love and hate;
You can also make different decisions on behalf of the main protagonist when he or
she faces ethical difficulties, which eventually lead to different endings.
Semiotician Ryan (2006, 86), accurately describes this particular type of narrative:
the digital narrative is also known as multimedia narrative or cross-media narra-
tive; and gaming narrative, as a type of new media narrative, is categorised as a
digital narrative. She mentioned in her book Avatars of Story that, different from
the narratives in traditional media in the past, the digital narrative is “autogenous,
not scripted; engaging, not receptive; simulated, not representational; synchronous,
not retrospective”. She also compared the differences between digital narrative and
classical narrative from the special features of digital media. Lindley (2002) found
that the narrative in digital games can be deemed as a cross-category between the
narratives of traditional literature and games. There are many similarities between
games and such media types as television drama, television news, film and so on;
there is a narrative structure in all these. The difference is that, the narrative struc-
ture of electronic games not only contains a system of episodes or factual elements,
but it also involves three types of basic symbolism based on time structure: game,
model, and narrative. Nowadays, many games have their backgrounds set against
some traditional stories, such as Role-Playing Games (‘RPG’) which simulate the
journey that the game character goes through and experiences the virtual world such
as the well-known game of Chinese Paladin 仙劍奇俠傳. Similarly, literary works
can become the materials of many games because of their narrative features and the
richness of the story content, such as the Romance of the Three Kingdoms 三國志
series or the Suikoden 幻想⽔滸傳 etc. It can be said that the richness of the gaming
experience plays a considerably significant role in the extensive meaning of literary
works. To some readers of the literary works, these games add an interactive dimen-
sion to the literary experience. For example, in her article “Theory of Interactive
Media: Multitude of Interaction and Narrative Modes in Electronic Games” 互動
媒介論: 電⼦遊戲多重互動與敘事模式, Guan 關萍萍 (2010) explores the novel
dissemination mode of electronic games, the three types of interactive models among
players of electronic games, and option-based narratives in electronic games. She
suggests that the dissemination mode of electronic games is based on their interactive
and narrative nature. The game narratives brought forth by the player’s selection are
uncertain intrinsically. The players’ actions became a constituent of the content of
Creative Writing in the Narratives of Interactive Games—The Cases… 87
the game narratives. At the same time, this is a significant difference between the
narrative of electronic games and the traditional narratives.
In the notion of interactivity, this chapter focuses on the important topic of multi-
stranded narratives, too. How the multistranded narratives are formed in a game?
And how is the multistranded narrative organised in a game? These are the questions
worth considering.
In the literary field, which is more familiar to us, there are existing routines for
multistranded narratives. For example, in the Chinese classical stories of The Dream
of the Red Chamber 紅樓夢 or Outlaws of the Marsh ⽔滸傳, the storyteller in the
novels often serves the function of transit from one scene to another with phrases
such as “On this side … on the other side” (這邊廂……那邊廂) and “Let’s set
this aside first, meanwhile” (此處按下不表, 卻説), etc. Intrinsically, the combi-
nation of several episodes has achieved the function of a multistranded narrative,
while this narrative is relatively simple. For example, Dictionary of the Khazars: A
Lexicon Novel by Milorad Pavić and As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner achieve a
more organic multistranded narrative by switching the perspectives from religion to
characters to portray the same events from multiple angles, forming a multifaceted
interpretation and radial multistranded narrative. Further examples can be found in
All Souls’ Day by Nooteboom, C. and Pedro Paramo by Juan Rulfo. They both
intensively intertwine the worlds of the living and the dead through a crisscrossing
multistranded narrative, showing a multistranded narrative that surpasses time and
space. Lastly, it is very worthy of mentioning Han Bangqing’s 韓邦慶 cinematic
novel The Sing-song Girls of Shanghai 海上花列傳. This novel adopts the one-
shot narrative method in film, which allows readers to see from the perspective of
the storyteller and walk through the streets and lanes of Shanghai behind different
characters, explicitly or implicitly portraying each person in the story.
In the field of film, the situation may be similar but slightly different. Examples
of combination of episodes in films are Chungking Express 重慶森林 directed by
Wong Kar-wai 王家衛 and Pulp Fiction by Quentin Tarantino. Paradigms of multi-
angle narrative in the film are Rashomon 羅⽣⾨ directed by Akira Kurosawa ⿊澤
明, Elephant by Gus Van Sant, and Hero 英雄 by Zhang Yimou 張藝謀. The typical
example of the application of parallel montage, which is an even more cinematic
technique—or the crisscross narrative in film terminology—is the scene of the last-
minute rescue in D. W. Griffith’s film Intolerance.
The above are the techniques commonly seen in handling multistrand narratives
in regular artistic works. However, does this narrative have any disadvantages? The
answer is also obvious—the lack of interactivity. Firstly, the audiences are not free
to choose the content, and they can only view the edited content, whether in fiction
or film. The organisation of a multistranded narrative has been pre-set by a writer,
while the so-called “reality” is also the effect deliberately rendered by the writer who
has not created a stable interactive environment for narratives. Secondly, whether the
audience or the readers, they are bystanders from the beginning to the end. Even if
the narrator is “me”, the audience or reader cannot immerse themselves into the roles
or choose for the narrator. Therefore, this type of narrative itself is at some distance
88 D. Shawn Shao
from the audience and viewers. In this respect, the game narrative has a considerable
advantage that is irreplaceable.
This paper will focus on two games, viz. Grand Theft Auto 5 (GTA5) and The
Witcher 3 (W3), and will discuss how they complete the complex multistranded
literary narratives and their multiple endings on an interactive visual basis. Through
studying their narrative features and hidden interactive narrative clues, this paper
will analyse the necessity and characteristics of creative writing in this new type of
new media.
2 The Narrative from Multiple Perspectives in Grand Theft

Auto 5 (GTA5)
Grand Theft Auto (GTA) series has been considered one of the most popular prod-
ucts in the history of electronic games. The background of the series of works is a
contemporary fictional city in the United States. In the game’s open world, players
can control the main character to freely roam around the city’s main streets and small
lanes. One can go into the cinema, shopping arcade, casino, and vice establishments.
One can speculate on stocks and shares or real estate. One can join a gang and interact
with passers-by. One can drive and move freely in the city. However, the reason for
this series to become the paradigm of electronic games is, in some ways, due to
its point of view. The so-called “Grand Theft Auto” as in the title is, in fact, the
euphemism for car thieves, and the choice of main protagonists throughout the series
are basically marginalised people in the U.S. society who may be gangsters, crimi-
nals in dire poverty, or fierce bank robbers. Their behaviours are strictly prohibited
by law, but they act upon civic virtues and a sense of justice to “breach prohibitions
with violence” to bestow these marginalised individuals with the grounds for social
criticism as the storyline develops with considerable mockery of American culture.
To a certain extent, this series can be comprehended as a group of protagonists of
American Outlaws of the Marsh ⽔滸傳, or a contemporary romantic story resembles
A Better Tomorrow 英雄本⾊.
The latest work of the series Grand Theft Auto 5 was launched in 2013. It has
been years since its launch, but over the years, it still holds the leading position in
the various pop charts. The cost of developing this game was enormous: over the
development period of 5 years, the upfront cost was US$276 million. However, with
its excellent storyline and narrative design and unrestricted gameplay together with
its excellent reputation, the game sold 11 million copies on the first day of release, and
the income solely from that day reached US$800 million, reclaiming the costs within
3 h. The revenue in three days broke through US$1 billion, and the volume of sales in
8 years soared to 140 million copies. What are the attractions of this applauded and
acclaimed piece of work? Much of it relates to the excellent screenplay and attractive
narrative method.
In terms of gameplay, there is no significant difference between this version and

the previous ones, but the numerous scenarios and gaiety of the urban environment
are unprecedented. The script alone is 3, 500 pages, while the script of an ordinary
film is about 70–150 pages. In addition to the basic storyline, it also includes many
hidden branches of storylines and content that require players to trigger and uncover
as they play as the protagonist. Such branch tasks would require having a conversation
with specific characters at a certain level before it can be triggered and complete the
main storyline.
In this game, the introduction of the multistranded narrative seems experimental;
at the same time, players can choose the time (priority and sequence) and method
(violence or strategy) to pursue the task to push forward the scenario. The most
important feature is its unique form of multistranded narrative, which consists of
three parallel stands that can be switched freely amongst them. The storyline of
Grand Theft Auto 5 is, in fact, not complicated. There are three main protagonists
in the game, viz. Franklin, Michael, and Trevor. At the beginning of the game, only
Franklin is there. One day, Franklin, the petty thief, has stolen Michael’s car. In
revenge for that, his company was bashed up badly by Michael, the veteran thief.
From here, there are two controllable protagonists. Then, the two of them want to
commit a heist on a jewellery shop. The scene then shifts to the countryside of
Los Santos. After the anti-social Trevor has destroyed the group of auto-racers, he
drives through the downtown, and then enjoys the night scene of the prosperous and
greedy Los Santos. From here, all three main protagonists are unlocked, and the
game formally begins (3DMGAME 2021).
A fantastic part of the game is that one can, in fact, freely change to any of the
three main protagonists while playing the game. When the player switches to the
role of Franklin, Michael and Trevor will not stop their actions; instead, they would
continue to live their own life. In the actual gameplay, when you are controlling one
of them to drive a car, switching control over another character might reveal that the
second protagonist is fighting in a bar as the third one flirting with his yoga trainer in
his luxury residence. Their respective scenarios are not presented through sequential
episodes of the story but by simultaneous multistranded narrative. They all share
a common timeline, which is a feature of real-life events. Some specific scenarios
can only be triggered by switching to a particular character in a specific scene, such
that there is a difference between explicit and implicit stands of the story. That is to
say, beyond the main storyline, there are multiple episodes; the player has to keep
switching to different roles in order to further comprehend the story. “The three
characters are completely independent. Each of them has their own house, car(s),
wardrobe and bank account. Against this setting, the player would have a strong
sense of presence, whichever the characters he or she switches into. When playing
the role of Franklin, one would feel that he is a young person of colour with perplexed
feelings about his future; as Michael, a middle-aged man of an unfortunate family;
as Trevor, a complete mad man” (3DMGAME 2021).
According to the definition of narrative texts from the perspective of semiotics
by Zhao 趙毅衡 (2014), “With the variation of the participation by a protagonist,
a scenario is formed and is organised into a piece of semiotics text which can be
90 D. Shawn Shao
comprehended by the recipient as having the dimensions of time and meaning.”

The dimensions of time and meaning in the narrative text of Grand Theft Auto 5
have a very strong implication of freedom which is not edited by the director or the
author. Instead, the way the story develops is up to the choice of the players, as to
take forward the tasks of which the protagonist goes first. Therefore, there may be
variations in the ways and angles the story unfolds to its eventual outcome. In the
game, the time and meaning will be woven by the players’ own actions. The players
will easily immerse themselves into the protagonists and believe that the initiation
and development of actions are out of one’s consciousness; therefore, the senses of
reality and achievement are enhanced. The presence of this type of consciousness of
self in a game is highly outstanding.
3 The Consequences of Real Choices: The Witcher 3
The Witcher 3 is a top seller of a Polish game company, CD Project Red, and its
worldwide sales volume is enormous. This game is so influential that it has been given
to foreign guests as a national present in Polish diplomatic events. The game itself is
an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Polish writer Andrzej Sapkowski. In
recent years, the web drama adaptation of the novel on Netflix has been well-received
by the audience worldwide.
The plot of the Witcher series is not complicated. It is a story about Geralt of Rivia,
the magically enhanced monster-hunter, in a fantasy world. The strongest attraction
of the story is the ups and downs in the plot, and the variety of real choices would
take the player to the ending of the story. The refined story structure and the success
in the portrayal of the characters are absolutely spectacular.
In the past, the games usually offered options for the players to choose from, and
the direction of the story varies depending on their decisions. These choices often drop
obvious hints that suggest what these decisions are leading towards. For example,
when the male protagonist chooses to have more conversations with Woman A, he
will end up spending the rest of his time with Woman A; if he chooses to interact
more with Woman B, the two of them will get married subsequently. This type of
predictable choice is, to a certain extent, some simple narrative, showing the players
two possible development trends to choose from. In the past, players were used to
such simple narratives; through some basic logical reasoning, the player would know
how to get the “best” outcome he wants.
However, one of the reasons why the Witcher series has received widely acclaimed
consistently is that the options in different are always complex; the choice of scenario
will have a butterfly effect. One may even have to choose between two glasses of
poisonous wine. One must make some forfeiture in order to make some gains. These
multiple alternative endings cannot be simply summed up as good or bad endings.
Also, there is a countdown of time for meaningful conversations to prevent the player
from looking up the strategy guide. For example, in the main storyline of The Witcher
3, the main protagonist is looking for his daughter. After having found her, a lot of
conversations are generated during the time they are living together. Interestingly,
the choice that influences the ending is not explicit. That decision only involves a
casual conversation between the protagonist and his daughter. It becomes known
afterwards that the more care for her, the greater the possibility of her leaving her
father in the end. Moreover, many games allow the player to be a ladies’ man, but
in this game, once the protagonist shows his love for more than one woman, he will
eventually be lonely and abandoned by all women.
A very important episode in the game called “Sin of the Body” fully reflects the
value of a real-life choice. In this episode, a female friend of the main protagonist
survives severe injuries caused by a sadomasochistic slaughterer, but more women
continue to fall victim in the city.
During the investigation with the forensic pathologist, it is found that the villain
uses exceptionally brutal means, but the investigation work progresses slowly. Each
day, different innocent women fall victim: the villain usually chooses a woman or a
prostitute randomly and practices sadomasochism on her. Despite the investigation
ongoing, there is no trace of any clue as the number of victims continues to rise every
day. The villain even pours formalin over the corpses and leaves provoking notes on
the scene. Still, the main protagonist is always one step short, and the villain always
manages to escape. This time, the main protagonist eventually obtains a clue and
comes to a brothel. After breaking into the room, he sees a man, with a pair of fire
tongs in hand. He has tied a woman onto a chair and is about to inflict harm on her.
At this time, three choices pop up on the screen, and the player has to make a choice
within the set period:
A. Come on, you bastard.
B. You tell me first. Why?
C. Just this? No formalin?
In this case, most players, enraged by his brutal acts, would choose A, or B, setting
off some fighting. This episode will end after the villain is killed, and no more crimes
would take place. However, some meticulous players find that, if C is chosen, a new
conversation will appear:
D. You almost took me in.
E. Who is leaving the note on the dead body?
F. Be polite, or you will regret it.
Options D or F, same as the previous ones, will set off fighting; only option E
will lead to the truth: the villain in front of the main protagonist is only a scapegoat
arranged by the murderer. The real murderer is someone else. Then, there will be
a considerable amount of content to be discovered, and, eventually, the real perfect
ending unfolds: the murderer will be caught, and the friend will be healed. The
scriptwriter and the game producer made painstaking efforts to mislead players, not
allowing them to come close to the truth in the plot while leaving this truth at the end
as a bonus to intentional players. This violates the traditional function of games that,
usually, serve as a tool to please the players. On the contrary, it gives them significant
challenges. Also, this form of interaction makes the games more realistic. There is
92 D. Shawn Shao
more than just winning or losing a game. There is also a situation where the player
does not know that he has failed. This kind of multiple-choice interaction further
elevates the gaming experience.
4 Conclusion
This chapter briefly analyses the two works Grand Theft Auto 5 and The Witcher 3.
By scrutinizing their narratives’ unique contents and values, this chapter attempts to
clarify the value of games as a new medium for interactive art and the possible devel-
opment of narratology. It deserves particular attention that the freedom of narrative
in games, the environment of excitement, and the possibility for the participant’s free
choice of narrative shall form the foundation for developing such a type of media. If
the twentieth century is a century of films, the most important art form in the twenty-
first century then must be games. In the studies of game narratives, there could be
more for the academics to explore.
References
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到《如龍0》多角⾊敘事的技術與藝術 [From GTA5 to Rulong 0: The techniques and arts of
narratives by multiple protagonists]. 3DMGAME. https://kknews.cc/zh-hk/game/qepnnzg.html.
Accessed 10 June 2021
Guan, Pingping 關萍萍. 2010. Hudong meijie lun: dianzi youxi duochong hudong yu xushi moshi
互動媒介論——電⼦遊戲多重互動與敘事模式 [Theory on interactive media: Multiple inter-
action and modes of narratives in electronic games]. Hangzhou: Zhejiang University Press 浙江
⼤學出版社
Lindley, Craig A. 2002. The gameplay gestalt, narrative, and interactive story-telling. In Proceedings
of computer games and digital cultures conference, ed. Frans Mäyrä, June 6–8, 2002, 203–214.
Tampere: Tampere University Press
Ryan, Marie-Laure. 2006. Avatars of story. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
Watanabe, Syuji, and Akinori Nakamura. 2015. What is gameplay [Youxi xing shi shenme 遊戲性
是什麼]. Translated by Fu, jiaxin 付加鑫. Beijing: Posts & Telecom Press ⼈民郵電出版社
Zhao, Yiheng 趙毅衡. 2014. Lun erci xushu 論⼆次敘述 [Discussion on secondary narrative].
Fujian Tribune (The Humanities & Social Sciences) 福建論壇(⼈⽂社會科學版) 1: 121
A Preliminary Study of Transmedia
Storytelling: The Case Study of a Special
Exhibition of the Hong Kong Heritage
Museum
Janet Lau Man-Ying
Abstract The study of transmedia storytelling is not a new area, scholars have been
discussing and reviewing not only novels and literary works, but also expanding to
other forms of media, including texts and images, music, dance, film, drama, and
even visual arts and performing arts, as well as popular mass media, such as televi-
sion, film, animation, games and online platforms. However, exhibitions and theme
parks have not received much attention or discussion. In fact, many studies have
pointed out that museums, art galleries and other alternative spaces for exhibitions
are regarded as media with transformative and communicative characteristics. An
exhibition is considered a kind of “text”, and it features multimedia at the same
time. However, the process of communication and dialogue with visitors take place
at the exhibition also depends on the display mode, covering the selection, organ-
isation and arrangement of the texts and items to empower the visitors to imagine
and understand its content, and even to indulge their sensual gratification. This study
attempts at exploring how museum exhibitions in recent years use stories of a person
through the means of transmedia storytelling. With technological development, the
interpretation of cultural content in museum exhibitions is richer and more diverse in
meanings. In addition to objects and texts as narrative tools, the use of multimedia has
become the norm: visualising texts and even virtualising reality. This study aims to
take the “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu‧Art‧Life” 武‧藝‧⼈⽣李⼩龍, a special exhi-
bition at Hong Kong Heritage Museum, as an example to explore how its transmedia
storytelling connects the visitors, and their feelings towards Hong Kong through the
exhibition.
Keywords Transmedia storytelling · Symbolic meaning · Museum exhibition ·

Display mode
M. Y. Janet Lau (B)

e-mail: jmylau@hkmu.edu.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_8
94 M. Y. Janet Lau
1 Introduction
Novels and literary works, particularly their languages and words, have convention-
ally been the focus of narrative studies. However, one cannot thoroughly understand
a literary work solely by analysing its text literally, but also the concept, context
and culture of a society behind the work. Therefore, the subjects in narrative studies
have been expanding the fields from literature to other forms of media, including
texts and images, music, dance, film, drama, and even visual arts and performing
arts, and so on. As a result, narrative studies are no longer restricted to language
and words—they can be visual or spatial narratives, too. Many new concepts have
been developed based on this idea. For example, research on intermediality and
intertextuality were introduced by the West in the 1970s, followed by the idea of
transmedia storytelling. This research trend also promotes different ways of expan-
sions in creating stories: the new developments of “Media Expansions” engendered
the concept of Multimodality, which examines the interplay among different media;
and “Narrative Expansions” expand the notions of new roles and scenes from the
original themes, genres and formula. The diversity and extensibility of narratives,
especially in this current Internet era, have clearly been manifested. Some studies
on narrative concepts and museums began to emerge in the 1990s. For instance,
Eilean Hooper-Greenhill (2000, 124) points out that “Museum pedagogy is struc-
tured through the narratives produced through the displays, and also through the
style in which these narratives are presented… The curatorial meaning of objects
in museum is produced through a complex and multi-layered museological process
where museum objectives, collecting policies, classification methods, display styles,
artefactual groupings and textual framework come together in articulation.” There-
fore, the exhibition can be regarded as a kind of text equipped with the characteristic
of transmedia. Different media have various display modes and limitations. How
museum staff organise various objects and what medium they use to tell stories are
essential. An important purpose for them to deliver messages through exhibitions is to
communicate with museum visitors, but there is little research on this aspect in Hong
Kong. Chang Wan-Chen 張婉真 points out in The Narrative Turn of Contemporary
Museum Exhibition 當代博物館展覽的敘事轉向 (2014, 8) that “the application of
exhibition narrative in museums has become a way to analyse how objects and their
arrangements produce meanings.”
This study attempts to use “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life”, a special exhibition at
Hong Kong Heritage Museum, as a case study on how textual narrative tells a story of
a person, and how the narrative evokes the visitors’ imagination, association, memory
and, thus, feelings. Dedicated to the biography of Bruce Lee, this exhibition displays
objects in settings with multimedia installations as an effort to enrich and diversify
the exhibition content, making the exhibition more appealing to visitors. This study
intends to explore the textual narrative and display modes of this exhibition, and how
they use the symbolic meanings and transmedia storytelling in the exhibition to build
a connection with visitors—that is, to communicate with visitors and satisfy them
by offering links between different media and their own experiences.
A Preliminary Study of Transmedia Storytelling: The Case Study … 95
2 Methodology
Since exhibition is a combination of textual narrative, transmedia and multimodality,

the theory in this study mainly draws on articles about symbolic meaning, exhibition
narrative, exhibition practice and media application, and transmedia storytelling.
In addition, this case study will help us grasp a deeper understanding of visual
language and communication in transmedia narrative, and how they interact with
audiences. Museum visitors comprise people from different regions, age groups—
or even speakers of different languages. This demographic factor would make the
analysis more challenging. Therefore, this study mainly concentrates on local visitors
in Hong Kong. Interviewees were mainly adults who had already visited the Hong
Kong Heritage Museum’s special exhibition: “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life”
before. As a preliminary exploration, the research scope of this study is confined to
media narrative and symbolic information in the exhibition. Interview questions are
open-ended and are designed to collect data regarding the visitors’ perceptions of the
special exhibition. This study aims to examine which media are of interest to visitors
in the exhibition narrative, and whether the symbolic meaning presented there is
related to their associations with Hong Kong through analysis and comparison of the
preliminary data collected from the interview.
3 Museum Exhibitions
One of the main tasks of a museum is to let the public appreciate different cultural
relics and exhibits by organising exhibitions, which enriches their viewing experi-
ence and expands their knowledge. In order to initiate an effective conversation with
its visitors and allow them to understand and receive relevant information, museum
staff select appropriate words and objects and employ interesting display methods and
spatial design corresponding to the exhibition content. Regarding exhibition texts,
Chang Wan-Chen (35) asserted that “they are not confined to words themselves;
instead, they are verbal discourses, which integrate visual senses with multi-sensory
experience to interact with audiences.” They are more of an “open textual space”.
Besides, exhibition texts can be roughly divided into two types: Firstly, text for
exhibit-centred exhibitions. Exhibition texts in art exhibitions, for example, tend
to be more explanative and descriptive, which allow visitors to use their creativity
and interpretation; Secondly, text for theme-centred exhibitions, such as exhibitions
devoted to science, history, social issues, etc. Such exhibitions adopt narrative texts,
which try to convince the visitors to accept the messages intended (17). There-
fore, the text strategy for thematic exhibitions focuses more on communication with
visitors and information dissemination, and narrative elements are usually applied
in object and installation displays, with consideration of spatial design, colouring,
audio effects, visiting routes, etc. In addition, all exhibitions are purposeful commu-
nication, and they are not necessarily neutral; however, the symbols represented in
96 M. Y. Janet Lau
the exhibition are polysemous in a multicultural context. Would visitors generate the
intended associations?
4 Symbolic Meaning of Exhibits
Museums convey information to visitors through text narratives and object displays.
Wang Sung-Shan 王嵩山 mentions in Museums, Thought, and Social Action 博物
館、思想與社會⾏動 (2015, 139) that “people’s memories are often fragmented,
selective, and unstable, so they must be embodied through objects.” That is why
museums combine and arrange various objects to interpretively communicate with
visitors, evoke their imagination, and even connect their memories to produce
meaning and resonance. It is believed that curatorial works in museums also “mean
cultural representation which involves not only property definition for objects, but
also the process where objects establish their subjective values, and cultural emic
significance” (86–87).
When museum staff design various exhibitions, they need to consider the symbolic
meaning of the exhibits. Their selection of texts, objects, and the media to be used
for display are all carefully curated and arranged. These exhibits can be interpreted
by visitors based on certain selected content. The exhibition’s texts, objects, and
positioning can all be considered signs. From the perspective of linguistics, Ferdi-
nand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist, points out that all signs consist of two parts:
the signifier and the signified. The signifier represents the sound-image, and the
concept derived from this metaphor is signified. In daily life, symbolic meanings are
embedded in these signs to generate dialogues and communications. Roland Barthes
further developed corresponding denotation and connotations based on this, and even
extended texts to popular culture studies. Barthes wrote in the article “Semantics of
the Object” (2008, 188) that “to signify means that objects carry not only informa-
tion, in which case they would communicate, but also constitute structured systems
of signs, i.e., essentially systems of differences, of oppositions and of contrasts.” He
further explains that the intrinsic purposes of objects are not limited to their func-
tional nor aesthetic and decorative purposes only; they can also serve as a meaning
carrier. “In other words, the object effectively serves some purposes, but it also serves
to communicate information; we might sum it up by saying that there is always a
meaning that overflows the object’s use” (190). The essence of objects emphasises
certain purposes and conveys messages as signs. However, it also generates addi-
tional meanings when they are set in different spaces and contexts. From the first
conventional level to the second level of connotation, signs can continuously extend
their connotation meaning. For instance, one may accumulate the memories and
stories of cities or persons to a sign’s connotation.
“As a matter of fact, all objects are polysemous, i.e., they can pave the way to
different interpretations; the existence of an object almost always can be interpreted
in several ways. These interpretations are not only given by two different readers, but
also, sometimes, by the same reader” (196). Thus, the meanings of signs can change.
Furthermore, Mikhail Bakhtin implies that “signs do not have fixed meanings; rather,
the meanings of symbols are given by the two-sided relationship between the speaker
and listener, addresser and addressee” (Barker 2015, 96) This can also be used to
explain the objects displayed in the museum. Despite that these objects may represent
functional signs; they also include curators’ intentions. However, visitors have diverse
backgrounds, emotions and knowledge, and hence their interpretations will produce
other meanings, creating multiple cultural signs.
5 Communication Between Visitors and Signs
In museum exhibitions, for example, museum staff first need to encode the messages
intended with the signs and meanings that the exhibits represent, by which they
generate codes. As visitors look at the exhibits, they are decoding—that is, commu-
nication with the signs represented by the exhibits, and attempting to understand the
messages and meanings (signs) intended to deliver. However, during the communi-
cation process, visitors do not necessarily receive the messages intended originally.
This is because these signs deliver diverse, rather than single, meanings to visitors.
Furthermore, the meanings of the signs are closely related to social culture.
Anything that interacts with the environment produces meanings, and it also connects
to the history and memory of a country, ethnicity, society, and event(s). For these
reasons, how visitors receive the message delivered through signs in the museum
depends largely on their perceptions of social culture. Only in this way can the
meaning of signs be received and understood. Therefore, different visitors can read,
appreciate and explore the signs represented by the objects from different perspec-
tives when they look at the same object even in the same exhibition space. When
different visitors decode signs, completely different meanings and cultural symbols
can be produced. “In other words, the meanings of signs are not fixed and negotiable”
(95).
Chang Wan-Chen 張婉真 wrote on museum exhibition signs in The Narrative
Turn of Contemporary Museum Exhibition 當代博物館展覽的敘事轉向:
Today, we know from research findings in various fields such as semiotics and communication
theories that culture relies on workings of different symbolic systems, and we always transfer
and deliver various messages between different media. Museum exhibitions are also based
on existing meanings, symbolism, form and objects, and these elements are transformed and
reorganised in unique ways. Therefore, the exhibition becomes a manufacturer of culture.
(Chang 2014, 57)
6 Transmedia Narratives in Museum Exhibition
In the past, museum exhibition narratives mainly revolve around objects and collec-
tions to produce meanings. However, technological advancement diversifies the ways
98 M. Y. Janet Lau
of narratives and enriches the style of an exhibition. This change responds to the trend
of transmedia narrative. Henry Jenkins’s book Convergence Culture: Where Old and
New Media Collide (2006, 96) argues that “in the ideal form of transmedia story-
telling, each medium does what it does best—so that a story might be introduced in
a film, expanded through television, novels, and comics; its world might be explored
through game play or experienced as an amusement park attraction.” In short, multi-
media serve as a platform to tell stories; “media extension” and “narrative extension”
are used to strengthen the narrative of the stories. Different content related to the story
can be presented on different media simultaneously, complementing each other. The
more media on different platforms the audience experience, the more they will be
able to understand the context of the whole story.
Exhibition narrative tends to employ media extension and considers it a tool
for exhibition design and auxiliary interpretation. Sensory communication, which
is a characteristic of multimedia narrative, has been adopted to set up a dialogue.
Today’s museum exhibitions use different media content to deliver the messages of
the exhibitions. Hunter (2002) points out that common media in museums can be
divided into five categories, which, from stationary to motive, are listed as follows:
Media Category
Images Photographs, prints, maps, manuscripts, documents, drawings, paintings, movie
stills, posters
audio songs, music, plays, interviews, oral histories, radio programs, speeches, lecturers,
performances, language recordings
Video/film Full feature films, documentaries, news clips, anthropological/expedition footage,
home movies, animation
Graphics 3D models, simulated walk-throughs of buildings, archeological sites, VRML
multimedia presentations, slide shows, SMIL files, QuickTime VR
7 “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life” Special Exhibition
“Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life” Special Exhibition (Fig. 1) is a large-scale project
jointly organised by the Hong Kong Heritage Museum and the Bruce Lee Founda-
tion. From 2013 to 2018, the exhibition attracted nearly 2.8 million visitors, with an
average of about 560,000 visitors each year (Sing Tao Daily, 2018). Due to its popu-
larity, the exhibition has been modified with new installations and extended to 2026,
becoming the longest-running special exhibition in the museum. The exhibition has
a total area of 850 square meters, divided into different parts so that the exhibition
can clearly and comprehensively deliver messages to visitors. It has six exhibition
areas and more than 600 exhibits, including Bruce Lee’s autograph drawings and
notes, photos, costumes, fitness equipment, movie props, posters and so on.
The exhibition revolves around Bruce Lee’s biography. The six exhibition areas
are named “Preface”, “A Man: Lee Jun Fan”, “Actor: Bruce Lee”, “Kung Fu Master:
Fig. 1 “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life” Special Exhibition (Photography by Janet Lau Man-Ying)
Bruce Lee”, “Legend: Bruce Lee”, and “Collectors’ Corner”. Each exhibition area
features different scene designs, objects and furnishings to simulate and recreate the
context where he lived and worked. The design of the exhibition sections and their
titles reveal that the curators arranged the exhibition in a sequential manner, resem-
bling a biography. For the exhibition narrative, the exhibits are extensively displayed
across the media classified by Hunter, depicting Bruce Lee’s personality with the use
of transmedia, which makes his character more distinctive and persuasive.
The exhibition has a specially-designed entrance featuring a semicircle-shaped
corridor, which is decorated with multiple vertical rectangular TV screens that play
featured videos produced by local artists as an introduction. The video uses the flow
and dynamics of water drops as the main visual element, which intersperses with
Bruce Lee’s core Kung Fu concept, “Be Water”, to present the legendary figure,
arousing visitors’ senses and emotions (Fig. 2). Next, along the path, visitors enter
the first exhibition area “A Man: Lee Jun Fan”. It emulates Hong Kong’s domestic
life from the 1940s to the 1950s, showcasing the objects and pictures of Bruce Lee’s
life in Hong Kong when he was young, followed by images and letters of him from
his later life in the United States. The other two exhibition areas, “Actor: Bruce Lee”
and “Kung Fu Master: Bruce Lee”, show his career development, covering his acting
and Kung Fu career. In these sections, the main scenes from five of his classic Kung
Fu movies were selected for display alongside a large number of pictures, video
clips, book and magazine covers, and movie posters. A three-dimensional animation
specially designed and produced for this Kung Fu Master exhibition area is also
played, showing the essence of Ip Man 葉問 and Bruce Lee’s Kung Fu. This video
focuses more on the delivery of Kung Fu’s step-by-step information. These two
exhibition areas primarily display Bruce Lee’s achievements in acting performance
100 M. Y. Janet Lau
Fig. 2 A Set of Multimedia installation Arranged in Semicircle at the Entrance of “Bruce Lee:
Kung Fu · Art · Life” Special Exhibition (Photography by Janet Lau Man-Ying)
and Kung Fu philosophy. For the last two exhibition areas, “Legend: Bruce Lee” and
“Collectors’ Corner”, the Museum reproduces Bruce Lee’s study room in an actual
size diorama to set the atmosphere and display many cultural relics and collections
related to Bruce Lee (Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6).
Though Bruce Lee has been an iconic figure in popular culture both in Hong Kong
and overseas, he has rarely been the theme of an exhibition. This exhibition displays
a large number of objects about Bruce Lee that can hardly be found elsewhere. In
addition to public media content, many of the objects are private collections. The
objects are diverse and abundant, from graphics and manuscripts to three-dimensional
models and animations, along with a number of special installations and dioramas
that recreate scenes, too. These objects and media play an important role in the
communications of this exhibition and are indispensable display elements.
Since this exhibition is divided into different exhibition areas to showcase Bruce
Lee’s life, each exhibition area tells a story, highlighting several important milestones
in his life. It seems that the objects and scenes in the exhibition provide a glimpse
of Bruce Lee’s personal life, but it also narrates the story through the use of signs.
When visitors immerse themselves in the exhibition and look at the objects, they
are processing the information and experiencing the person’s life. This exhibition
brings visitors not only the social environment Bruce Lee lived in his time, but also
the social changes they are currently experiencing, which may evoke and echo their
associations and memories.
Fig. 3 Introduction Board of “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life” Special Exhibition (Photography
by Janet Lau Man-Ying)
Fig. 4 The Simulated Movie Scene of “The Game of Death” Displayed at “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu ·
Art · Life” Special Exhibition (Photography by Janet Lau Man-Ying)
102 M. Y. Janet Lau
8 Research Findings
Twelve visitors who visited the “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life” special exhibition
were interviewed. There were five men and seven women, aged between 23 and
60. They were approximately divided into three age groups: 23–30 years old (five
persons), 31–45 years old (two persons), and 46–60 years old (five persons). All
of them have received a tertiary or higher level of education, and they visited the
exhibition with their friends. While the duration of their visit ranged from 20 minutes
to about 2 hours, most of them spent an hour there. They all knew Bruce Lee before
their visits. As for the reasons for visiting this exhibition, nine interviewees indicated
that they visited the museum for other exhibitions and stopped by the Bruce Lee
exhibition. Two interviewees visited this exhibition for school activities. Only one
interviewee visited the exhibition out of mere interest.
Since the exhibition’s media is a very important communication tool, interviewees
were required to select a scene or an impressive exhibit from the exhibition and
explain the reason for their choice. This question would help us understand how an
object or a scene communicated with visitors and triggered feelings. In terms of the
selection of exhibits, four visitors from different age groups were deeply impressed
by Bruce Lee’s film and television works. Some of them believed that his film and
television work help them get to know more about Bruce Lee. The other two visitors
from another age group were more impressed by movie stills and pictures. They
pointed out that they spent a lot of time on these exhibits because these materials
were abundant and valuable. Two elderly visitors were most impressed by the notes
and manuscripts. They believed that there were few opportunities to read Bruce Lee’s
handwriting, and one of them was particularly fond of this because she found the
handwriting aesthetic. Two visitors from the young and middle-aged groups had
an unforgettable impression of the yellow jumpsuit (Fig. 5). One of them believed
that the yellow jumpsuit is a classic movie scene as well as a symbol of Bruce Lee,
emphasizing that this was the interviewee’s childhood memory. Another elderly
visitor was interested in 3D animation because using animation to introduce Kung
Fu moves was something new. The last young visitor was most impressed by the
statue of Bruce Lee (Fig. 7) as its supremacy boosted the atmosphere, and yet it
aroused sorrow for Bruce Lee’s premature death.
Among the five media categories put forward by Hunter, only the audio in the
exhibition had not been mentioned by the interviewees, and the video/film was the
most impressive. Perhaps this is because the exhibition theme is the life story of a film
and television celebrity, and the media that serve this theme well are more popular.
Although much attention was paid to the spatial design and layout of this exhibition,
it seems that such an effort did not draw the visitors’ attention. The manuscripts and
documents in the video category were given more attention by the elderly among the
three age groups.
Fig. 5 The Study Room in an Actual Size Diorama of “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life” Special
Exhibition (Photography by Janet Lau Man-Ying)
Fig. 6 The Scene of “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life” Special Exhibition (Photography by Janet
Lau Man-Ying
As for the visitors’ views on the connection between Bruce Lee and Hong
Kong, only two young interviewees thought that Bruce Lee and Hong Kong are
not connected. Other interviewees believed that there is a connection between Bruce
Lee and Hong Kong. The summary is as follows:
104 M. Y. Janet Lau
Fig. 7 The Bruce Lee’s Statue Placed at the Museum Entrance (Photography by Janet Lau Man-
Ying)
1. Bruce Lee grew up and became famous in Hong Kong. His movies are popular
all over the world, and many foreigners get to know Hong Kong because of him.
2. Bruce Lee studied Wing Chun with Master Ip Man in Hong Kong when he was
young, and his invention of Jeet Kune Do 截拳道 has attracted many foreigners
to study Kung Fu in Hong Kong.
3. Bruce Lee’s famous saying “Be Water” has been deeply rooted in the hearts of
Hong Kong people.
4. Bruce Lee’s films are popular among the people of Hong Kong, and many
following films pay tribute to his films by using his classic dialogues.
5. Bruce Lee represents the strong spirit of Hong Kong.
The above-mentioned post-visiting experience of the visitors, especially their
views on the connection between Bruce Lee and Hong Kong, can be regarded as the
feelings engendered by the exhibition. As Bruce Lee grew up and cast movies in
Hong Kong, most of the interviewees naturally linked Bruce Lee to this region. His
famous quotes and symbols that have often been mentioned in Hong Kong embody
a certain self-identity of Hong Kong people such as points 3 and 5 above.
9 Conclusion
From the preliminary case study of the “Bruce Lee: Kung Fu · Art · Life” special exhi-
bition, it is found that today’s museum exhibition narrative adopts different media
to meet visitors’ various needs and expectations to enrich the exhibition content and
provide fruitful experience to the visitors. However, as a biographical exhibition,
its text strategies seem to be overly systematic. It is undoubtedly safe to guide the
visitors through the biography in sequential order; however, solely relying on objec-
tive information undermines the character’s emotion and sensation. For example,
Bruce Lee’s personal life experience in Hong Kong and the United States covering
his growth and pursuit of dreams can be presented in greater depth as the narrative
focus. Such experiences of growing up to pursue dreams could resonate with nearly
everybody, but seemingly they do not leave a profound impression on visitors as from
the findings. As for the reading of exhibits as symbols, it seems that multimedia is
not suitable for all exhibition narratives. The most important thing about an exhi-
bition is to connect emotionally with visitors, like the use of theatrical effects may
enhance visitors’ sensual experience. For instance, the lighting and sound effects
can be added to the scene of the yellow jumpsuit to enhance the feeling of actu-
ally being in a movie, evoking visitors’ imagination. In recent years, exhibitions
emphasise participation rather than passive reception of exhibition information and
this aspect can also be established by narrative extension. For example, the exhibi-
tion can include the re-creation of works of the legendary Bruce Lee, whether the
imitation played by other actors or created characters, which are produced by Hong
Kong and other regions. Such re-creations or imitations could help enhance the visi-
tors’ understanding of the exhibition of a person’s life from the past without being
disconnected from the present time. This study attempts to use exhibition narrative
as a textual study, especially in the application of multimedia. The research offers
an initial discussion, aiming to attract more people who are interested in this aspect
to study and share their research findings about the exhibition narrative study.
References
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Creative Writing and New Interpretations
of Chinese Classical Culture
A Discussion on “Southeast Fly
the Peacocks” and Its TV Series
Adaptation from the Perspectives
of “Chinese Tragic Consciousness”
and “Intertextuality”
Leung Tak-Wah
Abstract The “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” 孔雀東南⾶ is a long yuefu 樂府 narra-
tive poem written in the Han Dynasty. The whole poem consists of 353 neatly
composed pentasyllabic lines, containing 1765 characters in total. It describes a
poignant love story between Jiao Zhongqing 焦仲卿 and Liu Lanzhi 劉蘭芝. It has
always been valued by literati and scholars because of its moving plot, cohesive narra-
tive, and detailed description of characters and dialogues. In 2009, mainland China
even adapted the “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” into a 36-episode long TV series in
which some changes have been made to the original main characters and plot. It is
inevitable that reinvented scenes would constitute major parts of the TV series, given
that the production team has to complete the daunting task of adapting an ancient
poem of around 1,700 words into a long modern TV series. However, whether such
modifications can fit into the original ballad’s unique “Chinese tragic conscious-
ness” is worthy of further discussion. Focusing on “Chinese tragic consciousness”
and “intertextuality,” this article discusses the effects of the TV adaptation on the
original ballad with respect to its sense of tragedy and modifications to the plot by
comparing the most representative scenes in the ballad “Southeast Fly the Peacocks”
and their corresponding TV adaptation.
Keywords Han yuefu · Southeast Fly the Peacocks · Chinese tragic

consciousness · Intertextuality · TV Series
1 Introduction
The “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” 孔雀東南⾶ is a long yuefu 樂府 narrative poem
written in the Han Dynasty. The whole poem consists of 353 neatly composed penta-
syllabic lines, which constitutes 1765 characters in total. It describes a poignant
love story between Jiao Zhongqing 焦仲卿 and Liu Lanzhi 劉蘭芝. It has always
been valued by literati and scholars because of its moving plot, cohesive narrative,
T. W. Leung (B)
Department of Chinese Language and Literature, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong
Kong, China
e-mail: leungtakwah@cuhk.edu.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_9
110 T. W. Leung
and detailed description of characters and dialogues. In 2009, mainland China even
adapted “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” into a 36-episode long TV series in which
some changes have been made to the original main characters and plot. It is inevitable
that reinvented scenes would constitute major parts of the TV series, given that the
production team has to complete the daunting task of adapting an ancient poem of
around 1,700 words into a long modern TV series. However, there has been signif-
icant dispute over whether such adapted or added scenes could deliver the unique
“Chinese tragic consciousness” of the original poem. For example, Zheng Mingxia’s
鄭明霞 “Discussion on the TV Series Adaptation of ‘Southeast fly the Peacocks’”
(2019) suggests that the TV series is an excellent adaptation of the original work,
which covers new topics and thus conveys deeper messages. Yet, Li Shiqi’s 李⼠奇
“The Weakened Interpretation of the Tragic Theme of TV series Southeast Fly the
Peacocks” (2010, 53) points out that the TV series created too many fictional char-
acters and scenes, attenuating the articulation of the original ballad’s theme. Thus,
further research and discussion on this topic are necessary. Focusing on “Chinese
tragic consciousness” and “intertextuality,” this article discusses the effects of the TV
adaptation on the original ballad with respect to its sense of tragedy and modifications
to the plot by comparing the most representative scenes in the ballad “Southeast Fly
the Peacocks” and their corresponding TV adaptation.
2 The Differences in “Chinese Tragic Consciousness”

and Themes Between the Original Ballad “Southeast Fly
the Peacocks” and Its TV Series Adaptation
“Southeast Fly the Peacocks” was formerly titled “An Old Style Poem Dedicated
to Jiao Zhongqing’s Wife” 古詩為焦仲卿妻作 in Xu Ling’s 徐凌New Songs from
the Jade Terrace ⽟臺新咏 in the Southern Dynasties. It was later included in Guo
Maoqian’s 郭茂倩 “Miscellaneous Songs” 雜曲歌辭 in the Collection of Yuefu 樂
府詩集 and was retitled “Jiao Zhongqing’s Wife” 焦仲卿妻 in the Song Dynasty.
People of the subsequent generation, for the sake of clarity, took the first line of the
poem as its name: “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” 孔雀東南⾶. The author of the poem
remains unknown, and its provenance has received diverse opinions from scholars of
different generations. Some argue that it was written in the Han Dynasty, while others
in the Six Dynasties. However, most scholars believe that the poem is a work of the
later Han Dynasty and had been polished by later literati during its transmission (Liu
1997). The poem’s preface reads, “During the Jian’an period at the end of the Eastern
Han Dynasty, Liu, the wife of Jiao Zhongqing, government clerk of Lujiang, was cast
out by Zhongqing’s mother. She then vowed not to marry again. As her family forced
her to remarry, she committed suicide by drowning. After Jiao Zhongqing heard the
news of her death, he hanged himself on a tree in his yard. Their contemporaries were
A Discussion on “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” and Its TV Series… 111
saddened by this tragedy and wrote this elegy.”1 The poem describes the tragic love
story between Jiao Zhongqing and his wife Liu Lanzhi. Although they loved each
other, Jiao’s mother detested Lanzhi and urged her son to divorce her and remarry
another. Even worse was that Lanzhi’s brother forced her to remarry a prefect’s son. In
the end, Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi killed themselves because they could not live
on without each other, becoming the victims of tyrannous parental authority. Such an
elegiac plot gives the impression that “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” is full of tragedy.
However, this kind of tragedy is different from that of the West; thus, how the poem
reflects the characteristics of Chinese tragic consciousness is indeed worth exploring.
Tang Junyi’s 唐君毅 The Spiritual Value of Chinese Culture 中國⽂化之精神價
值 (2002, 259–269) discusses the differences between Chinese and Western literary
works with regard to tragic consciousness. Tang explains why Chinese literature does
not have works similar to Western tragedy: Chinese literature aims at encouraging
kind-hearted people to perform good deeds and wishes that their spiritual world
would receive support from reality. Tang also analyses the tragic consciousness of the
Chinese (259–262). He states that Chinese tragedies are different from the Western’s
because not only do they involve the personal fate and traits of the protagonist, but
they are also formed around the Chinese society, culture and context. Furthermore,
Tang identifies the characteristic of Western tragedies as gendered by the conflicts
between the protagonist and the society, pointing out that China lacks such tragedies
that highlight the liberation of individual wills.
Tang’s analysis focuses on Chinese novels and operas, without noting the ancient
poem “Southeast Fly the Peacocks”. First, the protagonists of the poem Jiao
Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi eventually committed suicide because of the detestation
by Jiao’s mother and the coercion in marriage by Liu’s brother. This is undoubtedly
a tragedy. However, at the end of the story, “the two families hoped to bury Jiao
Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi together near the Huashan Mountain (兩家求合葬, 合
葬華山傍)”, which suggests that the couple could finally reunite with each other
after their deaths. From this perspective, the poem’s ending is consistent with Tang’s
conclusion that Chinese tragedy tends to have a happy ending.
The last two lines of the poem read, “Remember, people of later generations.
Please take this as a lesson and do not forget about this! (多謝後世⼈, 戒之慎勿
忘!)” The author of the poem hopes to warn people about this love tragedy, persuading
family members not to put pressure on their children or younger siblings any longer as
this could drive them to commit suicide. The preface of the poem states that “people
at that time mourn for this tragedy and, thus, they wrote this elegy to commemorate
it (時⼈傷之, ⽽爲此辭也)”. This statement supports Tang’s theory that “Chinese
literature aims to let kind-hearted people’s spiritual world receive support from real-
ity” and prevents tragedies like this from happening again. Tang believes that the
plots of Chinese tragedy originate from society and human cultures (⼈間⽂化),
rather than simply being driven by protagonists. Evidence of such can be found in
“Southeast Fly the Peacocks” as well. As mentioned above, the tragedy of Jiao and
1 All texts of “Southeast fly the Peacocks” used in this article are reprinted in Cao Xu’s 曹旭
Nineteen Ancient Poems and Selection of Yuefu Poems 古詩⼗九⾸與樂府詩選評 (2002).

112 T. W. Leung
Liu was not solely caused by personal pursuits of love. Such misfortune, first of all,
was driven by the mother of Jiao’s hatred of Liu, who forced Zhongqing to divorce
her wife and remarry. Furthermore, Liu was coerced into remarriage by her brothers
after she was divorced and sent back to her family’s home. This shows that the deaths
of the two protagonists were caused by traditional Chinese values—as Tang put it,
“human culture.” From this point of view, although “Southeast Fly the Peacocks”
is neither a novel nor an opera, its characteristics of Chinese tragedy are, as Tang
ascertained, different from the traits of Western tragedy.
Nevertheless, since the 36-episode-long TV series “Southeast Fly the Peacocks”
was adapted from a poem, a significant number of changes have been made to the
plot of the poem. This adaption has obscured the tragic theme of the original poem,
especially the satire on the traditional authority of parents in ancient times. The
biggest change of the TV series to the poem is that the catalyst of the tragedy was
changed from the mother of Jiao’s hatred of Lanzhi to Gao Zhubu ⾼主簿, who was
a supporting character in the ballad. In the original poem, Zhubu had no influence
on Jiao and Liu’s love. The poem reads,
They mentioned Lanzhi, whose family had produced officials for generations. They, too,
brought up the prefect’s fifth son, who is not yet married. Zhubu ordered me to act as a
go-between. The prefect’s family has this fine son. He would like to ally himself with your
great house. That’s why he has sent me to your noble gate. (說有蘭家女, 承籍有宦官。云
有第五郎, 嬌逸未有婚。遣丞為媒⼈, 主簿通語⾔。直說太守家, 有此令郎君, 既欲結
⼤義, 故遣來貴⾨。) (“Southeast Fly the Peacocks” 1974, translated by Frankel, Hans H.)
This illustrates that Zhubu only served as a matchmaker who facilitated the
marriage between the prefect’s son and Lanzhi. However, Zhubu is turned into the
main antagonist who directly caused Jiao and Liu’s love tragedy in the TV series.
For example, he prevented Zhongqing from getting a promotion and fabricated the
rumour that Lanzhi was sterile, which provoked Jiao’s mother into thinking about
making her son divorce his wife. As mentioned above, the core reason for the tragedy
in the original elegy is the interference of traditional parents. Only in the original
context of the poem, which is set in the Han dynasty when filial piety was upheld as a
core value, and parents’ orders must not be defied, could the tragedy in Jiao and Liu’s
love be foregrounded. However, in the TV series, all the misdeeds were attributed to
Zhubu, who was just a supporting character in the original poem. Admittedly, this
adaption quite manifestly twists the plot of the original poem, while making the series
potentially more appealing to audiences with a strong sense of justice. On the other
hand, this adaption diminishes the original poem’s criticism of traditional tyrannical
parents. From another perspective, the harm brought about by corrupt officials to the
common people can also be considered a type of “human culture”; however, the loose
adaption of the TV series lacks the irony of the “original sin” from the viewpoints of
Jiao and Liu, who were both subjected to their superior family members’ coercion.
As Li Shiqi 李⼠奇 (2010, 53) said, “This TV series has a flaw that has to be pointed
out: The screenwriters’ grasp onto the tragic theme is improper; this weakens the
criticism of the tragedy.”
In addition, the ending of the original poem says,
The two families asked for a joint burial for Jiao Zhongqing and Liu Lanzhi near the Huashan
Mountain. Pine and cypresses were planted on the east and west sides, and plane trees were
planted on the left and right sides. The branches covered each other, and leaves crossed each
other. In the tree there was a pair of birds called mandarin ducks. They raised heads and
called to every night until dawn broke. Pedestrians stopped and listened. Widows roused and
stirred. Remember, people of later generations. Please take this as a lesson and do not forget
about this! (兩家求合葬, 合葬華山傍。東西值松柏, 左右種梧桐。枝枝相覆蓋, 葉葉相
交通。中有雙⾶⿃, ⾃名為鴛鴦; 仰頭相向鳴, 夜夜達五更。⾏⼈駐⾜聽, 寡婦起傍徨
。多謝後世⼈, 戒之慎勿忘!) (“Southeast Fly the Peacocks” 1974, translated by Frankel,
Hans H.)
The poem describes the joint tombs of Liu and Jiao, surrounded by pines,
cypresses, and plane trees; there was also a pair of mandarin ducks, whose shriek
pierced through the nights and stirred pedestrians and widows. These scenes created
a poignant and elegiac atmosphere, embellishing the tragedy of the lovers who died
for love. As mentioned above, the ending in which Jiao and Liu were jointly buried
brings out not only how the protagonists were rewarded eventually for their goodwill,
but also an alert for readers of the poem. Therefore, the scene of Jiao and Liu’s joint
burial is not exaggerated, subtly conveying the author’s message.
However, such a profound ending has also been modified in the TV series. First,
the pines, cypresses, and plane trees surrounding Jiao and Liu’s tomb are nowhere
to be seen. Furthermore, the mandarin ducks in the original poem, perhaps for the
sake of matching the title of the TV series, were changed to peacocks. Even the
officiant of the funeral is turned into Prefect Li 李⼤守, another supporting role in
the original poem. These modifications have dismissed the sorrowful atmosphere of
the original poem. In fact, the “mandarin ducks” in the original poem are a symbol
of loving couples in ancient China, and this metaphor is widely used in poems of the
Han and Wei Dynasties. For example, in “Nineteen Ancient Poems: A Guest Comes
from Afar” 古詩⼗九⾸. 客從遠⽅來, there is a line that reads, “Embroidered with
a pair of mandarin ducks in colourful silk, was the tailored wedding quilt. (⽂綵雙
鴛鴦, 裁為合懽被。)” Xu Ling’s徐陵 “Mandarin Duck Rhapsody” 鴛鴦賦 reads,
“Mandarin ducks! Their sincere and faithful love is inspiring and surprising. Their
love has surpassed many people. Would they ever dislike each other? When people
hear the name of a mandarin duck, it reminds them of the pursuit of love. (特訝鴛
鴦⿃, 長情真可念。許處勝⼈多, 何時肯相厭。聞道鴛鴦⼀⿃名, 教⼈如有逐春
情。)” Furthermore, the original poem starts off with the sentence: “Southeast Fly
the Peacocks, wheeling every five miles (孔雀東南⾶, 五⾥⼀徘徊)”, in which the
author uses the technique qixing 起興, depicting a tangential object or scene, then
introducing the main theme to the readers. The poem describes peacocks that wheel
every five miles as they fly southeast before introducing the love tragedy of Jiao and
Liu. The poem uses the scene of peacocks to invoke images in readers’ minds, and
then introduces the theme to the audience, setting up the atmosphere for the whole
poem. Nevertheless, the mandarin ducks at the ending of the original poem turned
into a crying peacock at the end of the TV series. This modification not only distorts
the original poem’s use of the symbol of the mandarin ducks, which represent the love
between Jiao and Liu as husband and wife, but also the poem’s setting—it is during
the Han and Wei periods when mandarin ducks were used as a cultural symbol of
114 T. W. Leung
spousal love; it is also when the original poem was composed. Although the adapted
TV series superficially uses peacocks to echo the beginning and the ending of its
storyline, it’s altered ending actually obfuscates the message that Jiao and Liu would
rather die than be separated. The plot in which Prefect Li officiated the joint burial
also blurs the authorial intent of the original poem: to compose this tragedy in the
form of a poem so that the message of warning the public could be more easily
disseminated.
Therefore, with regard to the “Chinese tragedy consciousness” and the plot of the
original poem, the TV adaption fails to highlight the themes of the original poem
and its tragic elements.
3 Analysing the TV Adaptation of the Original Poem

from the Perspective of “Intertextuality”
As discussed above, the content and plot of the poem “Southeast Fly the Peacocks”
are full of deep tragic consciousness. Thus, whether or not the TV adaptation could
retain the original poem’s sense of tragedy and artistic techniques is extremely crucial
to the success of the 36-episode TV adaptation. This section will first explain the
concept of “intertextuality” and discuss the potential aesthetic requirements for the
TV series for audience members who are familiar with the original poem.
The concept of “intertextuality” suggests that texts do not exist independently.
Each text has a relationship with different texts and previous works. Tiphaine Samoy-
ault, a French scholar, points out in L’Intertextualité: Mémoire de la littérature that
“intertextuality is a basic element in the studies of the language of literary works”.
She believes that:
With the combination of the horizontal axis (author-reader) and vertical axis (text-context),
a fact is illustrated: a phrase (or an article) is a recurrence of another word (or text). People
can at least find a phrase (or a text) of another work as they read…Every finished work is
akin to a piece of colour picture of words. Every text absorbs and transforms other texts
(Tiphaine, Samovault n.d., as cited in Wang and Wang 2006, 430).
From this point of view, all literary works, more or less, are derived from works
of previous generations; they are not independent pieces of composition that are
unrelated to other texts.
Thereafter, Qiu Yuyun’s 邱于芸 Using Stories to Change the World: Cultural
Context and Story Prototype ⽤故事改變世界—⽂化脈絡與故事原型 (2014, 318–
319) employs “intertextuality” to study the relationships between Chinese classical
and modern fictions, stating that “Any novel is a complex tissue of repetitions and of
repetitions within repetitions, or of repetitions linked in chain fashion to other repe-
titions—J. Hillis Miller’s Fiction and Repetition: Seven English Novels. Covering
the discussions from prototype to a cultural context, this book aims at explaining the
fundamental elements in all stories that will never change, and how various creative
works are composed under the ironclad criteria. A process of seeking common ground
from differences and seeking differences in similarities is a dynamic representation of

“intertextuality.” To sum up, as far as the theory of “intertextuality” is concerned, the
literary composition is the result of absorbing, transforming, and echoing preceding
work, rather than an existence independent of other texts. In terms of film and tele-
vision adaptations, although TV series are not texts, their recurrences of scenes are
actually derived from texts through the transformation and modification of literary
works. Therefore, one may argue that there is “intertextuality” between the original
literary works and the adapted TV series. Especially when audiences are familiar with
the original literary works, they will anticipate that the adaptation would remain loyal
to, as well as exhibit a certain degree of “intertextuality” with the original work; that
is, they will unconsciously evaluate the success of film and television adaptations
of literary works based on the accuracy of the adaptation. Of course, as Qiu Yuyun
points out, a successful work of fiction can be based on an altered version of previous
works. Scenes, personalities of the characters, and other details do not necessarily
need to be identical to the original works. In her book she uses Shi Zhecun’s 施蟄
存 Shi Xiu ⽯秀 as an example, which is adapted from a modified version of the
classical fiction Water Margin ⽔滸傳; however, this article suggests that, if adapted
TV series stray too far away from their original literary works, they might not be able
to satisfy the audience’s “intertextuality” expectations, which can be construed as the
expectation that the TV series would be a recreation of the original works. To illus-
trate the problems of the TV adaptation of the poem “Southeast Fly the Peacocks,”
this essay will conduct a comparative study on the representative contents selected
from the original poem with their corresponding scenes in the TV adaptation from
the perspective of “intertextuality”.
First of all, the original poem “Southeast Fly the Peacocks” has a very consum-
mate structure. The story starts off with the conflicts between Liu Lanzhi and Jiao’s
mother, Zhongqing and his mother, Lanzhi and Liu’s brother, and Lanzhi and Jiao’s
mother. Each scene is immediately followed by another, presenting a very intense
and coherent plot. However, many new scenes and characters were added to the TV
series as adapted from the original poem, which makes the original plot less cohe-
sive. As mentioned above, Gao Zhubu becomes the main antagonist, acquiring a
more important role in the TV series. At the end of the series, Gao Zhubu seemingly
sent Jiao on a trip to handle administrative affairs while dispatching assassins to kill
him. Mistakenly believing that Jiao was already dead, Lanzhi threw herself into a
river. Meanwhile, Jiao did not meet Lanzhi in time, and thus he hanged himself for
love.2 We can see how the TV series has distorted the original poem’s theme, which
condemns the dictatorship of traditional parents. The series also added excessive
scenes filming the intervention of the wicked as the loving couple died for their
faithful love. Such changes have significantly twisted the plot of the original poem,
undermining the “intertextuality” between the original poem and the TV adaptation.
“Southeast Fly the Peacocks” is known for its ingenious structure. This penta-
syllabic poem (wuyan shi 五⾔詩) is neatly composed, and long narrative poems
2This argument is supported by Li Shiqi’s “TV series ‘Southeast fly the Peacocks’ Weakens
Criticism of Tragedy Theme” (2010), too.
116 T. W. Leung
in ancient China are extremely rare. Chinese poems are different from fiction and
operas. Using poems to narrate stories, portray characters, and design dialogues are
extremely difficult. Although this poem is rather long, its wording is refined and
succinct. Shen Deqian 沈德潛 (2006, 76), a scholar of the Qing dynasty, in The
Wellsprings of Old Poems 古詩源 suggested that “The structure of a poem is crucial.
If the poem starts by describing two families’ statuses and ends by narrating their
families’ remorse, wouldn’t the poem become too slow-paced and tedious? However,
the poem surprisingly depicts these scenes with only one or two stanzas. Thus, this
poem is long yet well-structured.” Chen Zuoming 陳祚明 (2009), another scholar
of the Qing dynasty, asserts in Caishu Tang’s Collection of Selected Ancient Poems
采菽堂古詩選 that the poem does not spend too many words on the two families’
statuses or their agitation, for they are not important. While a few descriptions of
the background are necessary, it is superfluous to expatiate things that do not matter.
Thus, one can see how the poem is structured.” Therefore, a complex plot delving
into excessive details would have loosened the structure of the poem. As mentioned
above, Shen and Chen have already pointed out that the utmost difficulty in balancing
the structure of a piece of literary work is to determine which materials appear
to be indispensable but do not actually fit its themes. Genres such as novels and
operas would have allowed the story of Liu and Jiao to include more details, such
as the backgrounds of the characters and the sorrow of Liu and Jiao’s families at
their funeral; however, in the pentasyllabic ancient poem (wuyan gushi 五⾔古詩)
“Southeast Fly the Peacocks”, these embellishments would have to be removed.
Moreover, in order to set up a piteous mood, the plot has to be appropriately designed.
For example, the dialogues and reactions of characters in the poem are written in
great detail, which highlights the consciousness of this love tragedy. However, the
TV adaptation not only distorts the plot of the original poem, but also makes the
supporting roles overshadow the main characters, thereby obscuring the focus of the
story. The TV adaptation even creates new characters and scenes that do not exist in
the original poem. The poem reads, “There is a virtuous woman in the East named
Qin Luofu. No one can match her lovely posture. I shall plead for your marriage. You
should send Lanzhi away quickly, and do not let her stay. (東家有賢女, ⾃名秦羅
敷。可憐體無比, 阿母為汝求, 便可速遣之, 遣去慎莫留。)” (“Southeast Fly the
Peacocks” 1974, translated by Frankel, Hans H.). Qin Luofu秦羅敷 never appears as
a real character in the original poem; she is only mentioned as Jiao’s mother’s ideal
daughter-in-law. However, the TV series has placed great emphasis on Qin Luofu’s
秦羅敷 role, disrupting the balanced plot of the original poem while also distracting
readers from the main storyline of Jiao and Liu’s love tragedy.
Furthermore, the original poem shows excellent use of cohesive devices. For
example, in Chen’s Caishu Tang’s Collection of Selected Ancient Poems (2009):
“Any long story must be frequently linked, otherwise its plot will be loose. The
following descriptions were used to connect different parts of the story: silk-weaving
at thirteen, going to the office, flat rock and reed, the sounds of roosters and cow, and
their utter silence. All of these are applications of cohesive devices. Yet such usage
is so natural and subtle that it is spectacular.” For instance, as the couple parted for
the first time, Lanzhi said to Zhongqing: “You ought to be like a flat rock, I ought to
be like a reed. The reed is as tough and pliable as silk, the flat rock neither moves nor
shifts. (君當作磐⽯, 妾當作蒲葦。蒲葦紉如絲, 磐⽯無轉移。)”. As Zhongqing
met Lanzhi later on, he said: “Flat rock is square and thick, it can last a thousand
years. The reed is tough for a while, from dawn until evening. (磐⽯⽅且厚, 可以卒
千年; 蒲葦⼀時紉, 便作旦⼣間。)” (“Southeast Fly the Peacocks” 1974, translated
by Frankel, Hans H.). It can be seen that the metaphors of reed and flat rock appeared
twice in the poem, which not only shows the faithful love between Jiao and Liu, but
also link up the beginning and end of the story, thereby strengthening the structural
coherence of the poem. However, in the TV series, such intricate uses of cohesive
devices have been modified, too. The metaphor of flat rock appears only until the
30th episode of the TV series through Zhongqing’s dialogue. He said that his heart
is like a flat rock and he will not remarry. The context has also been changed. In the
original poem, the metaphor was used while he was accompanying Lanzhi to go back
to her family’s home; in the TV series, this was changed to a scene in which the two
characters hugged and wept in their room. It was only after this scene that Lanzhi
said “you must be like a flat rock, I must be like a reed” to respond to Zhongqing’s
aforementioned quote. The reed and the flat rock are the most symbolic metaphors
in the whole poem. Not only do they embody the deep love of the couple, but they
also push forward the plot and serve as a cohesive device. As this metaphor is used
in the poem, the two characters’ moods and circumstances change as well. However,
the TV series fails to recreate such exemplary scenes, which impairs the poem’s
cohesiveness, thereby weakening the “intertextuality” between the TV series and the
original poem.
4 Conclusion
This article attempts to discuss in-depth the relationship between the original poem
“South East Fly the Peacocks” and its adaptation of the TV series with regard to
the concepts of “Chinese tragedy consciousness” and “intertextuality”. This essay
points out that the plot of the original poem encapsulates the typical “Chinese tragic
consciousness”. However, the TV adaption obscures the original poem’s criticism of
traditional tyrannical parents. In addition, the ending of the TV adaptation weakens
the tragic consciousness of the original poem. Moreover, from the perspective of
“intertextuality”, this article points out that while the TV adaptation is not a piece
of literary work, it shares a very close “intertextual” relationship with the original
poem. Thus, it has an influence on the aesthetic expectations of the audiences who are
familiar with the original literary work. Audiences may pay attention to whether the
adaptation has reached the level of “recreating the classic” by comparing the TV series
with the original poem. This article has chosen representative lines of the poem and
has compared them with their corresponding scenes in the TV series, suggesting that
the adaption has impaired the poem’s plot, structure and cohesiveness. Nevertheless,
this argument is based on this article’s pursuit of “intertextuality”; audience members
118 T. W. Leung
who are unfamiliar with the original poem and consider the TV series a reinvention
of the poem, they may think differently of it.
References
Cao, Xu 曹旭. 2002. Gushi shijiu shou yu yuefu shi xuanping 古詩⼗九⾸與樂府詩選評 [Nineteen
ancient poems and selection of Yuefu poems]. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chuban she 上海古籍出
版社
Chen, Zuoming 陳祚明. 2009. Caishu tang gushi xuan 采菽堂古詩選 [Cai Shu hall ancient poems
collection]. In Zhongguo jiben guji ku 中國基本古籍庫 [Database of Chinese classic ancient
books], 2, 29. Beijing: Beijing Erudition Digital Technology Research Center 北京愛如⽣數字
化技術研究中⼼
Frankel, Hans H. 1974. The Chinese ballad “Southeast Fly the Peacocks”. Harvard Journal of
Asiatic Studies 34: 248–271
Li, Shiqi 李⼠奇. 2010. Dianshi ju Kongque dongnan fei bei ju zhuti de pipan xing ruohua 電視劇
《孔雀東南⾶》悲劇主題的批判性弱化 [The weakened interpretation of the tragic theme of
TV series Southeast Fly the Peacocks]. Movie Review 電影評介 2: 53, 62
Liu, Yuejin 劉躍進. 1997. Zhonggu wenxue wenxianxue 中古⽂學⽂獻學 [The philology of
medieval literature]. Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chuban she 江蘇古籍出版社
Qiu, Yuyun 邱于芸. 2014. Yong gushi gaibian shijie: wenhua mailuo yu gushi yuanxing ⽤故事改
變世界——⽂化脈絡與故事原型 [Using story to change the world: Cultural context and story
prototype]. Taipei: Yuan Liou Publishing Co., Ltd. 遠流出版事業股份有限公司
Shen, Deqian 沈德潛. 2006. Gushi yuan 古詩源 [Origin of Ancient poems]. Beijing: Zhonghua
Book Company 中華書局
Tang, Junyi 唐君毅. 2002. Zhong guowen huazhijing shenjia zhi 中國⽂化之精神價值 [The spir-
itual value of Chinese culture]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press 廣西師範⼤學出版
社
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學理論批評術語匯釋 [A glossary of critical terms in literary theory]. Beijing: Higher Education
Press ⾼等教育出版社
Zheng, Mingxia 鄭明霞. 2019. Lun Kongque dongnan fei de dianshi ju gaibian 論《孔雀東南
⾶》的電視劇改編 [Discussion on the TV Series adaptation of “Southeast Fly the Peacocks”].
Masterpieces Review 名作欣賞 8: 58–59
Resources for Creativity from Chinese
Classical Culture: A Discussion
on the Creative Thinking and Creation
Pattern of “Old Tales Retold”
and Revelations on the Development
of Creative Writing
Benson Tong Tsz-Ben
Abstract This research aims to explore the relationship between the creative
thinking of “Old Tales Retold” 故事新編 and nurturing the writing of creative works
by students, to analyse further its creative pattern, and ultimately unveil the inspira-
tion that the creative method of “Old Tales Retold” has brought upon the development
of creative writing pedagogy. This research discovers that classical Chinese culture
offers excellent elements for creative writing. By processing and reflecting on tradi-
tional stories and the ways of writing “Old Tales Retold”, students will be able to
render classical Chinese stories into resources for creative writing appropriate for
current trends to induce greater resonance amongst readers. “Old Tales Retold” has
outstanding effects in enhancing students’ ability to select the subject and approach
to creating their work. Through analysis and transformation of elements in traditional
stories, students will learn to interpret the text and apply critical thinking. In addi-
tion, using the approach of creative writing, they will be able to master the principles
and skills of fiction writing through mastery of story fabrication, narration methods,
shaping of characters, and switching of perspectives. Lastly, with the emphasis on
nurturing university students’ abilities to create literary works, this paper proposes
that Chinese classical culture should be introduced to the development of creative
writing studies so that students can acquire knowledge of classical Chinese culture
and find inspiration therein and ways to express creativity. Upon the foundation of
classical Chinese culture, students would be able to seek inspiration from it and use
creative methods to apply the knowledge of the past. They would also be able to
build a cognitive process of writing model—that is, the synergy of text interpretation
and reaction—through interpretations of classical culture.
Keywords Old Tales Retold · Creative thinking · Creative pattern · Creative

writing as an academic discipline
T. B. Benson Tong (B)

e-mail: btong@hkmu.edu.hk
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_10
120 T. B. Benson Tong
1 Introduction
Two contrasting viewpoints have long existed in the teaching of creative writing. In
creative writing, should there be principles to follow or not? It is quite commonly
believed that the training of thinking should be the focus of creative writing. There-
fore, teaching should not be constrained by reading materials, while some believe
that reading is the foundation for writing. Should there be insufficient model works
for reference in the teaching of creative writing, the students would lack writing
ideas. This is the dilemma in creative writing as an academic discipline. If there
were no assigned teaching materials in class, how are teachers supposed to teach?
If, on the other hand, students are taught according to the writing techniques in the
assigned textbooks, would they crank out cookie-cutter literary works, which corrupt
the original intention of creative writing?
Ge Hongbing 葛紅兵 has discussed this issue in his article “Creative Writing: As
a Method of Teaching” 創意寫作: 作為⼀種教學⽅法, which is quoted as follows:
Teaching creative writing as an academic disciple treats the nurturing of “creative thinking”
as an aim, while the nurturing of “writing ability” is treated as the realisation of the said aim.
The definition of teaching aim differs from that of the teaching of traditional writing. Thus,
the identification of the content of education also differs from the teaching of traditional
writing. Furthermore, the aspirations in teaching methods also differ from the teaching of
traditional writing (Ge 2020, 9).
Also:
Teaching traditional writing as an academic discipline restricts the teachers and students
in voluminous compulsive training in “texts production”, which, in fact, renders minimal
achievement in enhancing the students’ creativity; the root cause lies here. Such a method
does not emphasise training the students to observe, gain experience, and apply judgment.
It does not touch on enhancing the students’ inherent creativity or the external realisation of
their creativity (Ge 2020, 10).
Ge Hongbing discloses the fundamental differences between the two academic

disciplines, traditional writing and creative writing. The teaching method for the
former mainly focuses on the teaching of assigned texts, while that of the latter aims
at nurturing “creative thinking”. Ge Hongbing touches upon the consideration of
the teaching of creative writing and believes that, when compared to the teaching
of texts, the nurturing of creative thinking would no doubt be closer to the inherent
nature of creative writing as an academic discipline. Subsequently, Ge Hongbing and
Li Xiaoyin 李梟銀 raise the compromising viewpoint of “creative close reading” 創
意型細讀 to resolve the problems encountered during actual teaching in practice, as
quoted below:
The construction of the teaching method for creative writing is an important dimension. It is
because for an academic discipline to find its place in the contemporary university system,
there must be a set of practicable and replicable teaching methods, out of a need to manifest
the characteristics of the subject and a need for actual teaching in practice. What is “creative
writing pedagogy”? To explain this in brief, after accepting that creative writing can be
taught, we need to consider how creative writing should be taught. The answer in this article
Resources for Creativity from Chinese Classical Culture: A Discussion… 121
is: to construct a set of teaching methods with “creative close reading” as the core (Ge and
Li 2021, 59).
The idea of using “creative close reading of assigned texts” as a teaching method
shows that, in the eventual case, assigned texts are indispensable to creative writing.1
However, the defined content of “creative close reading of assigned texts” is a field
of research yet to be developed. For example, Ge Hongbing and Li Xiaoyin point
out at the end of their paper:
In terms of feeling, building rational analysis to nurture independent thinking and creativity
is a necessary quality for members of modern society. On this basis, together with practical
experience, one enters into diversified stages of reading to form one’s creative reading, which
is a high standard arising from expectations in creative reading. From this perspective, this
paper only puts forth a concept, while the various discourse resources of “creative close
reading” would still require in-depth analyses, and its actual implementation procedure
would also require further deepening. Therefore, “creative close reading” is “a work to be
completed” (Ge and Li 2021, 59).
On the other hand, this research is also inspired by the viewpoints of Zhang Yiwei
張怡微. In her research paper “Potential and Absent: A Discussion on Two Directions
of Research on Localisation of ‘Creative Writing’ Localisation”, she traces the source
and the subsequent trend to point out that:
From the perspective of intention and strategy, the novels of the Ming and Qing Dynasties can
be deemed as the predecessor of “creative writing” in China. … writers of literary adaptations
focus on the core topics of the original works and make supplements to the main characters
or branches of the main storyline; whether the changes are made in form of continuation,
supplement or amendment, they are all, in fact, adaptations. If we need to find out their motive
to write … for example, Hu Shi 胡適 rewrote the Journey to the West 西遊記, while Lu Xun
魯迅 rewrote the “Old Tales Retold”. They could express their understanding of the original
work through different actions such as comments and discussions. However, they chose to
re-create the works as both the reader and writer, which has a rather profound meaning. …
For each close reading, some illusions of “origin” and “on the scene” were created which can
be a goal of training for creative writing that can be attained by continuing or transforming
the ancient Chinese novels. The continuation of Chinese novels is a collective phenomenon
of “big language” and “big texts”. It should have a place in the framework of literary history.
It should also converge with writing as an academic discipline to attain breakthroughs in
creative methodology. This is one of the inconspicuous reasons for sinicizing the teaching
of “creative writing” (Zhang 2019).
The viewpoint of Zhang unveils the connection between the literary adaptions
in the Ming and Qing Dynasties and creative writing. Her viewpoint becomes the
foothold of the research in this paper and inspires this study. Accordingly, this paper
shall begin the study on Lu Xun and extend to the study on creative thinking in “Old
Tales Retold” and its relationship with nurturing students’ creative literary writing.
Pinpointing the above issues related to the teaching of creative writing, this paper
intends to approach the investigation of the teaching of creative writing based on
the creative phenomenon of “Old Tales Retold”, and to further analyse its pattern of
creation in order to enrich Ge Hongbing’s research on “creative close reading”, and
1 Meanwhile, Wang Haifeng 王海峰 (2021) also put forth some similar viewpoints.
to assess the possibility for “Old Tales Retold” to become “creative text for close
reading”. The main discussion in this paper is, how was “creative thinking” generated
during the process of creating “Old Tales Retold” against the original version? How to
proceed with a creative interpretation of the characters, plot, and thematic structure?
Also, what inspiration does it spark in the development of creative writing as an
academic discipline?
2 The Origin, Concept, and Creative Thinking of “Old

Tales Retold”
The phrase “Old Tales Retold” 故事新編 appeared in the first edition (1935) of the
collection of short stories by Lu Xun (1881–1936) for the first time (Fokkema 2005).
According to Lu Xun, “Old Tales Retold” is to “take ideas both from the past and
the present for writing short stories… for conducting extensive literary research was
conducted to trace the origins … Only take a small portion from the original work,
and a complete piece of writing by unrestricted elaboration” (Lu 1981, 1–11). In
other words, “Old Tales Retold” is a creative method that involves using Chinese
traditional legends and mythology as a blueprint to gain an in-depth understanding
of the fundamental meaning through tracing the source and the subsequent trend
as a foundation. Then select the most unique and attractive elements and integrate
them with contemporary writing ideas with imagination and elaboration. Finally, give
traditional stories an overhaul through rewriting (Zhu 2010). This type of creative
method has been taken in by subsequent literary creators. The form was gradually
set as a creative pattern and a genre, as pointed out by Zhu Chongke 朱崇科 (2005,
200):
“Old Tales Retold” is a significant stage or milestone in the maturity and abundance process
of Lu Xun’s works. … The multiple co-existence, the narrative mode of contention and the
inclusion of a hundred schools of thoughts render it another subgenre: the originator of the
genre “Old Tales Retold” in Chinese literary history of the 20th century.
According to the viewpoint of Zhu Chongke in his book The Ecstasy of Tension:
A Discussion on Subject Intervention of the Newly-written Novels about Lu Xun
and His Successors 張⼒的狂歡——論魯迅及其來者之故事新編⼩說的主體介
入 (2005, 200), after Lu Xun, works that adopted the creative method of “Old Tales
Retold”, such as Shi Zhicun’s 施蟄存 “Jiangjun Ditou” 將軍底頭; Liu Yichang’s 劉
以鬯 “Xiyuan Gushi” 西苑故事, Old Tales Retold 故事新編, “Snake” 蛇, “Spider
Demon” 蜘蛛精; Lilian Lee’s 李碧華Green Snake 青蛇; Xi Xi’s 西西 “Feitu Zhen
Huilan Ji” 肥⼟鎮灰闌記 should be classified novels of the genre “Old Tales Retold”.
The author of this chapter generally agrees with the saying of Zhu Chongke. On this
basis of discussion, the author of this chapter believes that all contemporary texts
created with “Old Stories Retold”, including novels, poetry, and such new literary
forms as internet literature etc., fulfil the definition of “Old Stories Retold” in this
chapter.
From this perspective, the creative thinking of “Old Stories Retold” is to appreciate
a target text from an uncommon point of view. This idea aligns with the teaching
method of Chinese creative writing as an academic discipline. In the creative thinking
of “Old Stories Retold”, the original is not necessarily the definite and unchangeable
authoritative text. Instead, attempts can be made to transform the connotation of
traditional Chinese culture into the personal activity of creative writing on the basis
of the framework of the original text and according to the creator’s background of
the times, his interests, and originality. As to the pattern of creation of “Old Stories
Retold”, in general, it operates along with the following three principles:
1. Putting Emphasis on Creativity and the Creator’s Subjective Self-Awareness
According to the connotation of creativity concluded by Michael (1977), creativity
is the generation of new information or the generation of products and processes that
never existed before. In “Old Stories Retold”, the stress on creativity is shown in
the aspects of change in the core thinking of the original text, the transformation of
the design of the characters, the creative narratives and so on. Firstly, “Old Stories
Retold” often conducts innovative processes upon the foundation of the original text.
For example, in the chapter “Taming the Floods” 理⽔ of Lu Xun’s Old Stories Retold
故事新編, he changed the central idea of the myth “Great Yu Tames the Floods” ⼤
禹治⽔ to criticism and sarcasm against the deep-rooted wickedness of the people of
the times, so as to highlight the central idea that humans are far more frightening than
a natural disaster. In this story, therefore, Lu Xun shrewdly criticises the academics
on the “Cultural Hill” ⽂化山, the thoughts and behaviour of the officials of the
Water Resources Bureau to present creative interpretation against the contents of
the original text.2 Furthermore, “Old Stories Retold” also reflects creativity through
the transformation of character design. For example, “Snake” 蛇, a short story by
Liu Yichang, was an adaptation of the classic story Legend of the White Snake ⽩
蛇傳. The original story was retold by changing the identities of the characters. Liu
redesigned the character Bai Suzhen ⽩素貞, the snake spirit of a thousand-year-
old in the classic story, as a real human woman, and shifted the emphasis of the
story to the psychological description of the character Xu Xian 許仙. The central
thematic change shows Liu Yichang’s exploration of humanity (1991a, 1991b, 282–
286). Thirdly, in the aspect of the innovation of narration, for example, Xi Xi’s
“Chentangguan Zhongbingfu Jiashi” 陳塘關總兵府家事, which is an adaptation of
the story of Ne Zha哪吒, is narrated from the perspectives of ten different characters,
2 For example, Lu Xun mocks the academics of “Cultural Hill” because they always bury themselves
in archaeological research, yet never care about the reality. He goes, “You were fooled by the
rumours. In fact, there was no such thing called yu 禹. ‘Yu’ is a worm, and does a worm know how
to tame the floods? As far as I am concerned, I see it, there isn’t any gun 鯀 either. Gun is a fish. Can
a fish tame the floods? As he speaks, he stomps with both of his legs in a seemingly very hard way.
He, too, sarcastically mocks the officers of the Water Resources Bureau for paying no attention to
the sufferings of the people, “Bread fall from the sky every month; we are not short of fish either,
they may have some muddy smell, but they are meaty, my lord. As to the commoners, they have
elm leaves and seaweed. They are “always well-fed, but have no heart”—they don’t bother to do
their work with heart, having these to eat should be enough. We have tasted it before. They taste
not bad, quite special indeed…” See Lu Xun’s Old Tales Retold (1981, 28–43).
viz. Li Jing李靖, Ne Zha’s mother and his brothers Jin Zha⾦吒 and Mu Zha⽊吒,
the horse, and the servant girl in order to demonstrate the diversity of thinking by
enriching the plot in the original classical story that Ne Zha repaid the kindness of
his parents with his own flesh and bones (Xi 1998a, 1998b, 125).
2. Breakthrough the Conventional Concept of Space and Time
Creators of works in the genre “Old Stories Retold” can demonstrate in their work
some creative interference with the intrinsic concept of time and space in the classical
text. The creator can intertwine the past and the present in his adaptation, and highlight
his theme through conversations, clashes, conflict, harmonious convergences, and so
on. For example, in the chapter “Taming the Floods” of Lu Xun’s Old Stories Retold,
the contemporary Chinese terms such as “daxue ⼤學 (university)” and “youzhi yuan
幼稚園 (kindergarten)”, and Chinese transliteration of English phrases such as “gu
maolin 古貌林 (good morning)”, “haodu youtu 好杜有圖” (how do you do)” and
“OK” etc. to render the story closer to the background of contemporary times, and to
present an ambiguity between the past and the present, so as to strengthen the nature
of the sarcasm. Another example is the second half of “Shaonian Shennong” 少年
神農 by Dung Kai-cheung 董啟章. In this literary work, Dung attempts to place the
image of Shennong Shi 神農氏 in the real-life context of Hong Kong at present.
Dung tries his best to portray the incompatibility of Shennong and his surrounding
environment, and he surprisingly turns into “an incompatible green monster (沒
法相處的綠⾊怪物)” and an extreme environmentalist. This demonstrates Dung
Kai-cheung’s reflection on the present (Dung 1996a, 1996b, 95–127).
3. The Creative Element Must be a Reference or Extension of the Original Classical
Text
Creative works of “Old Stories Retold” are not carefree rewritten works. Some of
the meaning must be built upon the foundation of the classical text. For example,
all stories in Lu Xun’s “Old Stories Retold” have not digressed from the original
framework, “Taming the Floods” 理⽔ was inspired by “Xiabenji” 夏本紀 in Shiji
史記, “Reserection” 起死 by “Perfect Enjoyment” 至樂 in Zhuangzi 莊⼦; and Su
Tong’s 蘇童 Binu: the Myth of Lady Mengjiang 碧奴: 孟姜女哭長城的傳說by Gu
Jiegang’s 顧頡剛 research materials on the story of Lady MengjiangNu 孟姜女; all
these have intertextual effects. Zhu Chongke has accurately summarised this:
As the name suggests, the new adaptation has to have an existing story in the first place before
it can be adapted. The old text undoubtedly serves as reference, while the “new adaptation”
cannot be thoroughly new. It must be an extension, adjustment, or change upon a part of the
semiosis of the traditional text. This reflects the constraint of the old text upon the new text
(Zhu 2001).
3 Revelation of “Old Stories Retold” on the Development

of Creative Writing as an Academic Discipline
Creative writing studies aim to nurture students’ creativity to generate new prod-
ucts and processes. Through the above initial inspection of “Old Stories Retold”,
this research finds that inheritance engenders the generation of creativity, and what
“Old Stories Retold” has inherited is the resources of Chinese classical culture. If
Chinese ancient traditional stories are used as texts for creative writing, Chinese
classical culture can offer excellent literary elements. Through reflection upon tradi-
tional stories and reference to different writers’ adaptations of the respective original
classical texts, eventually, students would be able to apply the creative method of
“Old Stories Retold” to transform classical Chinese stories into creative resources
that can align with the present and serves as a reference for other writers. This will
strengthen readers’ empathy and generate the literary effect of intertextuality.
From my experience teaching the “Creative Writing Workshop” in the Creative
Writing programme at Hong Kong Metropolitan University (formerly The Open
University of Hong Kong), “Old Stories Retold” has outstanding effects on enhancing
students’ ability to choose the right materials and approach for their writing. By
analysing and transforming the elements of traditional stories, students will learn
the interpretation of texts and apply critical thinking. Furthermore, they will learn
various expressions and creative skills through “Old Stories Retold”. Different works
will show students the authors’ creations based on the original story in the aspects of
the design of characters, central idea, concept of space and time, and the format of
narratives. Upon the notion of creative writing, students will be equipped with princi-
ples and skills of story writing as story composition, narratives, character description,
and perspective shifts to help them absorb creative elements, and learn how to reveal
their unique ideas through the development and transformation of traditional stories
(Tong 2021).
Take for example the assignment in “Creative Writing Workshop” titled “Old
Stories Retold: Lady Mengjiang Cried the Great Wall of China”, “Lady Mengjiang
Cried the Great Wall of China” 孟姜女哭長城 was assigned as the source to be
adapted in class (Shi 2006 and Tong 2021). The lecture covers the storyline of the
classic story of Lady Mengjiang and the transformations during the dissemination
of the story. Students are guided to consider the possibility of the need for further
explanation and elaboration. Other examples are taken, viz. Zhang Henshui’s 張恨⽔
“Lady Mengjiang” (1993), Liu Yichang’s “Lady Mengjiang” in Old Stories Retold
(2018, 93–241) and Su Tong’s Binu: Mengjiang Nu Ku Changcheng de Chuanshuo
碧奴: 孟姜女哭長城的傳說 (2006). Through the method of close reading of texts,
analysis is conducted on how the writers render their uniqueness into an old story
to suit the modernity of the times. Then, the assignment requires students to use the
original work as the basis and apply the knowledge they learned to adopt the original
story into a piece of creative writing. According to the teaching experience in the
recent five years, students’ creative works can mostly appropriately transform the
elements of the story of Lady Mengjiang, and they manage to re-create and re-write
upon the basis of the original work. As pointed out by Fokkema (1999), a Dutch
academic, “There is no re-writing without a creative effort by the subject”, and he
also stresses that “Re-writing is a form of repetition with differences. It is a repetition
that springs surprises and a fresh way to see things” (2005). Students may be able to
produce an adaptation using Hong Kong or other cities of China as the background
to write on the important scenes of Lady Mengjiang, such as “meeting by the pond”,
“sending winter clothing”, “crying” and so on. In an ambiguous background of the
times without specifying the past or the present, modernity and personal thoughts
are rendered. Or by using some of the allegories in the story of Lady Mengjiang such
as the “Great Wall” or the “gourd”. As the main connection in the traditional story
of Lady Mengjiang and as the narrative clues throughout the whole piece of work in
order to develop the storyline in the moderate use of stream of consciousness to create
some metaphorical and artistic effects. Or, for example, Emperor Qin Shi Huang 秦
始皇, other warriors, or other characters may be the narrator of a monologue who
tells the story of Lady Mengjiang, explaining why Lady Mengjiang is so frail or
discussing the details in the story that have always been neglected. All of these show
the students’ modern reflections on the traditional story. Or, for instance, apply the
style of writing in novels by portraying the thoughts of different narrators to compile
pieces of the story of Lady Mengjiang. The students’ creative contents mostly relate
to their idea of present-day living. The creative endeavour of “Old Stories Retold”
is used as a means to observe and imagine Hong Kong and the Mainland cities,
attempting to engage in constructive discussions on social issues such as women’s
autonomy rights and social status, the concept of love in present and in ancient times,
marriage, homosexuality, gossips, education, infrastructure and so on.
4 Conclusion
Lastly, focusing on nurturing university students’ capacity in creative writing, this

chapter proposes that Chinese classical culture should be introduced to students in
the development of creative writing studies to build Chinese creative writing studies
(Ge and Xu 2011). This encourages students to attempt to seek inspiration from
Chinese classical culture as their foundation and equips them with methods of the
present or past to create literary works, and construct a cognitive process of writing
model that involves of the processes of text interpretation and reaction through a new
interpretation of classical culture. (Flower and Hayes 1981).
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The “First Generation” of Creative
Cyber Literature and Its
“Genre-Bending Writing”: Thoughts
on Using Jun Tian as a Method
Zhan Yu-Bing
Abstract In general, “internal research” on cyber literature usually adopts the

approach of “time as warp, genre as weft” to paint the picture of literary history
and use the same train of thought for writers and their works. However, there are
many inherently hidden parts in this picture that are seemingly “neat and tidy”,
“chronologically clear” and “clean in the classification of genres”. For instance, the
“first generation” of writers of cyber literature, whose creative directions are driven
by the printed books in the “prepay-to-read” era, to a large extent, have the char-
acteristics of the transience of popular literature in the form of traditional printed
books and cyber literature. Take another example amongst the seemingly clear genres
of classical literature. There are writers and works classified as “cross-genre” or
“multi-genre”. This paper attempts to take the example of writer Jun Tian 君天 and
his creative fictions to partially disclose the accomplishments of cyber literature in
the two above-mentioned genres, which are easily neglected by traditional research
on cyber literature, as well as the complex ecological field of genre fiction and the
multitude of literary resources in contemporary China.
Keywords Jun Tian 君天 · Cyber literature · “Pre-pay-to-read” era · Genre

fiction · Genre bending
At present, there are usually two main pathways to approach the study of cyber liter-
ature: One approach is to focus on the factors beyond literature, viz. “media”, “audi-
ence”, “mechanism of dissemination”, and “business nature” and so on to analyse
the characteristics of the “new media” of cyber literature. This can tentatively be
called “external research” on cyber literature. The other approach is to learn from
the experience of research on traditional popular literature and genre literature which
adopt the method of portraying the literary history and the orientation of writers and
their works to ascertain the chronological order, the sustained impact, and categorisa-
tion of various writers’ works. Correspondingly, we can call this “internal research”
on cyber literature. Contrasted with the latter research approach, in this seemingly
Y. B. Zhan (B)
Department of Chinese Language and Literature, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
e-mail: zhanyubing@126.com
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_11
130 Y. B. Zhan
“tidy”, “chronologically clear”, and “neatly classified” picture of the literary history
of cyber literature in China, there are many parts that have been hidden inherently.
For example, the “first generation” of writers of cyber literature, whose creative
directions are driven by the printed books in the “prepay-to-read” era, to a large
extent, have the characteristics of the transience of popular literature in the form of
traditional printed books and cyber literature. Take another example. There are many
writers and workers of “cross-genre” and “multi-genre” (Ge 2012)1 in the seemingly
clear-cut classical classification of novels. This paper attempts to take writer Jun Tian
君天 and his fictions as an example to disclose the accomplishments of cyber liter-
ature in the two above-mentioned genres, which are easily neglected by traditional
research on cyber literature, as well as the complex ecological field of genre fiction
and the multitude of literary resources in contemporary China.
1 “First Generation” of Writers in Creation of Cyber

Literature
The “genesis” of cyber literature in China has been contentious. Perhaps a more
typical “starting point” is between 22 March and 29 May of 1998, when Pizi Cai
痞⼦蔡 launched the serial story The First Intimate Encounter 第⼀次親密接觸 on
the Maomi Leyuan BBC (貓咪樂園 BBS) of the National Cheng Kung University
of Taiwan; or to trace back earlier to 25 December 1997 when American Chinese
Zhu Weilian 朱威廉 set up the main page of the website “Rongshu Xia” 榕樹下.
Recently, Shao Yanjun 邵燕君, an academic, raises another “starting date” of cyber
literature in China, pushing it back to August 1996 when “Jinyong Kezhan” ⾦庸客
棧 was established. Certainly, the significance behind putting forth different starting
points of cyber literature is never about “who is the earliest”; its significance lies
in its contribution to mapping different development stages and launching a whole
new knowledge framework and exploring new research perspectives. To this, the
proposal of the starting point of “Jinyong Kezhan” by Shao Yanjun reveals a strong
self-awareness of the concept of literary history: “Therefore, if the suggestion of 1998
is mainly a consideration on influential power, what we need to consider is, whether
the range of radiation of this influential power is within the world of traditional
literature or that of cyber literature? After having clarified this point, the conclusion
shall be clear to see. The First Intimate Encounter and “Under the Banyan Tree”
received great attention from mainstream academics. This exactly explains their
transient nature, the genes of printed literature are relatively stronger” (Shao and Ji
2020).
With further investigation into the history of the development of cyber literature
in China, it is not difficult to discover that, the “VIP pay-to-read mechanism for the
Chinese web started in 2003 has cast a massive and profound influence (even to
1For the relevant concepts of “cross-genre” and “multi-genres” and their respective interpretations,
please refer to Ge Hongbing’s Fundamental Theoretical Issues of Genre Fiction (2012).
The “First Generation” of Creative Cyber Literature and Its… 131
a certain extent, we can call it “fundamental influence”) on the mode of operation

and generation of works of cyber literature. Similarly, as Shao Yanjun says, “The
most crucial factor behind the successful establishment of this mechanism is that,
from the on-start, the initial team has directly and clearly placed the readers in the
position of consumers while the mode of operation has been set up with consumers
as the focus” (Shao 2020a, b). Here, the interpretation that “the mode of operation
has been set up with consumers as the focus” can be made on two levels. On the
first level, professional writers of cyber literature after 2003 are different from the
writers of cyber literature of earlier times who are, by comparison, more idealistic and
straightforward and interest-driven. The more recent participants in the game become
more deeply involved in the economic interest in the “creative writing/production-
reading/consumption” structure. On the second level, readers of cyber literature, in
the capacity of literature (economic) consumers, gradually become one of the primary
sources of income for writers of cyber literature (mainly professional writers), which
further altered the stable writer-reader relation where the earlier internet writers still
connect with their readers to some extent through traditional printed media, which
is the ultimate goal of their professional career.
In this sense, let us reinvestigate the writers of cyber literature of the early era,
including Jun Tian 君天, Cai Jun 蔡駿, Na Duo 那多, Zhou Haohui 周浩暉, Lei
Mi 雷⽶, Jiang Nan 江南, Cang Yue 滄⽉, Yan Leisheng 燕壘⽣ and so on. (It is
interesting that they have gained extensive attention during the era of cyber fiction,
but they are often not considered as writers of cyber fiction, at least not typical
“writers of cyber fiction”.) It is not difficult to find some common characteristics
shared amongst them: they are amateur lovers of literature who set foot in writing
cyber literature out of literary interests and ideals; they have gained considerable
achievements in creative writing and fame on the Internet. However, before cyber
literature in China had self-transited to the business mode with a payment system
in which “readers are consumers”, these writers were still driven by the printed
magazines of popular literature and physical books. In terms of “time” and “practice”
of literary creation, they filled in the blank in the reading market of genre literature
in the Mainland in the early stage of this century. After the payment system for
reading cyber literature has been commonly established, they have pulled themselves
away from cyber literature. At the same time, popular printed magazines, best-seller
novels, and film and television adaptations became their major battleground and
primary source of income. This point coincided with the issue raised by Shao Yanjun
when ratifying “Jinyong Kezhan” to be the starting point of the creation of cyber
literature in China, “The new martial arts and oriental fantasy genres, which were
established in ‘Jinyong Kezhan’ had not been continued as cyber literature. Instead,
they proceeded to develop offline in magazines such as Jingu Chuanqi. Martial
Arts Edition 今古傳奇·武俠版, Kehuan Shijie: Fantasy Edition 科幻世界·奇幻版,
Jiuzhou Huanxiang 九州幻想 and so on (Shao and Ji 2020). It is very possible to
extend the corresponding “print literary publication” referred to by Shao Yanjun
to even more genre fictions such as Zhiyin Manke 知⾳漫客 and the later Xuanyi
Zhi 懸疑志, Xuanyi Shijie 懸疑世界, Suiyue.Tuili 歲⽉·推理, Tuili Shijie 推理世
界, Zui Tuili 最推理 and so on. From the starting date of cyber literature, there has
132 Y. B. Zhan
always existed a group of writers of popular literature and genre literature who rely
on print magazines and physical books as the main channel to disseminate their
works, and this group of writers, in fact, largely overlaps with the group of the “first
generation” of cyber literature in China. However, at the same time, the different
creative platforms and directions have influenced the aesthetic interests, choice of
content, and writing style of these contemporary genre fictionists, which set them
apart from those generally known as writers of cyber fiction. In consideration of these
interwoven factors, perhaps we may call them the “intersection” or “amalgamation”
of “China’s ‘first generation’ of writers of creative cyber literature” and “China’s
contemporary genre fictionists”. Their common ground can be simply summarised
as “the characteristics of the transition or integration of popular printed literature and
cyber literature”.2
Particular mention has to be made that the division of different groups of writers
here is not “intrinsically distinctive” or “clear-cut”. For instance, as defined in this
paper, the creative group of the so-called “China’s contemporary genre fictionist”
mostly had the experience of “Internet access”. The time they gained access and
entered the Internet may be earlier than those we recognise as internet fictionists.
Shao Yanjun asserts that “the first batch of China’s netizens went online in 1995. Due
to such restrictions as online resources, charges for the Internet, and limitations of
technology, most of these first netizens were ‘science geeks’ with elitist skills born in
the 1970s. After that, the number of Internet users increased year after year; by 2002,
the number soared to 59.10 million. A group of readers and writers, later called “Xiao
Bai” ⼩⽩ rushed in, and it consists of a considerable portion of university freshmen
born in the 1980s (who had access to the free-of-charge Internet on campus). This
weakened the early image of the Internet as a space for idealists” (Shao 2020a, b).
With this information given, one can study Jun Tian in the notions of “Internet access”,
online creative writing and track record: He was a computer major in a university. He
had access to the Internet at a relatively early stage. He started logging online in about
1999 (highly consistent with the portrayal of Shao Yanjun’s first batch of netizens
in China “most of these first netizens were ‘science geeks’ with elitist skills born in
the 1970s”). In 2001, his works started to appear on various literary websites. His
creative writing Showcase of Weaponry of the Three Kingdoms 三國兵器譜 received
extensive attention. In September 2001, he served as moderator of the martial arts
forum “Xiake Shanzhuang” 俠客山莊 on “Rongshu Xia” 榕樹下; in October of the
same year, he founded the “Internet Martial Arts League” 網路武俠聯盟 with the
participation of seven central martial arts forums … In consideration of his early
experience, Jun Tian can be considered as a typical “China’s ‘first generation’ of
writers of creative cyber literature” and is worthy of this title.
Jun Tian’s short martial arts story, Dessert Winds ⼤漠風起, was published in
Gujin Chuanqi. Martial Arts Edition 今古傳奇·武俠版 in 2003 and was selected for
the collection of short stories entitled Billboard of Neo-classical Martial Arts 新古
2 The reference of which as “transitional” characteristics may inherently imply that cyber literature
shall become an inevitable trend and the final destination; however, this paper focuses on the its
intrinsic nature “bending”.
典武俠風雲榜 in 2004. In 2005, Jun Tian’s two early novels, Showcase of Weaponry
of the Three Kingdoms” and Showcase of Ancient Artifacts of China 華夏神器譜
were published by Wenhui Publishing House. In 2006, his early representative novel,
Roam Free 縱橫, was published by Huashan Literature and Art Publishing House 花
山⽂藝出版社. In 2007–2008, his Especial Criminal Investigation Service 異現場
調查科 and X Space–Time Investigation X 時空調查 series was published as a serial
in several print magazines, including Xuanyi Zhi 懸疑志, Xuanyi Shijie 懸疑世界
and Manke Xuanyi 漫客懸疑. His independent stories were also published by several
publishing houses including New World Press, Volumes Publishing Company, Chang
Jiang Publishing House and China Pictorial Publishing House and so on. In 2013,
Jun Tian’s new suspense martial arts novel Taxue Zhe 踏雪者 was published as a
serial in Zui Tuili magazine 最推理 and was published continuously by Chang Jiang
Publishing House … From these creative works and publication track record, one
can tell that Jun Tian is also a classic example of a writer of “non-cyber literature” or,
at least, a typical “genre fictionist of contemporary China” whose works are beyond
the superficial coverage of cyber literature.
Further inference can be made on the complex identity of Jun Tian, and extend it
to the group of writers who have a similar track record: they not only have the early
experience (Jun Tian, Jiang Nan) of creating cyber literature, but also have published
their works in print magazines (Cang Yue, Yan Leisheng), and even have the experi-
ence of founding printed popular literary magazines and expertise in literary/business
operation (Cai Jun). Nevertheless, some may “re-test the waters” by returning to the
writing of cyber literature (Jun Tian is recently making a fresh attempt to write an
extra-long cyber fiction The Fragmented Three Kingdoms 碎裂三國. In addition,
some of them have works published in serious literary publications in the public
body of the China Writers Association (Cai Jun’s The Endless Summer 無盡之
夏 was published in Harvest 收獲); while some may have “screen access” with
literary works adapted for film and television or experience as a scriptwriter (Lei
Mi 雷⽶) and so on. Therefore, identities such as Internet novelist, genre fictionist,
scriptwriter, or screenwriter for film/television drama/internet drama could hardly
offer a close description of their creative experience, the complicated changes and
evolvement processes prior and thereafter. As such, the “intersection” or “amalga-
mation” of the two creative writing groups “China’s ‘first generation’ of writers of
cyber literature” and “China’s contemporary genre fictionists” have been proposed in
this paper. “Intersection” indicates mainly that these writers usually possess creative
awareness of cyber literature and have even internalised a lot of trendy elements
(so-called “plot”) of Internet literary culture; at the same time, they have retained
a certain extent of self-constraint in traditional popular literature and the writing of
genre literature. “Amalgamation” mainly refers to their weaving to-and-fro between
cyber literature and standard popular literature (instead of one-way transformation);
there may even be repeated attempts and challenges to enter into traditional serious
literature or screen adaptation of literary works. This offers a glimpse of the diverse
ecological picture of the group of the “first generation” writers of cyber literature
and discloses the first layer of the scene of literary creation and the complexity of
evolution trajectory in the so-called “using Tian Jun as a method” in this paper.
134 Y. B. Zhan
2 “Genre Bending” of Martial Arts, Suspense, Fantasies

Writings of the East and West
If the creative experience and orientation of literary identity of Jun Tian and the “first
generation” of writers of cyber literature of the same period are considered in the
“time as warp” dimension, we will encounter the complex situation of their consistent
creative transformation, exchange, integration, and shuttling between cyber literature
and traditional popular literature. Therefore, it seems more practicable to divide,
define and segregate their respective creative works by “genre as weft”. For example,
Cai Jun and Na Duo in “suspense novels”, Zhou Haohui and Lei Mi in “detective
novels”, Cang Yue, Bu Feiyan 步非煙, and Feng Ge 鳳歌 in “new martial arts
novels” and so on. (Of course, the discussion of the logic and ambiguity of classifying
“suspense novels” and “new martial arts novels” as a part of genre fiction should first
be set aside here). However, when we “use Jun Tian as a method” to review the
classification of these seemingly “clear-cut” and “indestructible” genre fictions, new
issues and the plight of narration shall be encountered.
Let us first look at the trail of Jun Tian’s creative development:
Initially, in Showcase of Weaponry of the Three Kingdoms” (Wenhui Publishing
House, 2005), Jun Tian had already demonstrated features of “genre-bending” when
he employed the methods of martial arts fiction to re-write historical fiction. For
example, the most outstanding point in the entire book is to have the whole historical
process of the Three Kingdoms re-structured into one duel after another among
the famous generals. With detailed and refined portrayal, he “sculptures” each duel
between the veteran fighters. Jun Tian embellishes each moment of martial arts action
by adding in between the descriptions of the scenery, characters’ thoughts, feelings,
or flashbacks. By doing so, the formation and delivery of the entire plot are completed
during the description of the duel. At the same time, when narrating the duels in the
novels, Jun Tian reveals a strong sense of heroism, particularly the lonesomeness
of a hero having grown old or struggling with his invincibility. Jun Tian is best at
expressing such a type of feelings. He even “personifies” and “deifies” each part of
the weapon in the hands of his veteran generals (not to mention that “weaponry” is the
name of this story), as if each piece of weapon has its soul and “heroic” character.
In addition, mysterious elements such as the constellation symbols of the azure
dragon, white tiger, vermilion bird, and black tortoise vaguely appear in Showcase
of Weaponry of the Three Kingdoms, which only serve as occasional “decoration” in
the entire set-up of the story.
Subsequently, the Showcase of Ancient Artifacts of China” (Wenhui Publishing
House, 2005) can be deemed as an “upgrade” and extension of the Showcase of
Weaponry of the Three Kingdoms. It not only extends such literary characteristics as
the delivery of history through martial arts, the portrayal of feelings through actions,
refined description of weaponry, and “personification” of the weapons as in Showcase
of Weaponry of the Three Kingdoms, he broadens the scope and connotations of
the “weapons” in the story. For example, “Wu Zhui of Xiang Yu” 項⽻的烏騅,
“Yuan Chonghuan’s city wall” 袁崇煥的城牆, “Wen Tianxiang’s heart” ⽂天祥的
⼼, “Zheng He’s marine vessel” 鄭和的船, “Zheng Chenggong’s navy” 鄭成功的⽔

師 all came under the ambit of “weaponry” in Jun Tian’s story. This also implies that
the Showcase of Ancient Artifacts of China not only extends one dynasty—Three
Kingdoms—into five thousand years of Chinese history, but he has also achieved
a breakthrough in such aspects as the understanding of weaponry, the orientation
itself, the “personification”, “glorification as hero” and “unification of the man and
his weapon” and so on.
Jun Tian’s characteristic of “genre-bending” is quite outstanding in his creative
fiction, Roam Free, which was published by Huashan Literature and Art Publishing
House in 2006. In this novel, on the one hand, the player in the book travels across
time into the sci-fi setting inside the game to bring out the difference and connection
between the two worlds. On the other hand, the rules of the game and the plot of
the story in the book are set as the main storyline, which consists of some structural
features of “sci-fi” and “game/visual fiction”. Meanwhile, the novel has applied the
primary method used to deliver the history of martial arts as in Showcase of Weaponry
of the Three Kingdoms. Through the features of virtual reality in the gaming space,
which is free from constraints of time and space, famous generals, veteran minis-
ters, and even poets across the dynasties are gathered together in this particular time
and space of “Three Kingdoms Continent” 三國⼤陸 to stage the imaginary show
of “Guangong battles against Qinqiong” 關公戰秦瓊 (or we can say that he has
put the characters of Huaxia Shenqi Pu into the time and space of Sanguo Bingqi
Pu). Nevertheless, his fictions Dadi Zhi’e ⼤地之鱷 and Taibai Shenjian 太⽩神劍
have further strengthened the fantasy elements when compared to his earlier works,
while traces of romance elements and plot of Hua Tianqing 華天晴 and Chen Xue
陳雪 and Yan Lei’er 顏淚兒 appeared for the first time. In his subsequent series
of works such as Especial Criminal Investigation Service (New World Press, 2008)
and X Time–Space Investigation (China Pictorial Publishing House, 2009), Jun Tian
brought the trend of “genre-bending” into full play in his novels, while the corre-
sponding contents of “Universe of Jun Tian” 君天宇宙 started to be constructed
and brought gradually to perfection. “Investigation by private detectives” serves as
the basic storyline which linked up various stories in different chapters of two major
series of novels, so that a kind of inter-relation that is relatively loose but independent
from one another was consistently present in each story of different series. Against
this basic narrative framework, on the one hand through the setting of the main char-
acter and his opponent’s “superpowers” (called “The Super-powered Individuals” 異
能者) in the novel, it is natural to laterally and extensively include in the novel such
elements as the invisible man, magician, vampire, werewolf, time traveler, AI robot,
alien, or parallel universe in popular Western culture as well as Chinese martial arts
masters “Tangmen Anqi” 唐⾨暗器, “Shaolin Wudang” 少林武當 to form further a
reading/appreciation/“collage” effect of “highly integrated magical circle and tech-
nology!” (Jun 2018, 9). On the other hand, with the convenience brought by the main
character’s ability to “travel across time” (called “time manipulator” in the novel),
various significant junctures in Chinese history become a stage of time and space
for the main character to bring his abilities into full play, and thus completes a “full
coverage” of the vertical chronology. It is worth our attention that in his novels, Jun
136 Y. B. Zhan
Tian mingles reality with his fiction in his portrayal of “history”; The descriptions of
the figures Lu Buwei 呂不韋, Zhao Kuo 趙括, Le Yi 樂毅 are historically accurate;
while Guo Jia 郭嘉 and Sun Ce 孫策 are, obviously, characters from Romance of
the Three Kingdoms 三國演義. In this notion, Jun Tian is conscious of his creative
concept. In the “epilogue” of his novel Time Flies 時間⾶揚 (Flower City Press 花
城出版社, 2018), he points out that: “Eventually, it boils down to the same words.
In the world of Jun Tian’s novels, there are no forced restrictions whatsoever upon
martial arts, fictional science, fantasy, suspense, and history. The world of novels
should be all-inclusive. More importantly, I hope you will like this story” (434). It
is due to his attempt to break the walls between different genres of literature and his
creative ambition to embrace all kinds of popular cultures from the West to the East
both in ancient and present times, that Jun Tian’s creations present a kaleidoscopic
patchwork.
In one of his works, the novel entitled Fengming Shijian Bu 風名事件簿 (Chang
Jiang Publishing House, 2015), the design and portrayal of “Feng Ming City” can
be deemed as a visual miniature of “genre-bending” of Jun Tian’s novels:
Independent from the rest of the world, the discreet Feng Ming City is located on Junxuan
Island of Donghai, China. Its permanent residents include martial arts families and the
“Super-powered Individuals” as well as real monsters. Therefore, in the outside world, it is
known as the “City of Monsters”.
This city is separated into two by Aolai River. The East Side is a society of Eastern classical
culture. The West Side is a society of modern western technology. Whether it’s architectural
style or the layout of the city, it demonstrates two contrasting landscapes. Some compared
the East Side to the ancient Chang’An and the West Side to the present-day New York, with
horse carriages shuttling around on the East Side and race cars speeding around the West
Side. From the aerial perspective, the two sides form a bizarre magical world (Jun 2015, 14).
In Jun Tian’s novels, he has widely adopted various writing skills. On the level
of the content of the story that corresponds to “genre-bending”, that is the so-called
structure of “Universe of Juntian”, which means that in different novels in “Universe
of Juntian” or in different series of stories, there are deliberate common grounds, such
as the scenes, cameo appearances, or other crucial items or crops repeatedly appear in
varying time–space in different novels. For example, the underground arena and many
of the cameos Uncle Ximen 西⾨⼤叔, Du Qingfeng 杜青鋒, “Wuzun” Ai Zhe’er
「武尊」艾哲爾, Wen Elai ⽂惡來 often appear in Especial Criminal Investigation
Service. In the novel, no clear indication was made that the character whom Shi
Yufei 時⾬霏 travels across three thousand dimensions to find is exactly the main
character, Yue Lin 樂麟, of The Magical World Cup 魔幻世界盃. Not to mention the
very mysterious but excessively charming supporting role, Shi Feiyang 時⾶揚 is
the main character of X Time–space Investigation (as well as that of the subsequently
updated edition of Time Flies) … Jun Tian uses some explicit or inexplicit characters
or clues to skillfully link together different series, texts and dimensions in stories to
complete the construction of the “Universe of Jun Tian’s novels” 君天⼩說宇宙.
This type of connection and construction of the “Universe of Juntian” can only be
possible upon the basis of “genre-bending” of creative writing. In other words, due to
“genre-bending” in terms of narratives, elements of the East and West in the contents
can come together in a patchwork and be mixed well. It would not seem awkward
for ancient and present-day characters to “gather together”; instead, it makes the
storyline more reasonable.
Furthermore, another piece of work by Jun Tian is also worth mentioning: Fenghu
Beiwang 風虎北望 (Chang Jiang Publishing House, 2014) is the only “one of the
Jiuzhou Series” of novels with the theme of military history. Yuejia Jun: Feng Qi 岳
家軍: 風起 (Chung Hwa Bookstore 2016) uses historical fiction as the basis, and has
incorporated many portrayals of martial arts, which are the dexterity of the writer;
at the same time, many characters in Outlaws of the Marsh ⽔滸傳 such as Meiran
Gong Zhu Tong 美髯公朱仝 are included. Also, in Taxue Zhe 1, 2 踏雪者 1, 2
(Chang Jiang Publishing House, 2018, 2019), for the first time, Jun Tian adds a large
amount of romantic content to his novel with elements of martial arts, suspense, and
detective stories, which are Jun Tian’s specilaisation (Du Yufei 杜郁非, Luo Xie 羅
邪, Su Yueye 蘇⽉夜) and so on. Although these few pieces of fiction works are not
as “all-embracing” as Yi Xianchang 異現場 series, the maturity of exploration in a
particular genre shows a tendency for further development.
It is certain that in the novels of Jun Tian, not that there is no limit to the “all-
inclusive” content and elements of “genre-bending”. At the ending part of the novel
Unknown Crime Investigation Section: Alien Serious Crime Unit 未知罪案調查科:
外星重案組 (Beijing United Publishing Co., Ltd., 2019), there is a section in which
the main character suspects whether he is in a novel, and the way it is written is
similar to “metafiction”:
“Tell me, are we living in someone’s novel? We are ordinary characters only. In fact, we
have no control over anything of ours.” Ge Shuxin said slowly, “If that’s the case, what is
the point of trying so hard from the time when we were young?”
“The main character in the other’s novel could have a million imperial concubines, the power
to destroy heaven and earth, the ability to rule the world, to massacre the entire planet when
feeling upset, it’s a pity … that’s only someone else’s novel” Tang Fei scolded, “For heaven’s
sake! The novel we are living must be a fake one.”
“Must be fake, can’t be more fake.” Said Ge Shuxin (Jun 2019, 287).
I am not trying to forcefully put the discussion, doubt, and “complaint” about
the settings of the characters or the plots of Jun Tian’s novels in the theoretical
framework of post-modernism and “metafiction”. Instead, I wish to point out: On
one hand, the fictitious characters’ doubts or complaints against the fiction they
live in are more similar to a high-class duplicate of NPC’s (non-player characters)
doubts in Roam Free縱橫 than deliberate writing of metafiction. In other words, the
boundary between the inside and the outside world is destroyed in the novel Roam
Free, and it elevates this in an attempt to destroy the barrier between the fiction itself
and reality (Unknown Crime Investigation Section: Alien Serious Crime Unit). On
the other hand, the quote stated metaphorically that the seemingly “all-inclusive”
set of content in Jun Tian’s novel, in fact, has a clear silhouette and borders; that
is, burning passion and aggressive spirit to fight (the main character is unable to
possess the powers to destroy heaven and earth and to master the world. He has to
“make his best effort” all along from the time when he was young). Thematic content
138 Y. B. Zhan
and genre elements developed around this conception, whether martial arts, history,
magic and fantasy, or fictional science, can adopt the “Grabism” 拿來主義 attitude
and boldly integrate into one’s creative fiction work. While the so-called different
genres are, in fact, promoting further development in various aspects as a narrative
for the character to continue moving forward. As Jun Tian says, his novels are not
restricted by genre; it is not his intention to constrain himself as he only wants the
story itself to be “good to read”. This “good-to-read” philosophy, when applied to
the text itself, illustrates the passion and the spirit of resistance and progressiveness,
which continue to attract readers.
As a creative literary writer who managed to break through restrictions, build
the “Universe of Juntian”, and create “good-to-read” stories, Jun Tian has already
achieved breakthroughs in all three aspects of genre narrative, thematic content and
creative objective, which are incredible achievements. However, researchers must
try to ask a further question, that is, in Jun Tian’s novels, how is “genre-bending”
amalgamated in the aspect of narrative?
In concrete terms, the various genre elements integrated into Jun Tian’s novels
are, in fact, not balanced amongst themselves: the core genre of Jun Tian’s novels is,
in fact, adventure stories, where the main character continuously explores the world
(entering into the world of the game or travelling across time into ancient time and
pace), and experiences various encounters and adventures, difficulties, and enemies.
This forms the basic narrative framework of the novels. While the main character
is continuously undergoing adventures and encountering the world, it is definite
that externally he or she would be able to solve suspenseful events, which would
constitute the primary incentive for developing each independent story. Internally
he or she, the protagonist, would attain spiritual growth (On this point, this is, in
fact, not obvious in Jun Tian’s novels. The characters in his novels often maintain
stable internal psychological cognition from the beginning to the end). Therefore, for
characters in the novel, to resolve their conflict, the primary method would be to resort
to martial arts, that is, through the most traditional fighting and duelling as the format
of conflict and dispute resolution. In the way of expression of adventures and fighting,
Jun Tian combines a full array of complicated superpowers, fictional science, magic,
oriental martial arts, fantasy, time travel, and virtual games to produce a scene of
literary installations which is enjoyable to read, and constructed a “kaleidoscopic”
shell for the storyline. To briefly sum up in one sentence, the core nature of “genre-
integration” in Jun Tian’s novels is adventure and suspense stories which sets in
motion the form of conflict resolution by fighting while building an array of grand
literary installations and shell of a story by boundless imagination in fictional science,
magic and fantasy. This primary method and writing strategy of “genre-bending”
cannot fully encompass our usual research in several classical literary genres. This is
the second level of meaning this paper intends to disclose via the so-called “using Jun
Tian as the means”; that is, in/beyond the framework of research in genre literature.
Through the practice of creative writing in “multi-genres” or “cross-genre”, the
mixture features of “genre bending” are formed.
3 Further Discourse: Reflection and Reverie

on Contemporary Information Explosion and Diverse
Creative Resources for Genre Fiction of the New Age
The reading and research of genre fiction, in general terms, as Yang Zhao 楊照
described, “The biggest difference between genre fiction and pure literary novels is
that, we cannot read one singular volume of genre fiction. Nobody reads only one
volume of martial arts fiction, one volume of romance fiction, or one volume of a
detective story. Of course, there is no authoritative rule preventing us from reading
just one volume of a detective story, but the fun of reading detective stories lies
in the echoes and relations involved in various volumes” (Yang 2015, 2). With the
application of Yang Zhao’s arguments to the research of genre literature, i.e., the
research of genre literature must be placed and inspected under the context of the
development of specific genre literature with an accurate research approach. The
difficulty is that, in the society at present, given the “information explosion” and
“genre-bending”, the former is decisive on the complexity of the writer’s source of
information. The latter is presented in the complexity of the form of expression in
the literary work. How shall we pursue “archaeology of knowledge” in the context
of one type of genre literature? Or shall we say, how to investigate the literary origin
and knowledge composition of contemporary or Internet fiction writers?
We shall continue our discussion with Jun Tian as an example. In his first novel,
Showcase of Weaponry of the Three Kingdoms, it is not difficult for us to find that the
most important source of knowledge therein is the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
三國演義 and its subsequent literature, drama and film, or even games and other
franchises (in Jun Tian’s own words, amongst the cultural products on the “Three
Kingdoms”, he is mainly influenced by the game Romance of the Three Kingdoms
X). Nevertheless, as a member of the “first generation” of writers in creative cyber
literature, at the same time when he was writing the Showcase of Weaponry of the
Three Kingdoms or slightly earlier, the most popular works in the realm of Internet
literary creations during that time were Jin Hezai’s 今何在 Wukong Zhuan 悟空傳,
Lin Changzhi’s 林長治 Shaseng Riji 沙僧⽇記, Jiang Nan’s 江南 Cijian de Shaonian
此間的少年 and so on. The common feature of all these works is that they are “fan
fictions” re-interpreted upon the basis of renowned classical works of Journey to the
West 西游記, Romance of the Three Kingdoms 三國演義 and martial arts novels
written by Jin Yong ⾦庸. It is very likely that Jun Tian has been influenced by the
trend of “early Internet fan-fiction” during his creation of the Showcase of Weaponry
of the Three Kingdoms. Or, writing “fan fiction” of renowned classical works can
be described as a “shortcut” for young Internet writers to be relevant and break into
the literary world and gain readers’ attention and recognition. Of course, for Jun
Tian, who debuted with “martial arts fiction” with “genre bending” as his creative
style, in his first work, he even obviously fused Jin Yong ⾦庸 and Gu Long’s古
龍 style of martial arts fiction and so on. For example, the “personification” and
highlight of the various weapons in the novel would easily cause readers to associate
this with Li Xunhuan 李尋歡 and Xiaoli Feidao ⼩李⾶⼑. To a certain extent, they
140 Y. B. Zhan
have commonly demonstrated a kind of “concept of weapons” that, to a warrior, the

weapon is an extension of his life. Different weapons would even reflect the mode
of behaviour and unique temperament of the user.
In later creative works of Jun Tian, namely, the Yi Xianchang 異現場 and X
Shikong X 時空 series, the styles of different works can subtly be seen in his works,
including Huang Yi’s “heroism series” 義俠系列 (in Posui Xukong 破碎虛空), “fan-
tasy series” 玄幻系列 (in Xunqin Ji 尋秦記), and “historical heroes” (in Datang
Shuanglong Zhuan ⼤唐雙龍傳) and so on. The methods he uses to blend various
types of elements in different genres such as fictional science, martial arts, and detec-
tive stories resemble the courage and ambition of Ni Kuang’s 倪匡 “Wisely Series”
衛斯理系列. Jun Tian’s definition of “superpower detective” in two main fiction
series also makes readers make associations with Wen Rui’an’s 溫⾥安 The Four
四⼤名捕. According to Jun Tian’s words, senior writers including Jin Yong, Wen
Rui’an, and Huang Yi cast the greatest influence on him. For example, the portrayal
and writing style of fighting and duelling scenes of Huang Yi and his fusion of
fictitious characters and actual history significantly inspired Jun Tian in his early
works. Also, the intertwining of several independent stories in Wen Rui’an’s works
formed the overall design of the so-called “Fictitious Universe of Wen Rui’an” 溫⾥
安⼩說宇宙, inspired Jun Tian to create his own “Universe of Jun Tian”. Jun Tian
even admitted that his pseudonym originated from the novel Wen Rui’an’s “Shen-
zhou Qixia” 神州奇俠, in which the alias of Li Chenzhou 李沉⾈, the ringleader of
Quanli Bang 權⼒幫, was “Junlin Tianxia” 君臨天下. The influence, heritage, and
tribute given to him are self-evident.
We can continue with this kind of “knowledge archaeology” and trace further back
in time. It is not difficult to find Jun Tian’s creative fictions with ancient themes that
can broadly divide into two streams and storylines: one is represented by Showcase of
Weaponry of the Three Kingdoms”, “Showcase of Ancient Artifacts of China”, “Roam
Free” and “Yue Jia Jun: Fengqi” 岳家軍: 風起, which can be traced back to the inter-
pretation of ancient history and traditional war-themed novels, i.e., the “Changqiang
Paodai”長槍袍帶 stream; the other one is ancient suspense-theme novels repre-
sented by his series “Taxue Zhe” 踏雪者, which can be traced back to the tradi-
tion of chivalry and detective-style fiction of the Ming and Qing dynasties (martial
arts + cracking of cases are primary constituents of the stories), that is the stream
“Duandao Gongan” 短⼑公案. The differentiation between “Changqiang Paodai”
and “Duandao Gongan” can be an effective way to understand Jun Tian’s creative
works on ancient themes. Indeed, discussion of the complicated details cannot be
covered in this paper; a separate paper on the specific discussions may be required.
As we re-read the creative works of Jun Tian, whether we read them as “fan
fiction”, “genre archaeology”, or “historical fictions”, it seems that we have no
exhaustive understanding and knowledge of the resources for literary creations in
Jun Tian’s novels; some of which are even beyond the scope of literature. The inspi-
rations of the contemporary elements in popular culture (film, serial drama on televi-
sion, games) are worth further exploration and research. For example, the reference
drawn from the US serial dramas Criminal Minds and Naval Criminal Investigative
Service can be found in his work (“NCIS” in series Yi Xianchang 異現場, which is
the acronym of “ECIS” for “Especial Criminal Investigation Service”, is inspired by

the acronym “NCIS” of “Naval Criminal Investigative Service”); and the relation-
ship between Tian Jun’s Yi Xianchang and X Shikong (X 時空) series and the US
TV series “Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.” As disclosed by Jun Tian himself, the creation of
the story in which Du Yufei 杜郁非 first appeared in Taxue Zhe was inspired by the
film The Longest Nite 暗花 (especially there are some interesting re-appearance and
transformation in the villain police officer played by Tony Leung 梁朝偉 in the film
and transformation in “Taxue Zhe”) and so on. If we continue on the inspection, we
must conduct a thorough investigation into his experiences in appreciating different
forms of art, such as history, movies, serial drama, and games. Of course, this paper
aims not merely at pointing out the multifarious popular cultural resources behind
the creative works of Jun Tian—from ancient detective cases to “Jin Gu Liang Wen”
⾦古梁溫; from Isaac Asimov3 to Marvel Universe—this paper intends to “use Jun
Tian as a method” to preliminarily point out the complexity and difficulty of the
current research on cyber literature and genre fiction. Against the background of the
information explosion era and the writer’s variety of channels to obtain a multitude
of knowledge and information, it would be an enormous challenge to clarify the
literary resources of the writers and the recreation process; therefore, this is the third
level of meaning which this paper aims to unveil by “using Jun Tian as the method”.
From the “incompleteness” of the sectional division of online literary history to
the “cross-media” and “multi-media” of many creative writers in cyber literature,
print media, and film and television; from the “cross-genre” features of the current
genre literary creations to the abundance and complexity of resources for creative
writing for writers in the knowledge explosion era … “using Jun Tian as the method”
allows us to see preliminarily the ecology and complicated scene of creative writing
of Internet fiction and popular genre fiction in contemporary China, as well as the
difficulties that researchers have to face when they conduct their research. That is,
we must adopt a more refined, closer, and more sufficiently historical attitude and
method, such that we could do our best to show the multi-facets and dynamic status
of their creative works.
References
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題 [Fundamental theoretical issues of genre fiction]. Shanghai: Shanghai University Press 上海
⼤學出版社
Jun, Tian 君天. 2015. Fengming Shijian bu 風名事件簿 [Notebook on the Feng Ming event]. Hubei:
Changjiang Publishing House 長江出版社
Jun, Tian 君天. 2018. Shijian feiyang 時間⾶揚 [Time flies]. Guangzhou: Huacheng Publishing
House 花城出版社
3 It can be pointed out that Jun Tian’s creative writings are influenced by the novels of Asimov, for
example, the concepts “Tianyi Xitong” 天意系統 and “Zhedie Yinhe” 折疊銀河 in his novels, and
his narrative of which he uses short and medium-length stories to describe the macro-universe. Due
to the constraint of length, this aspect will not be discussed in detail in this paper.
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detective fiction]. Beijing: China Federation of Literary and Art Press 中國⽂聯出版社
Implications of Global Contexts
for Creative Writing
Creative Writing Research: What, How
and Why
Graeme Harper
Abstract Creative writing research is actively moving us further toward knowing

what creative writing actually is—in terms of our human actions and our responses
when doing it. It is approaching such things as completed literary works and author
recognition within the activities of creative writing, not mostly as representatives of
that practice, and it is paying close attention to the modes, methods and functions of
the writerly imagination, the contemporary influence of individual writer environ-
ments on writers, to writerly senses of structure and form and our formation and re-
formation of writing themes and subjects. We certainly understand creative writing
and creative writing research best when we remain true to why creative writing
happens, when and where it happens, and how it happens—and creative writing
research is doing that, focusing on the actions and the material results as evidence
of our actions. Creative writing research has also opened up better communication
between our knowledge of creative writing and our teaching of creative writing,
with the result that we are improving that teaching, not only in our universities and
colleges but also in our schools.
1 What is Creative Writing Research?
Within the academy, definitions of research are largely uncharted outside of their
respective fields, and the full extent of any field of research is not academic lingua
franca. In the wider world, this is even more so. While it might be that someone in
the community knows a little about what occurs in Chemistry research or Computer
Science research, in Psychology research or in History research, the public generally
really has limited information about the research taking place in our universities and
colleges.
This academic esoterism is occasionally disturbed when a researcher makes a
groundbreaking discovery. When that occurs, a university makes every effort to
ensure that research is known to and understood by a wider public. The press reports
G. Harper (B)
The Honors College, Oakland University, Rochester Hills, USA
e-mail: gharper@oakland.edu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_12
146 G. Harper
on it, sometimes awards are given, and celebrations happen. Through these things, and
to a minor extent, the research activities of the academy are revealed—momentarily.
Such public recognition encourages support for what academic researchers do and
can therefore encourage governments to fund the academy.
That overview of the societal position of academic research is important to the
understanding of creative writing research. Not least, because what we can call “con-
textual confusion” about creative writing research occurs both within the academy
and in the wider community. This has been exacerbated by our focus in education on
the completed works of creative writers and, to a lesser extent, on the lives of selected
authors as exemplars of creative distinction. In other words, when we have height-
ened the importance of the artefact (the poem, the novel, the script) over the creative
actions that brought it about, and added to this a celebration of the cultural signifi-
cance of academically chosen authors who have been recognized for their writerly
prowess, we have not largely been studying the modes and methods of creation those
authors employed or the actions involved in creation or suggesting doing creative
writing is available to all who can write or identifying publishing, fame, cultural
approbation as adjunct nor core activities of creative writing.
To understand creative writing research, we need to reposition our understanding
more toward what creative writing actually is in terms of actions and responses
when doing it, and in terms of what is produced in toto—in other words, reposition
our contextual understanding—and to approach such things as completed works
and author recognition within the actual practice of creative writing itself not as
representatives of that practice.
This repositioning is not to denigrate in any way the contribution, importance or
pleasure found in engaging with completed works of creative writing. Nor is it to
suggest that writerly prowess is unworthy of our celebration. However, both in early
education—where creative writing has primarily been linked to improving literacy
or encouraging childhood creativity—and higher education—where it has mostly
been subsumed in departments focusing on textual and cultural studies—research
into creative writerly action has either been left out entirely or seen as a sub-set of
the study of writing generally. Attention to such things as the mode, methods and
functions of the writerly imagination, or the contemporary influence of individual
writer environments, or the creative writerly senses of structure and form (as the
appear and change, in action, and not always on the page), or the formation and re-
formation of themes and subjects—none of these have been prioritized or considered
from the point of view of what creative writers do and what creative writing is.
In short, creative writing research is not defined only by an existent or projected
product (that is, by a final material result). Nor is it defined only by the individual
writer as representative of the cultural category of “a writer”, whereby the researcher
enacts and reenacts the processes and attitudes commonly associated with a prede-
fined national, regional or local literary culture. Nor it is grounded necessarily in
what is regarded as the “literary”, at least as this might be labelled according to a
set of predetermined criteria or to current academic tastes in literature. All of these
things might be a focus of a creative writing research project—but they are not by
default necessarily present in one, nor are they necessarily present in creative writing
Creative Writing Research: What, How and Why 147
itself. Rather, to understand creative writing research we need first and foremost to
be true to why creative writing happens, when and where it happens, and how it
happens. Creative writing research can be:
. practice-led: where a creative writing project or projects forms the bases of an
investigative methodology, often including a critical discussion relating to that
creative investigation.
. thematic: where the approach to the research is determined largely by the themes
the researcher wishes to explore. So, for example, a set of interviews conducted
with creative writers who have approached a defined social issue, to determine if
there is any compositional or methodological pattern common between them.
. structural and formal: including here creative writing research that focuses on
a particular genre, and suggesting in this instance that it is the form of the works
created that determines the research trajectory, with an investigation of such things
as compositional patterns, graphic representative, resonance, voice and tone—the
structural and formal characteristics that are inscribed by the writer,
. psychological: individuality is a key trait of creative writing because the practice
draws together the singular imagination of the writer with the influences of educa-
tion (generally and specifically as associated with the learning of writing). Simi-
larly, creative writing is frequently informed not only by an analytical approach but
by one informed by human feelings. Research can consider individual psycholo-
gies, comparative emotions, the relationship between individual and societal
experiences.
. philosophical or aesthetic: research into principles underlying a way of thinking,
tastes and definitions of beauty that inform a decision on such things as word
choice, or character, on setting, on the sound of or a word or the shape of a phrase,
on determining what is colloquially sometimes called “what works” in creating a
line or a passage.
. historical, social or cultural: the grounding of individual works in a larger
context, or the grouping of practices according to wider influences, or the mapping
of individual responses against mainstream interpretations, or the investigation of
change in attitudes and interpretations that in turn effect change in a writing prac-
tices or outcomes, or the comparative study of environmental influences, between
place of times. These and other socio-cultural or historical focuses give creative
writing researchers insight not only into individual writing project but also into
how questions of cultural and social value are formed and reformed.
. technological: to inscribe (which is the act of writing) always involves some kind
of tool. From the earliest etching of rock to the latest mergers of virtual reality
and artificial intelligence, the role, influence, choice and application of writing
technologies influences creative writing. Research that targets this fact might aim
to identify acts of writing brought about by the use of a particular technology,
or they might explore such things as pace and rhythm, the contemporary impact
of corrective software that suggests or even automatically corrects choices in
grammar, punctuation and syntax. A researcher could take writing itself to be
a technology and consider how it influences and presents the transference of
148 G. Harper
conscious thought from writer to reader or audience or how it is used to give form
to the unconscious.
. pedagogic: when teaching of creative writing we clearly have to decide what is
taught, why it is taught and what the results of it being taught might be. Deter-
mining the nature of creative writing knowledge therefore offers researchers a
considerable array of potential projects. We can also consider what messages
we send through our creative writing teaching—messages concerning what we
value and who we value (and that last note is consequential because if our teaching
suggests only some voices are relevant, some styles of writing, some perspectives,
some human experiences then clearly we are signifying what creative writing is
worth undertaking and what is not). Pedagogic research has focused on such
significant sites of creative writing teaching as the workshop and on questions
concerning whether learning of creative writing occurs in a linear way or an inter-
connected, matrixed way. Pedagogic research might focus on levels of learning and
teaching, types of learning, the scope and form of courses associated with a genre
or technique, the industrial context of types of learning (and whether information
on publishing or the media of the performance industries might be included), on
individual learning versus group learning, and how information about creative
writing is best conveyed in that regard, on associative understanding (between
creative writing and other arts practices or between creative writing and other
writing or between creative writing and epistemologies of the sciences or social
sciences).
. industrial: some creative writing takes place largely outside of the creative indus-
tries, with the motivation for doing the writing being about self-expression. Alter-
natively, a great deal of creative writing is tied to an industrial need—whether, for
example, in the film and television industries and in the production of leisure soft-
ware, in advertising, in graphic design, in music, or in the performing and visual
arts. Creative writing is essential to a range of creative industries, and it is possible
to research the industrial characteristics of how that writing is undertaken and how
it interacts with other art and communication forms that these industries employ.
Research topics here are varied. Areas of interest might include contrasts between
individual writerly activities and teamwork (say in the advertising, theatre or TV
industries) or the way a brief to produce a particular piece of creative writing
is handled to reach the required results. Research projects might also include
those focused specifically on the publishing industry—perhaps on how changes
in it have influenced creative writers, or on the ways in which communities of
creative writers are created and supported given contemporary publishing prac-
tices, or on the influence of marketing and publicity or the impact of any perceived
requirement to have a public persona or profile.
2 Choices
In all research, we have personal and professional choices to make –choices about
focus and expectations, where we want to spend our time and spend our energy. For
us, in this field, the choices can be largely individual—in that, creative writing relates
to our personal tastes and interests and desires. Or the choices can be public—in that,
creative writing happens within a cultural, social, economic and political realm and
the influences on it and the results of those influences have their public dimensions.
Some creative writing research choices are well known today and there are
indeed identifiable foci around the world. For example, there are creative writing
researchers who work on pedagogic topics, those whose primary interest is in
practice-led research, and the strategies and approaches connected with such practice-
led research, those who consider diversity, equity and inclusion, and those with inter-
ests in psychological or behavioral topics. However, although the field is increasingly
grounded in a global discussion it remains relatively unmapped, compared to many
other academic fields. Additionally, because a considerable range of work done in the
past twenty-five years has been done by doctoral students in creative writing doctoral
programs in countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia, the power of those
graduates to build on their research results has been at the mercy of institutional
abilities to recognize creative writing research as a field of endeavor. In essence,
for those graduates to find academic jobs. That has not always been the case—
more so perhaps than in some Arts disciplines, because creative writing teaching in
the academy has not been associated with creative writing research. The contextual
conditions in which finished works of creative writing area primarily valued, and
well-known writers’ lives are primarily studied has not worked in favor of creative
writing graduate researchers and therefore the progress in seeing such research well-
grounded in academic departments has been uneven. This is changing as the field of
Creative Writing Studies—that is the critical study of creative writing—gains global
momentum.
One area of my own current research interests is in tracking back the antecedents of
creative writing research in the practices and outcomes of other disciplines’ research,
particularly from the mid-20th Century. Meaning, by this, that it is possible to find
antecedent elements of creative writing research in Literary and English Studies and
in arts research in such areas as Music, Theatre, Visual Arts and Film making, in
Composition and Writing Studies, in Linguistics and Cultural Studies, and to a lesser
extent in Philosophy and Educational Studies, in Psychology, Communication and
Translation Studies, and in Sociology. Admittedly, this is a personal area of inves-
tigation; however, it is also reflected in the wider Creative Writing Studies (CWS)
community when we see CWS scholars exploring previous CWS related work in
Composition and Writing Studies, or when considering the history of representation
in Literary Studies classes as it relates to diversity, equity and inclusion in Creative
Writing workshops, or when determining which elements of practice-led research
draw on previous understanding of arts practices, or when examining creative disser-
tations submitted in the United States as part of English Literature Ph.D. programs,
150 G. Harper
thirty, forty or fifty years ago, or when discussing the use of creative writing peda-
gogies for students learning English as a second language or with first language
English speakers who were less competent in their language use, and discussing the
discoveries made around how creativity generates linguistic competence or the ways
in which understanding form in creative writing leads to greater understanding of
linguistic form, generally. This, all by way of saying that creative writing research
as we now define and explore and develop it did not begin necessarily at the point
where we named something “creative writing research”; rather, like all forms of
human investigation and discovery it has recognizable antecedents.
3 Structuring Projects
While structuring a research project in our field is not vastly different to structuring
research in any other field, we do have the relatively distinct option of combining
critical and creative methods (and the more distinct option of doing this primarily
through acts of writing). In that option the fluidity and interconnectivity of the imag-
ination is likely to be heightened. That said, structuring CWS projects has several
universal research traits:
. determining the nature of the raw material, either work already published and
available, or information and experiences that can be gained from experiential
research (and this is the same whether the project is creative practice-led or purely
critical). Experiential research could be related to themes or subjects, whereby
the researcher determines a starting point in a subject or theme and seeks to find
creative writing material (currently available or through writing it) that explores
that subject or theme. It could be through a controlled “experiment” (for example,
in a pedagogic research project trying new modes of teaching and gauging their
success) It could be the raw material of already published secondary source mate-
rials such as writers’ diaries, interviews, notebooks. Raw material could refer to
comparative work—a creative writing researcher taking, say, a group of texts set
in a particular place or particular period, or by a particular author or authors and
looking for patterns of composition, endeavoring to find traits that relate to the
operation of the imagination, or the influence of environment, or the conditions
of a culture or time in history.
“Raw material” in creative writing research can in this way be both physical
material already available to us (such things as published works, manuscripts, notes,
writers’ personal correspondence) or it can be material produced through action-
based methods (writing something, testing out ideas with a group learning creative
writing, even gathering material related to stimulus in creative writing, visual records
of things, documentary evidence of invents that influence writing).
. formulating what in some disciplines are called hypotheses may come about
because of an assessment of the raw material on a particular topic or theme. For
example, it might be a researcher is aware of consistent reports that screenwriters

work most efficiently when working in teams. Armed with this raw material, this
empirical knowledge, the researcher might formulate a hypothesis that suggests
the nature of screenplay writing, with its emphasis on interaction (actor to actor,
actor and camera, sound and vision, and so on), is such that collaborative writing is
suggested by the collaborative nature of the medium. Aiming to test that hypoth-
esis (and in creative writing research “hypothesis” is not a commonly used word—
instead, this might simply be thought of as “an idea”) the researcher sets out to
try some writing tasks that screenwriters complete individually and then together,
and to gauge the success of these tasks. From the results of these investigations,
the researcher formulates that theory that indeed the fact that a screenplay is a
template for another artform, and that this artform most often involves multiple
collaborations, the mode of creative writing in screenplay writing is almost always
best to be collaborative.
Hypotheses and theories in creative writing research (like in any other field of
human endeavor and human knowledge) can be individual or group based. They
probably won’t be called “hypotheses and theories” by the researchers, though the
way in which creative writing researchers pose questions and seek answers and come
up with suggestions about who things work in creative writing is evolving all the
time and the language of discussion changes as things evolve. Certainly, any creative
writing researcher begins with a response of some kind to what they know, think or
feel—and that response is manifest in beliefs that inform the actions of investigating
and the actions of writing.
The historical context of creative writing study in universities and colleges and
cultural context of creative writing in societies means that it still remains rela-
tively unusual to imagine someone undertaking a creative writing researcher project
through the lens of many other established research disciplines. For example, the
practice-led creative writing researcher who speaks of exploring an idea or theme or
concept through writing a creative work is not always considered to be in the same
enterprise of creating knowledge as the biologist doing an experiment or the engineer
investigating new industrial processes. But they are in fact doing exactly that—and
though the knowledge might be of a different kind, the results of their investigations
presented in different ways, and the societal sense of their researching received in
different ways, the creative writing researcher, like all researchers, seeks to know
more, seeks to explain what they know, and seeks to advance our knowledge of the
practice they are examining and the field in which they work—in this case, of course,
the practice and field of creative writing.
. exchanging current research ideas with others in the field is both a formal and
informal practice among all researchers. Formally, through conferences, likewise
in journals (and the concept and activity of “peer-review” is often used to designate
journals that formally assess submissions for their validity in their field) and
through the publication of books. Informally, researchers exchange current ideas
in their general social interactions with others in their field and in the casual
conversations that take place in academic departments between colleagues in
152 G. Harper
the same field. These formal and informal exchanges assist in building project
ideas, and in suggesting avenues of investigation, and in challenging assumptions.
Sometimes they create research groups who pursue topics together, regionally,
nationally or globally, or they support the presentation and dissemination of new
ideas in a field by recognizing, even lauding, a researcher’s discovery.
Creative writing researchers do much of this too; however, the focus of creative
writing research can be highly individualized. Some researchers—perhaps most of
all practice-led researchers—design their investigations around topics and practices
based on personal interest informed by feeling and propelled by a desire for a partic-
ular result. You might suggest this is no different than the practices of any other
researcher! But creative writing research is undertaken in situations where even the
notion of “knowledge” is individually determined. For example, imagine you seek
to know how to create (and how other writers create) resonant effects in their poetry.
A poetry writing project, then; but, not one in which you do as a literary scholar
might do and study (comparatively perhaps and primarily) the final poems of a
number of poets and consider the textual evidence of resonance. Rather, a poetry
writing project in which you seek, study and consider evidence of the compositional
acts “in motion”, the things done and the thoughts about them. In which you seek,
also, through biographical, cultural and (yes) also textual routes evidence of why
decision-making occurred, how it occurred and when it occurred. The knowledge
you are aiming to discover is that about how acts of creative writing came about and
progressed and the results of this are part (but not all) of your explorations.
Individual goals, then, are common in creative writing, personal goals informed
often as much by the emotional, psychological, singular reasoning of the writer ore
researcher—borne on the back a question or questions that relate to how the writing
is (or was) done, and why the writing is (or was) done and what results from this
doing. Of course, this assumes the individual reasoning was about producing a text.
In some cases, the creative writing researcher might be seeking more to consider an
experience (of writing, or of teaching, or of discovering) and a final textual outcome
might not be the focus.
Creative writing research, however, can also come about from those kind of group
exchanges that impacts on researchers in all fields. Focusing on pedagogy, or on
diversity, equity and inclusion, or on inter-arts influences on creative writing practice,
or on practice-led research can point a researcher to others doing similar work, and
that group exchange of current work in these areas is not today uncommon today.
Today, that is, because the field of creative writing research has seen an international
expansion over the past 30 years, with recognizable strong growth in the United
Kingdom and Australasia, growth of interest in the countries of Asia and Africa and
continental Europe, and an increasing strength of interest and involvement in this
field in the United States, where the antecedents of creative writing research reach
back into a range of cognate disciplinary histories.
Finally, considering research ideas (whether in your own internal assessment
of routes to take or in communicating with others with similar interests) involves
asserting value. Such assertions of value manifest themselves in the choice of routes to
travel when researching—that is, which parts of Creative Writing Studies to pursue—
and in the sense of what results are sought, whether those results are creative or critical
texts, or whether they are writerly experiences, or whether they are enhancement of
teaching practices, or whether they are the increased understanding of what creative
writing is and how it happens and why it happens. What we value in the practice of
creative writing, and in the results of that practice—all of those results: the material
objects that emerge from the practice and become conduits for communication, for
emotional exchanges and for discussion, works of arts that they are; the experiences
of writing, creatively, and of re-writing, the challenges, the frustrations and the thrills;
the opportunities for teaching, in teaching, through teaching to engage others in the
practice of creative writing and to empower them—what we value in creative writing
is informed by why we seek to expand our knowledge of it, and because we place
value in sharing our understanding.
4 Methods/Methodology of Creative Writing Research
Research structure and research methods are entwined, of course, with an under-
standing of one being dependent on an understanding of the other. But method
(or methodology, to offer a more formal concept) is based on systemic activities
and defined principles. Methodology formalizes method by offering explanatory
evidence of the choice of methods; that is, by providing reasoning for choices made,
against a background of the subject, topic of discipline of investigation. In creative
writing, the basic structural characteristics of research is dependent on a relationship
with the components of creative writing. Simple enough:
. actions of writing—are these the focus of your methods, so that how you discover
things is through the act of writing itself? Writing creatively is the methodology
of practice-led researchers and the methods employed relate to such things as the
choice of form and genre, the techniques known by the writer and the skills of
the writer, the relationship between the creative project and the questions being
asked (in most cases a practice-led researcher writers sequentially, completing the
creative work first and the critical reflection, exegesis or component concerned
with it second).
. textual evidence—is the guiding element of your methodology the texts you
produce or that others have produced? Textual evidence (or the expectation of
producing some) is an anchor, whereby the researcher is able to relate all critical
opinion and expectations to the existence of a real or imagined text. The principle
of the methodology here can be stated as “creative writing produces texts” and
while we might discuss what kinds of texts, and how many texts, and who owns
these texts, and in what ways these texts are the result of wider societal and
cultural influences and what status this texts hold as knowledge providers or
communicators, the primary methodological consideration is that in this case a
text or texts grounds discussion.
154 G. Harper
. interaction with others. These others might be students (in the case of peda-
gogical research) or an audience (sometimes in the case of practice-led, and
certainly in the case of “response” type research) where the results of the research
are discussed, explored and perhaps even validated by the involvement of other
people. In both cases, the methodological principle here is one of communica-
tion—that creative writing involves an exchange of some kind, or of many kinds,
and that research must therefore methods of research in our field are dependent
on forms of response. It is relatively uncommon for creative writing research to
involve the observation of writers or even of the audience, but it is still possible
that a researcher might employ observational method in order to determine how a
text is received, or how a creative writer works or in what ways a theme or subject
is manifest in a society or culture.
. comparative or metaphoric examination. Here a way of describing how a
creative writing researcher may seek to fill in the gaps in our current knowl-
edge base. Because we cannot always observe how creative writers go about their
own, and even if the creative writer is the researcher herself or himself an attempt
to pause the writing to consider what is happening interrupts the creative process.
Those undertaking textual or pedagogic research are faced not only with the
difficulty of knowing through empirical means how things were actually written
but with little in the way of analytical means to consider both the intellect (that
employed to be able to use written language) and the imagination (the primary tool
of human creativity). Therefore, the researcher seeks to work comparatively—by
analogy comparing a creative writing technique, result or writerly purpose with
that seen in another field (often one in the arts). Alternatively, by shifting to
another plain of reference (that is, thinking metaphorically) in order to under-
stand the action or outcome of creative writing. For example, a researcher might
figuratively approach creative writing practice as a series of building blocks, as
steps amounting to a complete journey, or as mathematical puzzle that produces
a final answer. Alternatively, they might imagine the outcomes of the practice as
the trunk and branches of a tree and what produced that visible evidence as the
rhizomatic roots of the activity. Such comparative or metaphoric methodology
can produce both pragmatic and philosophic research, whereby the researcher
seeks to define meaning and reasoning in the practices and outcomes of creative
writing.
5 The Research Environment
Research in creative writing most often happens in individual circumstances, defined

by a single researcher and that researcher’s personal interests or needs, not involving
any kind of special equipment (and often not undertaken in specific locations), and
pursued for personal interest not for disciplinary reasons (that is, not primarily for
advancing discussions of a particular topic in the wider field of creative writing).
In other words, rather than the research being defined by a disciplinary lack
of understanding of a particular component of knowledge (compare, for example,
cancer research in the field of medical science where the area of knowledge is strongly
defined and the reasons for undertaking such research very clear) it is mostly defined
by individual creative curiosity or a personal desire to better perceive an aspect
of creative writing as a human practice or by an admiration of a finished creative
writing result (a book or books, a film, a particular authors oeuvre). The medical
science contrast is intended to be harsh, to highlight how creative writing research
does most often happen but also how it is most often perceived in institutions of
higher learning, by governments and in the general community
Creative writing is almost entirely about our quality of life, our human engage-
ment with the world and with each other. Unlike medical research, researching in
this field is clearly not about saving lives. It is broadly about life experiences and
about life qualities. The relationship between personal and individual investigations
and how we generally perceive research is therefore most significant. The environ-
ments for creative writing research reflect this—and so, beyond not often involving
research equipment or particular research facilities, creative writing research receives
little governmental funding, the expectations for the research are not often tied to the
strategic goals of a research sponsor or research agency. Environments for creative
writing research therefore are largely defined by individual writers not by the disci-
pline, by universities or indeed by research sponsors, and certainly not by corpo-
rations in the creative industries or otherwise—and we can consider how such an
individual focus impacts on what these environments, or more accurately “habitats”
appear and how they influence the work at hand. For example, how much might the
availability of books (and other library resources) impact on a CWS researcher? How
much is this research generated by travel to other places and how much is it generated
in the ordinary working locations of the person doing it? What role does the imagina-
tion play in the creation of habitats for creative writing research (for example, visual
or sound stimuli or speculations of the imagination based on reading, or on watching
media or on exposure to other artforms or knowledge forms, other disciplines, other
researchers?)
The launch, expansion and development of doctoral programs in creative writing
over the past thirty years—particularly in Australia and the United Kingdom—has
had a notable effect on creative writing research and its research environments.
Governmental research agencies in those countries also put money into such research,
including funding directly into graduate scholarships, and in doing so brought
creative writing research to the attention of the wider academic research commu-
nity. Other countries followed suit, in continental Europe, in Africa and in Asia, and
though direct government funding for this has varied across the globe, and although
not all countries have embraced investment with the same enthusiasm, more and
more institutions of higher learning have developed programs with a regular contin-
gent of creative writing researchers, along with research supervision and research
mentorship.
In the United States the effect of the expansion of doctoral programs related to
knowledge in creative writing can be seen in pedagogic and professional questions
156 G. Harper
about whether the Master of Fine Arts (M.F.A.) remains the appropriate “terminal
degree” for a creative writer working in higher education or if the Ph.D. is now
more appropriate. The M.F.A. had long been favored by America’s primary creative
writing organization, the Association of Writers and Writing Programs (AWP), while
members of that organization increasingly have had Ph.Ds or have been pursuing
Ph.Ds. The emergence five years ago of the alternative U.S.-based organization,
the Creative Writing Studies Organization (CWSO), is a reflection of the changing
demographics of creative writers working in higher education in the U.S. Together
with looking back toward the antecedents of creative writing research the U.S. in
Writing Studies programs and in Composition Studies and in creative dissertations
submitted as part of doctoral study in English Literature, the U.S. has strongly entered
the field of creative writing research and is beginning to have an increased global
impact.
All this relatively recent expansion of doctoral study in creative writing, has
meant that the environment of 21st Century academe has altered somewhat to incor-
porate such research—with academic departments shifting some resources (space,
personnel) to suit this growth, and the idea of a CWS research presence on campus no
longer as unlikely as it once was. So, while most creative writing research remains
in the private habitat of the individual creative writer, the discussions we see on
campuses today, the incorporation into research in cognate fields such as Literary
Studies and practice-led arts research, this has all had impact on how creative writing
research appears in and influences the environments of our universities and colleges.
6 Results/Outcomes
It is paradoxical, yet true, to say, that the more we know, the more ignorant we become
in the absolute sense, for it is only through enlightenment that we become conscious of
our limitations. Precisely one of the most gratifying results of intellectual evolution is the
continuous opening up of new and greater prospects.
(The Wonder World to be Created by Electricity, Nikola Tesla 1915: 38)
The results of undertaking creative writing research are so many times determined
by the pure inquisitiveness of the individual researcher. It is not that this cannot be,
or is not the case in other disciplines, other areas of study and teaching. Almost
certainly it is unhelpful for Creative Writing Studies (and the kinds of research CWS
scholars undertake) to be seen as extraordinary or uncommon or atypical of research
as we know it commonly—particularly as seen in our universities and colleges. And
yet, if Creative Writing Studies is a recognizable field, and if has a research element,
some practices and outcomes that ask for an exploration of current knowledge and
the expansion and development of that knowledge, then creative writing research
needs defining and re-defining as we progress it toward more and more discoveries.
Dedicated attention, that is, and the ability see where paradigms are emerging and
where they require revisiting.
To a large extent, how each of us undertakes creative writing research right now
will compellingly determine how our field looks in the future. This is because Creative
Writing Studies is still new enough that there are not long-established focuses of
investigation; nor is there the considerable baggage of structures and historical
methods of investigation that have to be unsettled in order for us to develop and
pursue new ones.
A simple way of putting this would be say that we have a notable opportunity
to build this field and that such an opportunity is not all that common in academe
or in the world at large. A less simple but more exciting notion is that it appears,
considering we have had long enough now to determine this, that ours is a field
only partly mapped by its antecedents, and that while they provide some directional
support, in being only partly mapped much of the territory in front of us remains
untraveled. Our only limitations are in our abilities to see the topics, the themes, the
approaches and the outcomes we might produce, the potential for those around in
academe (some of whom might be in positions of power) to not understand what
it is we are attempting and therefore not support it, and the likelihood that many
of us will need to carve out new trails in order to progress at all and in doing so
need to come up with appropriate methodologies, structures and forms of outcome
that allow us to share with us in our field what we have achieved—because without
our exchange of ideas now, and the sharing of approaches, and results we will not
progress. It seems likely, given the considerable contemporary global enthusiasm for
creative writing research, and for Creative Writing Studies as the now well-known
home to creative writing research, that in the next decade we will see considerable
progress—progress far beyond what we have seen to date, in areas of investigation
that are only beginning to emerge, and in fascinating new areas too.
Reference
Tesla, Nikola. 1915. The wonder world to be created by electricity. Manufacturers Record 38–39
In Praise of Doggedness: On Going
Local & Becoming Global
as a Transpacific Poet-Scholar in Hawai’i,
the Pacific Rim, and Coastal California
Rob Sean Wilson
Abstract Drawing upon his career as a poet and scholar who had taught for 24
years in the English Department and creative writing program at the University
of Hawaii at Manoa and for another 23 years in the Literature Department at the
University of California in Santa Cruz (as well as visiting positions in South Korea,
Taiwan and Hong Kong), the author defines, elaborates, and defends the writerly
virtue of “doggedness” as a survival tactic of local-global endurance and literary
recalcitrance. The author’s own career as a published writer is posited as a synec-
doche for what Houston Wood calls “doing poetry in theory, and theory in poetry”
and border-crossing networking and building up a transpacific writing community
across Oceania and the Pacific Rim. Another factor of poetic survival amid the ethnic
tensions of “local literature” becomes the act of securing allies in the right places,
with gifts for circulation, mutual support, lines of creative flight, world-building, and
networking.
…creativity takes place along a line of [transpacific] flight.

– Gilles Deleuze1
When I reflect upon the problem of writing poetry in the general mishmash of
this superpower USA and, more contentiously, as situated within the aggravated
indigenous-local-settler agonistics of the ex-50th US state of Hawai’i where I taught
1 As this French theorist of nomadic becoming and writerly singularity capaciously phrases this
ethos, “To fly is to trace a line, lines, long, a whole cartography [of the imagination]. One only
discovers worlds through a long, broken flight. Anglo-American literature constantly shows these
ruptures, these characters who create their line of flight, who create through a line of flight.
Thomas Hardy, Melville, Stevenson, Virginia Woolf, Thomas Wolfe, Lawrence, Fitzgerald, Miller,
Kerouac. In them, everything is departure, becoming, passage, leap, daemon, relationship with the
outside.....the flight towards the West, the discovery that the true East is in the West, the sense of
the frontiers as something to cross, to push back, to go beyond. The becoming is geographical.”
See Gilles Deleuze’s Dialogues [with Claire Parnet] (1977).
R. S. Wilson (B)
Humanities Division, Department of Literature, University of California, Santa Cruz, USA
e-mail: rwilson@ucsc.edu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_13
160 R. S. Wilson
literature and creative writing for 24 years, the word for creative survival that comes
to mind (like some mysterious mantra) is doggedness. As in a period piece from the
Thatcher-and-Reagan-battered 1980s, I get a picture in my mind of enragedboxer Jake
LaMotta (played by Robert DeNiro) being pounded into fleshly submission countless
times in Raging Bull (1980); and, inches short of physical, psychic, and spiritual
death, the fighter gets up each time to keep fighting on, to take another round, to
endure another punch to the head or stomach; that is to say, to survive andkeep
writing. Canadian poet-novelist Michael Ondaatje loved this film when he was a
visiting teacher at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa in the early 80s when we saw
it at a neon-glowing theater in Waikiki, and he advised in the sleepy corridors of the
English Department at Ralph Kuykendall Hallthat anyone could study this Martin
Scorsese masterwork on boxing and become not just a film maker but a writer in any
genre. That made lasting poetic sense to me.
Maybe this is not an encouraging self-image to propose to any aspiring young
writer, I would now admit. Still, I had earlier got this same insight into writerly
doggedness as an occupational necessity for writers from the late-great fiction writer
from Iowa, upstate New York, and Oahu Island in Hawaii, Ian MacMillan (1941–
2008). Ian advised this same ethos when we were UHM colleagues back in the late
1970s and across the 1980s in Hawai’i. A rock-solid rural man of few words except
when writing, Ian would chat with me after basketball games at the Kaniwai courts
near campus (where my daughter Sarah went to the nearby grammar school) about
his stoic method of coldly, and with sublime indifference, putting his well-wrought
short stories back into another manila envelope up to twenty times after they had
been indifferently rejected by some journal until another literary journal or editor,
somewhere across the huge mainland USA, whatever amount of time it took, had
the good sense to publish one of his well-wrought short stories. Ian in a sense had
become a raging bull of a novelist from his Iowa University workshop MFA training.
Now considered one of the ‘white ethnic’ local writers admitted (belatedly) into
the multicultural company of Bamboo Ridge Press-published authors, as Susan M.
Schultz has noted in her anthology Jack London Is Dead concerning the under-
theorized and factitious twists and turns of “local literature” emerging in the era of
cross-border globalization, this dynamic of peripheralizing indifference puts every-
thing stable or identity-based into place-wary question marks across localizing and
reindigenizing Native Hawaiian Hawai’i (Schultz 2013). For Ian Macmillan had
managed to persevere, survive, and rise in the US fiction world before his untimely
death from throat cancer (muscular and athletic, he was also an avid chain-smoker)
in 2008. McMillan’s short stories and novels would become solicited after he won
the American Writer’s Program award for best short-story collection for Light and
Power: Stories in 1980. Ian later received several requests, he softly told me, from
those very same semi-snooty journals of literary cachet that had once ignored or
rejected his submissions of short stories over the years. He would soon go on to
win broader national recognition and literary awards: as Wikipedia summarizes this,
“Called “the Stephen Crane of World War II” by Kurt Vonnegut, MacMillan was the
recipient of a number of literary awards, including the Hawaii Award for Literature
in 1992, the O. Henry Award, the Elliot Cades Award for Literature in 2007, and the
In Praise of Doggedness: On Going Local & Becoming Global … 161
Pushcart Prize.2 He was further honored in 2010 by the creation of the annual Ian
MacMillan Writing Award in his memory given in the creative writing program at
the University of Hawai’i. His war-focused novel Village of a Million Spirits received
the Pen Center USA Award for Fiction in 2000.”3
What about Rob Sean Wilson as such a Raging Bull-mentored poet? At times
disheartened as a poet and writer, all but broken in spirit and resources at times as
scholar and poet, lost to myself, crazed, bitter, blissed-out in oblivion, I worked on a
poetry project I called (prefiguratively) Ananda Air Incorporated or (later) When the
Nikita Moon Rose.4 I have persevered like Jake LaMotta in Hawai’i (from 1976 to
2001) and Santa Cruz (2001–2023) until various journals of literature and scholarship
now seek out, in differing parts of the Pacific Rim from Taiwan and Hong Kong to
Honolulu and Berkeley, the works I write in various genres.
I will continue “doing theory in poetry, and poetry in theory” as my UHM
doctoral student and scholar at Hawaii Pacific University, Houston Wood, once
observed of my mixed-genre cross-coded writing taking place as “cultural studies”
and “worlding poetics” across Oceania (Wood 2003). This contemporary writing situ-
ation in Hawai’i remains full of tensions and antagonisms, all the more aggravated
(as an impossible coalition of oceanic imagination) given the more rise of a “settler
colonialism” framework partly derived from such ideologized colonial discourse in
Australia, Israel, South Africa, and India.5
Of course most writers, in any genre worth their enduring salt of misery and
integrity, struggling to survive in the writing vocation, can most likely tell such
detailed horror stories about having his/her poems or stories or novels turned down
by journals (“Dear Mr. Wilson, Your poems don’t blast me off my feet!”; or as I
wanted to write back, “Dear Poetry Editor, Try Heroin, it never fails.”) orsmarmy
art journals, only to have these same poems accepted one week later by Poetry of
Chicago or The New Republic. (I now wonder, at times, amazed by the flux of literary
schools, traditions, mores, modes, audiences, and outlets from the local and regional
to the national and global: was this really a good sign?).
Along such work-ethic lines of torment and rebuke, I once had a senior editor at
the Wallace Stevens Journal take my sweat-and-blood-birthed essay on the American
sublime in Wallace Stevens, which he initially wrote back to say he had admired,
back to New Jersey for the summer; then suddenly the man had died, his works in
progress and life foreclosed (something that haunts one also as aging and closer to the
closure that is death). But I was not informed of this fatality by the new editor of the
2 See the moving portrait of his UHM mentor by the journalist and fiction writer in A. Kam Napier’s
“Remembering Ian Macmillan” (2008).
3 See the detailed entry on Ian Macmillan in Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_MacMil
lan(author).
4 See Rob Sean Wilson’s When the Nikita Moon Rose (2021), a poetry collection published both in
English and with Chinese translations in the Transpacific Archipelagic Poetry series edited by Tee
Kim Tong.
5 On related contextual issues and tensions, see Rob Wilson, Reimagining the American Pacific:
From ‘South Pacific” to Bamboo Ridge and Beyond (2001); and Paul Lyons’s American Pacificism:
Oceania in the U. S. Imagination (2005).
162 R. S. Wilson
Stevens journal until three years later after I had returned from a Fulbright to South
Korea to my job as an assistant professor in the English Department at UH Manoa and
inquired about the status of this Rob Wilson essay. Against all demoralizing odds
I persevered, and the essay called “Decreating the American Sublime in Wallace
Stevens” appeared in Lee Bartlett’s American Poetry journal and became part of a
book-length study of American poetry called American Sublime: The Genealogy of
a Poetic Genre published in 1991 in Frank Lentriccia’s American Writing Series by
the University of Wisconsin Press in Madison. A writer must keep telling herself
what Mark Twain confided to his Gilded Era audience all but tiring of literature, “the
rumors of my death [as a writer] are greatly exaggerated.”
Another factor of poetic survival in the hugely diverse United States of America—
including amid the ethnic and indigenous tensions of “local literature” in Hawai’i—
is securing allies in the right places, who have gifts for empathy, mutual support,
and networking. By this I don’t mean just friends or lovers who like your work
regardless of how embarrassingly bad it is, but uncanny writing and cultural allies
who can see the future in you, perhaps are placed with welcoming journals and
scrappy presses local or otherwise, from Tinfish and Bamboo Ridge in Honolulu to
Duke University Press in Durham, North Carolina and New Pacific Press in Santa
Cruz, who can see what you are up to as an experiment-risking writer and are willing
to encourage, support and publish your work now and n the future. Eric Chock was
such an editorial ally for me at Bamboo Ridge journal who could pick out a real
poem out of batch of five so-and-so ones, along with editors like Robert Buswell at
Korean Culture, Paul Bove and Donald Pease at boundary 2, Stephen Paul Martin
at Central Park, Loretta Petrie and Jim Krauss at Chaminade Literary Review, and
Frank Stewart at Manoa who all maintained a singular wavelength for things poetic.
Poet and editor Susan Schultz at her Asia/Pacific-based Tinfish journal and chap-
book press prodded my work as a poet and cultural theorist not only by what she
chose, but by what she placed the work next too as well, and she prodded into being
by her own work as writer, critic, and editor. Juliana Spahr as coalitional poet-scholar
in Honolulu and Oakland and Lindsay Waters in Cambridge as executive editor of the
Humanities at Harvard University Press later played vital roles in my long-willing
survival as poet-scholar, as did allies in South Korea and Taiwan like Kim U-chang
and Ping-hui Liao, and Joseph Puna Balaz in Cleveland.
Finally, “going local” in this dogged sense of integral vision can be seen as one
strategy of regional and self-survival that builds upon the assumption that poetic
creativity can be sustained along a line of flight into and beyond locality or identity, via
a renewed entrenchment in place, language, genre, and (perhaps above all) becoming
part of an open-ended community existing in formation. Metropolitan power in sites
like NYC and LA or Paris and London need not be the whole ballgame in this
decentered polity of pluralism we call, warily, the United States of Poetry or Worlding
Poetry.
Dogged localism will out, if slowly to be sure, but it takes prolonged engagement
and a commitment to vision in the struggle. To get my first collection of poetry called
Waking in Seoul published I had first sent it to several publishers who handled Asian
materials such as Tuttle and Weatherhill Press in Vermont, but I was politely told that
anything with living poetry in it (for it must be better to be dead and immortalized)
was kiss of commercial death. Later, I showed the manuscript to brilliant literary-
scholar in South Korea, Kim Uchang, who had run my poems in Korean translation in
a cosmopolitan journal he edited in Korea called Segue Munhak (World Literature) in
Seoul. Professor Kim shepherded the ms. to the time-honored literary press in South
Korea, Mineumsa Press, which published it in 1988. By this time, the University
of Hawai’i Press which had initially looked at the manuscript but saw poetry as
the kiss of commercial death, was willing to handle distribution in America and
outside of Korea, which proved helpful to getting the work around in its unpredictable
“afterlife” as a cross-border mixed-genre work in the “hanbun” tradition of Basho’s
Narrow Road to the Far North and the voyaging Euro-American surrealism of Henri
Michaux’s A Barbarian in Asia.
This down-to-earth strategy that has nurtured this publishing life as poet-scholar
is one I would honor as the spiritual-political option to root down and grow from
the ground up: going local, paradoxically, becomes a mode of becoming global and
emergent as well. To endure “with roots hanging” from what you write, as Charles
Olson incarnated via his own lifelong commitment to the seacoast town of Gloucester,
Massachusetts as a cosmopolis for writing and community and earlier in his Melvil-
lian manifesto Call Me Ishmael. Gloucester became for Olson a maximal oceanic
center of cosmos, cosmopolis, history, trade, and cosmopolitical being moving
outward to the world and planet back across space and time. This local sense is
not just taken as a region, taste or language, but as the loving ground and ethos of
cultivating aesthetic, political, and spiritual ties, as a community-under-construction,
a world-being-built-up: “Beareth all things, believeth all things, hopeth all things,
endureth all things” (1 Corinthians 13: 7) to invoke the Pauline mandate to keep
believing. Stubborness (doggedness) in this exact place and this fleeting time means,
in thevernacularized language of novelist Milton Murayama, “all I asking for is my
body.” (Wilson 2008).
When I was in graduate school at the University of California at Berkeley in the
nineteen seventies, where student work was all but being ignored and bypassed for
works like 40-page essays on the Cantos of Ezra Pound, I helped to found (along with
my mentor poet-scholar, Josephine Miles) a campus-based outlet called the Berkeley
Poetry Review in 1974 which is still going strong at UC Berkeley as a “journal of
emergent poetics” in the year 2023 and mixing the Bay Area local with national and
international strands as happens in journals like Hawaii Review and, in a different
way, Manoa: A Pacific Journal of International Writing. Moving to Hawai’i in 1976
as visiting assistant professor (at first) and slowly entrenching down in thatcontested
“local” ground of settler-multicultural and indigenous community, I have over the
years published work in journals such as Bamboo Ridge, Hawaii Review, Chaminade
Review, and Manoa, all of which proved nurturing, in various ways, to the emergence
and growth of “local literature” in Hawai’i and Rob Sean Wilson as aspiring ‘world
poet.’
If, in your desperately nervous quest to secure those fifteen minutes of fame, love,
or glory you bypass the local, if you ignore the body and ground of the historical
spirit and languages of place-bound writing, you may never buildup to the national
164 R. S. Wilson
or world levels of exchange anything much worth saying as literature. Jake LaMotta
must have realized this sweating, coughing, hacking, and bleeding in the cramped
bloody gyms of Brooklyn as did Robert De Niro copping his own style in the streets
of Little Italy in New York, or Michael Ondaatje becoming Slaughter or Billy the Kid
via Coach House Press in far-flung Toronto. I may be a little bit punch-drunk by now
in my half-Italianate half-Scottish doggedness; but, against all odds, like some Li Po
of 513 Kuykendall Hall or Oakes 311 and (later) Humanities 631 at UC Santa Cruz,
I have kept on writing! Write something, as Facebook urges its mongrel multitudes
of which I am one: so yes, each day, I wrote something in the mode of Emerson
or Thoreau in their million-word journals. I wrote, I wrote, I wrote I always wrote
something.
As Ralph Waldo Emerson early mandated to himself in some circular tautology
of prolific infinitude: “The way to become a writer is to write.” Or, as the late-great
Hawaiian poet and activist Wayne Kaumuali’i Westlake once celebrated in a Waikiki
poem, written in one of his uncanny haiku from anonymous enclaves of literary
Hawai’i when the 1970s seemed to be drifting into tourist oblivion and US imperial
sublation,
Must be going crazy
my favorite poet lately
has been me! (Westlake 2009, 198)6
References
Deleuze, Gilles. 1977. Dialogues [with Claire Parnet]. Translated by Tomlinson, Hugh. New York:
Columbia University Press, 36–37
Lyons, Paul, 2005. American Pacificism: Oceania in the U. S. imagination. New York and London:
Routledge
Napier, A. Kam. 2008. Remembering Ian Macmillan. Honolulu Magazine 31 December 2008
Schultz, Susan M. 2013. Jack London is dead: Contemporary Euro-American poetry of Hawai’I
(and some stories). Kaneohe, Hawai’i: Tinfish Press
Westlake, Wayne. 2009. Westlake: Poems by Wayne Kaumualii Westlake (1947–1984), eds. Mei-Li
M. Siy and Richard Hamasaki. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press
Wilson, Rob. 2001a. Reimagining the American Pacific: From ‘South Pacific” to bamboo ridge and
beyond. Durham, NC: Duke University Press
Wilson, Rob. 2001b. Postcolonial pacific poetries: Becoming oceania. In From Spider bone diaries:
Poems and songs, ed. Richard Hamasaki. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press
Wilson, Rob. 2008. Milton Murayama’s working-class diaspora across the Japanese/Hawaiian
Pacific. Postcolonial Studies 11 (4): 475–479
6 Wayne Westlake, Westlake: Poems by Wayne Kaumualii Westlake (1947–1984) (Honolulu: Univer-
sity of Hawai’i Press, 2009), 198. For a fuller poetics of place-aking in Oceania, see Rob Wilson
elaborating a range of poetries including Richard Hamasaki’s transpacific poetics of place-making
in Hawai’i in Spider Bone Diaries: Poems and Songs (2001), in “Postcolonial Pacific Poetries:
Becoming Oceania,” The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Poetries, ed. Jahan Ramazani
(Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge Press, 2017) 58-71.
Wilson, Rob. 2017. Postcolonial pacific poetries: Becoming oceania. In The Cambridge companion
to postcolonial poetries, ed. Jahan Ramazani. Cambridge, England: University of Cambridge
Press
Wilson, Rob Sean. 2021. When the Nikita moon rose [Ni ji ta yue shengqi shi: wei lei bo shiji 妮
基塔⽉升起時: 威雷伯詩集]. Translated by Wang, Zhiming 王智明, Li, Yunzi 黎韵孜, Zhang,
Jinzhong 張錦忠, Zhou, Xuhua 周序樺 and Zhang, Yiping 張依蘋. Taiwan: National Sun Yaetsen
Press 國⽴中山⼤學出版社
Wood, Houston. 2003. Cultural studies in Oceania. The Contemporary Pacific 15,2 (Fall): 340
Toward a Unified Field: Lore
and the Complications of Global Context
Stephanie Vanderslice
Abstract This chapter argues for a more nuanced view of lore in creative writing
studies, interrogating the often dualistic ways in which scholars have depicted lore in
the scholarship. The author re-defines lore, including her own past understanding of
the term, and asks that scholars re-consider the ways in which lore has been depicted
in a local context. Finally, she calls for the a more unified, global examination of
the issue in order to understand the ways in which it at times supports and at times
destabilizes the international progress of creative writing as a field.
In both the first and second editions of Can Creative Writing Really Be Taught:
Resisting Lore in Creative Writing Pedagogy, the editors and I located the definition
(Vanderslice and Manery 2017) of lore in Stephen North’s landmark (North 2011a,
b) book The Making of Knowledge in Composition, which classifies lore as one of the
eight kinds of knowledge in composition, that is: “the accumulated body of traditions,
practices, and beliefs in terms of which Practitioners understand how writing is done,
learned, and taught” (1987, 22). Lore also includes the myths about the teaching,
learning, and practicing of creative writing today. But should it? Certainly lore can
sometimes perpetuate myths about the activity of creative writing. It doesn’t always,
however.
I may be as or more guilty of conflating lore and myth in the last decade, but
I want to advocate, from here forward, that we separate the two terms. To do that
we need to be clear on their definitions. Let’s start with myth. The Oxford English
Dictionary definition of myth that is most salient to this discussion is no. 2a.:
A widespread but untrue or erroneous story or belief; a widely held misconception; a misrep-
resentation of the truth. Also: something existing only in myth; a fictitious or imaginary
person or thing.
It’s fairly straightforward to enlarge this definition to make it salient to creative

writing pedagogy. A creative writing myth, then, can be characterized as an untrue
S. Vanderslice (B)
College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, USA
e-mail: stephv@uca.edu
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0931-5_14
168 S. Vanderslice
or erroneous story or belief about the process of creative writing, a misconcep-

tion or misrepresentation of the way creative writing is practiced or accomplished,
often in a way that inhibits the teaching or learning of the subject. Some of these
myths emerge from writers themselves—as Wendy Bishop notes in Released into
Language: Options for Teaching Creative Writing, writers can be notoriously in
accurate in self-reports about their practice (1998).
One can see why, according to this definition, the perpetuation of creative writing
myths in the teaching and study of creative writing is problematic. Sometimes unre-
flective or unconsidered teaching lore, aided by the damaging cultural myths that
surround creative writers and creative writing, does perpetuate erroneous beliefs
about the subject. Other forms of teaching lore, however, have utility, especially
since they are often based on practitioner-led inquiry and experience.
Let’s compare North’s definition, again, the: “accumulated body of traditions,
practices, and beliefs in terms of which Practitioners understand how writing is done,
learned, and taught” with the traditional definition below yields some interesting
results. From the OED:
5a. That which is learned; learning, scholarship, erudition. Also, in recent use, applied to
the body of traditional fact, anecdotes, or beliefs relating to some particular subject, (e.g.as
animal lore or plant lore)
So the traditional definition posits lore as something that is learned, but, like North,
references it as a “body of tradition[al]” knowledge about a subject, knowledge that
can be factual but can also be misleading or untested, depending on what it is and
how it is used. This is, I believe, the most salient definition of lore for creative writing
pedagogy:
A body of traditional knowledge about a subject, knowledge that can be factual, especially
if it is supported by research, but that can also be misleading or untested, depending on how
it is interrogated and used.
In our enthusiasm at locating a problematic characteristic of creative writing

teaching in composition scholarship twenty years ago, its dependence on lore, I now
think Kelly Ritter and I may have been a bit hasty and dualistic in our approach,
relying solely on North’s definition without considering its context, especially in
light of the fact that by the time we were making connections between North’s lore
and lore in creative writing, in the early 2000s, the book in which it appeared had been
published for twelve years, and such context was already available. In this chapter, I
want to unpack some of that context and complicate the subject, reconsidering lore
and creative writing pedagogy almost twenty years from the time when Dr. Ritter
and I first began examining it and broadening its implications.1
In part, this reconsideration stems from the transparency North himself shows
in several essays in The Changing of Knowledge in Composition: Contemporary
Perspectives edited by Lance Massey and Richard E. Gebhardt and published in
1 For another perspective on lore and creative writing pedagogy see “Reforming Creative Writing
Pedagogy: History as Knowledge, Knowledge as Activism,” http://www.altx.com/ebr/riposte/rip2/
rip2ped/amato.htm.
Toward a Unified Field: Lore and the Complications of Global Context 169
2011. In fact, his introduction, “Notes on the Origins of The Making of Knowledge
in Composition” (MKC), North candidly describes the emergence of the book as
partly due to tenure pressure and department politics—he knew he needed a book
for tenure and had been told by his chair that a book about writing centers, where he
had been working for much of his early career, would not be accepted by the powers
that be. He’d have to pursue another line of research.2 So it was out of necessity
that he began thinking about the nascent field of composition knowledge as a whole,
eventually producing a book that would shape knowledge in the discipline as much
as evaluate it, although in an essay describing its significance in the same volume,
Ed White acknowledges that with its publication (White 2011), North “paid a price
for his originality and critical perspective on the field” (21).
Indeed, practitioner lore emerged early on as perhaps the most problematic
concept in MKC, something that would be debated on and off for the next ten years,
before the idea of lore in creative pedagogy was even a twinkle in our eyes,3 and as
Richard Fulkerson writes in “The Epistemic Paradoxes of Lore,” defining the term
and its boundaries remains a sticking point:
One of the most basic problems about lore is that it is often impossible to
distinguish among potential meanings of the term:
1. Lore as knowledge
2. Lore as a hypothesis to be considered as inclusion in the field’s body of knowledge
3. Lore as a way of making knowledge
(Fulkerson 2011, 48)
Or, putting it another way, Fulkerson cites North’s portrayal of lore as “conclusion,
possibility, or method” all at once (48). Lore as conclusion might include what he
denotes as public “lorisms” like “not using red ink” or the idea that “teaching formal
grammar improves prose” (48)—conclusions that have sometimes been misinter-
preted in the field. It is “public lorisms” like these that can lead scholars to conflate lore
with myth: sometimes they are frustratingly overapplied or inaccurate. Indeed, along
these lines, some scholars, including David Bartholomae, saw North’s portrayal of
lore as “imperialist and condescending” (Fulkerson: 49). Bruce Horner also pointed
out that in MKC, “the knowledge constituting lore doesn’t stand up to the usual
criteria for achieving status… in the end, lore doesn’t cut it” (qtd. in Fulkerson:
49). Others, at the same time, praised North’s recognition of “the contributions of
practitioners to the making of knowledge” (49).
According to Fulkerson, such diametrically opposed readings “happen because
North’s treatment of lore in MKC is itself ambivalent” (50). It fails to recognize
that lore is itself, “like scholarship or experimentation, a method [emphasis mine] of
2 The ways in which lines of research are and are not supported in the academy and the work
that results—both renegade and mainstream—seems ripe for investigation itself. Joseph Moxley
published Creative Writing in America despite the fact that his department chair informed him it
would not count for tenure. In my own experience, it was a supportive chair, David Harvey, and a
location in independent writing department that allowed me to pursue creative writing pedagogy in
the early days, when it was not an established field.
3 Joe Amato and Kass Fleischer.
170 S. Vanderslice
proceeding, not the outcome, and that “any method can be ‘ill-used’.” Moreover, it is
worth noting, that this perspective on lore emerged at a time when “rigorous empir-
ical research” was privileged in order to counter what was perceived as “the field’s
reliance on guesswork and speculation” (59–60), a time when the pendulum was
swinging away from practitioner-led research and taking an experimental turn. Fulk-
erson points out that “non-quantitative [e.g., qualitative] research now dominates,”
with even journals like Research in the Teaching of English publishing significant
amounts of ethnography and case study (60). “If lore does not equal bad ethnog-
raphy/case study,” he posits, “then does it make sense to say that ethnography and
case study is lore done well?” (61).
What, you may be wondering at this point, does all this talk about lore in compo-
sition have to do with lore in creative writing studies? On the one hand we can view it
as a means to interrogate the dualistic ways scholars, myself included, have depicted
it in creative writing scholarship in the past several years, presenting lore almost
universally in the negative. Lore isn’t always an effective form of knowledge, but
it can be effective if it’s based on reflection and practitioner-led research. Likewise,
it isn’t always an ineffective form of knowledge, but it can be ineffective if it’s not
grounded in adequate research or if it perpetuates or overapplies the inaccuracies or
myths that continue to dog the teaching and learning of creative writing or writing
in general.
Another complication: lore and its influence can vary according to cultural context
and perception. According to Jen Webb, writing about Australia in Can Creative
Writing Really Be Taught? (the second edition), dependence on lore is less prob-
lematic in “Australian or UK creative writing courses, largely because government
initiatives and related institutional demands have propelled writing teachers into the
logic of the academy” (97). “Writing teachers in Australia,” she adds, are “at home
with the work of (Webb 2017) researching pedagogy, interrogating traditions and
truisms, producing analysis of process and developing arguments about research in
practice… it has been a long time since anyone wondered whether it is possible to
teach creative writing” (97).
At the same time, Webb also describes a terroir in Australia that can be ambivalent
when it comes to lore, such as the split system in AU universities whereby working
writers teach as “casual teachers, transmit[ting] enthusiasm and technical knowl-
edge, in which the tenured writing academics take on the responsibility, or perhaps
the burden, of satisfying their institution’s requirement for engagement, entrepreneur-
ship, research, and service, as well as teaching and pedagogy” (98). Although this
situation is certainly not unrecognized in the US and other countries, it is problem-
atic at best, as it allows the “casual” teacher to continue to reify lore even if it is
inaccurate.
In his review of Can Creative Writing Really Be Taught in the Australian journal
TEXT, Ross Gibson (Gibson 2018) also implies that lore is a uniquely American
problem—in spite of Webb’s examples otherwise—and to lament the book’s lack of
attendance to other national contexts on the subject. The latter is an excellent point—
creative writing scholars internationally do have a tendency to speak over one another
instead of engaging together directly on the subject—a situation I am hopeful this
book will begin the process of dismantling. Moreover, editors of scholarly collections
like myself, and others, need to be more intentional in seeking contributors.4 Graeme
Harper—through his international conference Great Writing, and in his own work as
well as personal conversations—also reminds us over and over that creative writing
theory and pedagogy varies in focus according to the national contexts from which it
emerged. Understanding these contexts is critical in creative writing scholarship. In
doing so, I encourage readers to try to understand these contexts by reading the work
of scholars describing them histories in TEXT, New Writing, and other important sites
(the works of Paul Dawson and Harper himself are good places to start, and so is
Janelle Adsit’s bibliography (Adsit 2019) [https://www.criticalcreativewriting.org/
creative-writing-studies.html]). However, instead of dismissing lore as an American
problem (Webb has admitted it’s not; countless headlines decrying even the existence
of creative writing in the UK university in British newspapers indicate the same),
it’s more important to come together in these explorations, seeking to uncover the
challenges we have in common and address them.
Certainly, when I made a study of the teaching of creative writing in the UK for
ten years, described (Vanderslice 2010) extensively in Rethinking Creative Writing,
I explained the conditions under which creative writing gained a foothold and grew
there, as well as how this trajectory meant that creative writing in the UK was in
some respects further along than the US.5 My research into the system in Australia
tells me a similar story.6 And yet in both cases, I also see ways that the systems are
not perfect, especially when it comes to the perpetuation of lore.
So back to North and our original posing of the problem of lore, which was
grounded in a very specific definition set out by a landmark book in composition
studies in the United States. Composition studies,7 writing studies, and their compli-
cated relationships to creative writing studies actually form the landscape that creative
writing studies emerged from in the United States. In fact, lacking the centralized
governmental structures that influence higher education in other Anglosphere coun-
tries, composition studies in the US is our Dearing Report, our Dawkins Reforms.
4 Here I will admit that I invited Jen Webb’s contribution because I knew her work and worked with
her in the Creative Writing Studies Organization. I should have sought other international scholars,
especially from Australia, to weigh in.
5 Largely based on the Dearing Report and analyses of its effect on higher education in the UK, as
well as several study tours of institutions in the UK.

6 Based on my study of Dawson and others and my limited knowledge of the effects of the Dawkins
Reforms. I have long believed a study tour of Australia is in order to balance my knowledge of the
UK system. Unfortunately, research funding in the US has dried up almost completely since my
2006 study tour. Let this footnote be a notice that I would welcome any opportunities to serve in a
visiting or speaking capacity at an Australian university, in order to study, in person, their vibrant
creative writing landscape.
7 In the US higher education system, which is four years instead of three, students must take a year
of “general education” courses to prepare for their majors. This includes a universal “composition”
course to prepare students for academic writing. Over the several decades, an entire discipline has
grown from theorizing the best ways to teach this subject: composition studies.
172 S. Vanderslice
Some scholars, such as Dawson, Andrew Cowan, and Claire Woods8 recognize this
and even suggest other scholars keep it in mind when interpreting American schol-
arship in the field. Others do not, continually infantalizing problems surfaced in the
US as “American” and invoking a lack of growth in the field at all that is deeply
inaccurate. TEXT, an Australian creative writing journal I have long admired, as I
enumerate below, is even guilty of this practice by highlighting a quote from, of all
things, a medieval-studies scholar in the US denigrating the state of creative writing
studies there, instead of looking to the people actually working in the field, people
whose work TEXT had actually referenced, reviewed, and published, like myself,
Tim Mayers, Dianne Donnelly, and many others. To wit, this erroneous comment
published on their web page in 2012:
Kurt compared TEXT with Creative Writing discipline publications in North
America:
There is never any research published … that I know of in the U.S., on creative writing
pedagogy. In fact, there is virtually no scholarly discussion of how creative writing might
be taught better; there is little critical thinking along the lines suggested by
[the] fruitful research which often appears in the pages of TEXT. North America has no
“creative writing studies” …9 (Heinzelmen qtd. in Brophy and Krauth 2012)
One wonders why this quote was selected when the editors must have known
otherwise and when the quote so obviously misrepresents the field. In fact, I wish
they had asked me to speak to the value of TEXT, instead, a journal I have been
reading and recommending to creative writing scholars for years, as have many of
my colleagues, instead of a literature scholar in the US who had somehow, as late as
2012, leapfrog several important books and special issues of the flagship US journal
College English on creative writing (edited by myself, Kelly Ritter and others) in his
characterization.
Why, indeed. The problem, I think, is that TEXT itself was guilty of something
US scholars have often been accused: looking at only a slice of the story rather than
considering the wider picture, a practice it’s easy to fall victim to, as I’ll describe later.
To offer a capsule history of creative writing in the US that will bring us to 2012 and
beyond, creative writing in US higher education started with the first course offerings
in 1896 at the University of Iowa and developed slowly over the next forty years into
the Iowa Writer’s Workshop formed in 1936 and initially led by Wilbur Schram. It
was not until poet and entrepreneurial academic Paul Engle took over the workshop
in 1941 however, that the program kicked into high gear. After World War II, with
8 From Woods, “Literacies in transition: Students and the journey in the discipline of writing” in
“While Australian academics have positioned writing in higher education primarily by asserting
the value and place of creative writing and, to a lesser extent, business and professional writing, the
US context has been driven, on the one hand, through composition, rhetoric and research in written
communication (with ongoing debate about how these fit alongside English, literature, or cultural
studies) and, on the other, through creative writing courses taught often within fine arts programs
[3]. It behooves us to be aware of such debates …”.
9 The author goes on to say that there were no creative writing studies journals at this point in the
US. This is true. Special issues of major journals aside, the first issue of Journal of Creative Writing
Studies in the US appeared in 2016.
the help of the GI Bill, the program grew from twelve to over one hundred students,
many of whom became major figures in American and some of whom then scattered
like seeds to develop programs elsewhere, all following the Iowa Workshop Model.
By 1967, when the Association of Writing Programs formed, there were thirteen
programs. By the 1990s there were hundreds.
Truthfully, conversations about creative writing theory and practice in higher
education, did lie fallow, for far too long, for many decades, in fact, as US writers in
academia relished the sense of community they had found there more than anything
else10 and considered that community to be enough. It wasn’t until Joseph Moxley
published Creative Writing in America in 1989 and then Wendy Bishop, Hans
Ostrum, and Katherine Haake began to investigate the subject in a deep and scholarly
way that creative writing research began to appear and then gain momentum. In much
the same way Iowa sowed the soil to grow creative writing programs across the US,
these early scholars, many of whom who were writers who had also crossed over
from composition studies, piqued the scholarly interests (passions, in my opinion)
of a long list of scholars who began to interrogate the theory and pedagogy they had
been instructed to take as gospel. These scholars included Patrick Bizzaro, Mary Ann
Cain, Dianne Donnelly, Timothy Mayers, Kelly Ritter, and myself, all of whom had
produced important work, books and articles, by 2012. Just five years later, creative
writing studies had expanded to include a third wave, many of whom can be found in
the significantly expanded second volume of Can Creative Writing Really Be Taught,
an expansion that was the only way to do justice to a momentum that had begun in the
‘90s, exploded in the aughts, and had expanded exponentially into dozens of scholars
in the teens who led the charge to found the Creative Writing Studies Organization
and Conference and the Journal of Creative Writing Studies.
Like the editors of TEXT, I have been guilty of looking at only part of the picture
and want to use this chapter, in a book I hope will contribute mightily to establishing
a foundation for an international portrait of the field, to make a call for looking at
the whole, for training our eyes on global creative writing and its contexts rather
than using one piece of the puzzle to cast doubt on the others or make our own
landscape look better. Examining the broader picture involves setting aside our own
assumptions, especially those that support our own theories. To borrow from a busi-
ness perspective: “The moment you know something with certainty, you become a
liability,” as career coach Tarah Keech writes in an online career journal, “certainty, of
anything, is built on assumptions—and assumptions are risks” (2019) (Fairygodboss
n.d.).
To provide a personal example and bring the discussion back around to lore:
Kelly Ritter and I were off to the races once we found a kernel of theory, a definition
that highlighted issues we were having with our own discipline, without looking
at the larger context and consequences of that research. It fit our worldview at the
time (2001) that creative writing theory and pedagogy were moving too slowly,
10Many scholars with many points of view have described the history of creative writing in America.
For a more detailed version of my perspective, see Rethinking Creative Writing (Suffolk: Frontinus
Publishing, 2011).
174 S. Vanderslice
a worldview that was entirely valid but supported by a definition that had been
somewhat cherry-picked to suit our purposes. I re-introduce North, his definition of
lore and fields of knowledge in composition and the work of subsequent scholars
examining it, to point out that studying lore and its context just in the US alone
reveals the subject to be deeply complex, much more complex than Kelly Ritter and
I first thought. It is precisely because of this complexity that lore demands further
study—in the US and abroad, in Anglosphere countries and others, as creative writing
continues to spread to higher education internationally. It is not simply an American
problem, although it can be a problem here, to be sure, but one that challenges all
of us. Misused, lore remains one of the most significant threats to the learning and
practice of the literary arts in higher education simply because it traffics in what
really amounts to the “fake news” of the field. Continued attention to the use and
misuse of this form of knowledge can help us ensure that practitioner knowledge is
honored when it works and promptly discarded when it doesn’t.
Ultimately, to dismiss lore as an American problem contributes to a kind of
othering that does a great disservice to our field, mimicking the kind of name-calling
and polarization that is happening politically around the world. It does not have to
be this way. It is past time for the countries in places in which creative writing is
studied and where its study is on the rise—too many countries to list now—to come
together and honor the paths each has taken to this place, to present creative writing
studies as a unified field.
Describing composition studies in 2011 (Smit 2011), scholar Gregory Smit wrote,
“After 45 years [as an academic field] composition studies is still arguing fundamental
principles” (25). He argues, “without a common vision of what it means to do research
in composition studies or a common vision of writing is, how writing is learned,
and how writing ought to be taught, the term ‘professional’ [emphasis mine] in
composition studies becomes almost meaningless” (228).
Creative writing studies does not have to reinvent the wheel. We can learn from
composition studies’ struggles and bring, as North himself hoped would happen
in his own field, “practitioners, scholars, and researchers,” and I must add, creative
writers outside academia, together, “to become familiar with and to value each other’s
methods and knowledge” in order to achieve a unity that will enhance our position,
globally. Moving forward from this unified position behooves us not least of all
because, in whatever forms they take in the coming years, reifying lore or finally
leaving it behind, the literary arts will proceed with or without us. What this unity
will ultimately look like, I cannot prescribe or predict, but it begins by approaching
our colleagues across borders not with assumptions but with questions, with curiosity,
and with respect.11 It begins with this book, but it will only continue with many more
like it.
11 I have also argued for a more collaborative spirit in creative writing than is evident in other
disciplines and what that might look like in moving forward here: Vanderslice, Stephanie, “‘There’s
An Essay In That’: Wendy Bishop and the Origins of Our Field.” Journal of Creative Writing
Studies, no. 1 (2016): Article 2. Available at: https://scholarworks.rit.edu/jcws/vol1/iss1/2.
References
Adsit, J. 2019. Critical creative writing. London: Bloomsbury

Brophy, K., and N. Krauth. 2012. Without TEXT, the practice, research, and pedagogy of creative
writing at the university level would be in Dire Straits. Journal of Writing and Writing Courses
16: 2. http://www.textjournal.com.au/oct12/editorial.htm
Fairygodboss. n.d. The four career lessons most women learn too late, According to
a Career Coach. https://fairygodboss.com/articles/the-4-career-lessons-most-women-learn-too-
late-according-to-an-executive-coach. Accessed 17 Sep 2019
Fulkerson, R. 2011. The epistemic paradoxes of lore. In The changing of knowledge in composi-
tion: Contemporary perspectives, ed. R.C. Gebhardt and L. Massey, 47–62. Logan: Utah State
University Press
Gibson, R. 2018. Unloreful. Journal of Writing and Writing Courses 23: 1. http://www.textjournal.
com.au/april18/gibson_rev.htm
Moxley, J. 1989. Creative writing in America: Theory and pedagogy. Urbana, IL: National Council
of Teachers of English
North, S. 1987. The making of knowledge in composition: Portrait of an emerging field. Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann Boynton/Cook
North, S. 2011a. Afterword. In The changing of knowledge in composition: Contemporary
perspectives, ed. R.C. Gebhardt and L. Massey, 323–325. Logan: Utah State University Press
North, S. 2011b. Notes on the origins of the making of knowledge in composition. In The changing
of knowledge in composition: Contemporary perspectives, ed. R.C. Gebhardt and L. Massey,
11–16. Logan: Utah State University Press
Oxford English Dictionary. https://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=1&sid=febc7b8d-
073c-48c0-bf50-7e11b81e8511%40sessionmgr4006&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmUmc
2NvcGU9c2l0ZQ%3d%3d#AN=uca.50959346&db=cat04436a
Smit, D. 2011. Stephen North’s the making of knowledge in composition and the future of compo-
sition studies’ without paradigm hope. In The changing of knowledge in composition: Contem-
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Press
Vanderslice, S. 2010. Rethinking creative writing. London: Frontinus
Vanderslice, S., and R. Manery. 2017. Can creative writing really be taught: Resisting lore in
creative writing pedagogy, 10th Anniversary edition. London: Bloomsbury
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writing really be taught: Resisting lore in creative writing pedagogy, 10th Anniversary edition.
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Gebhardt and L. Massey, 17–27. Logan: Utah State University Press

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Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling

Chinese Creative Writing

ISBN 978-981-99-0930-8 ISBN 978-981-99-0931-5 (eBook)

Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling

Chapter “Resources for Creativity from Chinese Classical Culture: A Discussion

Creative Writing Theories and Research in Chinese Context

Teaching Creative Writing in the mainland, Taiwan and Hong Kong

Creative Writing and Cross-Media Practices from the Sinophone Perspective

A Preliminary Study of Transmedia Storytelling: The Case Study

Creative Writing and New Interpretations of Chinese Classical Culture

Implications of Global Contexts for Creative Writing

Abstract “The studies of Therapeutic Writing” is an approach to treat writing and

Keywords Therapeutic writing · Creative writing · Fictional narration ·

is completely ineffable. In this sense, Zhuangzi only endorsed a kind of “negative

2 Constructing “No Self” or Rediscovering “True Self”?

3 Catharsis and Reconstruction: Writing as Therapy

Liu Wei-Dong and Zhang Yong-Lu

Keywords Creative writing · New liberal arts · General education · Writer

and referenced from China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), conferences

1 Active Construction of Chinese Creative Writing

1.1 Creative Writing Studies in the New Liberal Arts

ontological level, and creative writing is considered a creative practice of embodying

1.2 New Consensus Highlighted by Creative Writing

1.3 New Progress in Exploration of Branches of Creative

1.4 Creative Writing Thinking and Creativity Promoting

As research on the ontology of creative writing develops in greater depth, research

1.5 Research on Disciplinary History of Creative Writing

As basic theory development of creative writing is closely related to disciplinary

2 Telling the “Chinese Story” with Efforts in Creative

Corresponding to the research on basic theoretical issues of creative writing, educa-

2.1 Continuous Exploration on the Pedagogy

2.2 The “Sinicization” of Creative Writing’s Curriculum

2.3 A Preliminary Summary of Creative Writing Teaching

In early 2020, “2020: Creative Writing in China”, a large-scale promotion activity of

2.4 Telling Chinese Stories of Creative Writing to the World

3 Exploring “New Scope” for Creative Writing Research

3.1 An Increasing Number of Research on Creative Writing

Corresponding to China’s rapid development of cultural industry, the research on

3.2 Gradual Clarification of the Relationship Between

Cultural industry establishes a vital context for the contemporary development of

3.3 Creative Writing in the Era of Digital Technology

3.4 A New Upsurge of Research on Creative Writing

4 The Further Exploration, Problems, and Expectations

The research on basic theories of Chinese creative writing is steadily advancing

4.1 The Research on Creative Writing Continues to Deepen

4.2 Bottlenecks with Urgent Signals in Chinese Creative

4.3 Continuous Development of the New Consensus

In the process of sinicization of creative writing, the internationalisation of creative

Liu, Sai 劉賽. 2020b. “創意”能⼒提升與城市⽂化品格塑造——南京“⽂學之都”建設問題研

Rebecca Leung Mo-Ling

Keywords Radio drama · Audiobook · Hong Kong Metropolitan University ·

1 Introduction: The Development of Radio Drama

M. L. Rebecca Leung (B)

2 Development of Radio Drama and Audiobook Creation

With the increasing competition in the traditional publishing industry, readership

FM have soundly outstripped traditional broadcasting that focuses on everyday infor-

Likes to Listen to Lies” 鍾意聽⼈講⼤話的公主, “The Silent Princess” 唔講話的

3 The Course “Radio Drama Creation” in the Curriculum

Based on the above-mentioned development trends of radio dramas and performance,

Examples of Commercial Radio Hong Kong’s ⾹港商業電台 Radio Drama.

Keywords Creative writing · Writing courses in higher education · Pedagogy

The 25th Taipei International Book Exhibition (25屆臺北國際書展) took place on

2 Old Warriors Never Die: The Prominence of Creative

3 The Seeds Sown by the IWP