Locke Science Publishing Company, Inc.

"FENG SHUI" AND ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY: A CRITICAL COMPARISON

Author(s): Marino Bonaiuto, Elena Bilotta and Angela Stolfa
Source: Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Spring, 2010), pp. 23-34
Published by: Locke Science Publishing Company, Inc.
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 Journal
ofArchitectural
andPlanning
Research
27:1(Spring
2010) 23

FENG SHUI AND ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY:

A CRITICAL COMPARISON

Marino Bonaiuto
Elena Bilotta
Angela Stolfa

Fengshuiis a philosophyofsettingandplacingbuildingsand elementsin an environment. It aimsto

realizephysicalenvironments thatencouragewell-beingthroughthe utilizationofflowingenergy.
Environmental disciplinethatstudieshow to designenvironments
psychologyis a scientific thatcan
meettheneedsof theiroccupantsandfacilitatetheiractivitiesin ordertopromotetheirwell-being.
Although fengshuiis verypopularand is usedaroundtheworld,itseffects havenotbeenscientifically
evaluated.Objectiveand systematic offengshuionpeoples
methodsare stillneededto testtheeffects
well-being.Thispaper startswithan overviewof the basic principlesand schools of thoughtof
environmental psychologyand fengshui and thenfocuses on the comparisonbetweenthesetwo
,
disciplines withparticularreferencesto two aspects of psychologicalimpactsof the physical
environment: and control.
restorativeness

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 Journal
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2010) 24

INTRODUCTION

In thelastfewyears,architectural byfengshuiideashas increasedall overtheworld.For

designinspired
example, (e.g.,INGBankinAmsterdam),
offices hotels(e.g.,HotelBeaconinMiamiBeach),restaurants
(e.g.,
FengShuiInninLondon),andevenamusement parks(e.g.,DisneylandinHongKong)havebeendevel-
oped,inpart,following derivedfrom
guidelines fengshui.

Fengshuidiscipline is basedona particular visionofnatureandenergy. One ofitsfundamentalprinciples

is thebeliefin theexistenceof a constant energeticflowbetweenhumansandtheirenvironment thatis
responsible foran individual's
psychophysical wellness. the
Therefore, of
practice feng shuiaims to select
auspicioussitesand designconfigurations forhumansettlements (Rossbach,1983). The firstand most
important purposeoffengshuiis thecreation ofphysicalenvironments thatencouragewell-beingthrough
ofnatural
theutilization Thisoutcomeis similar
energies. towhatenvironmentalpsychology aimstoachieve
withitstraditionofscientificstudies:helpingtodesignenvironments thatpromote well-beingamongtheir
occupants. Environmental psychology as a fieldofstudyemergedduring thelate1960sandfocusedonthe
relationshipsanddynamics betweenhumanbehavior, andthesociophysical
well-being, environment.

First,thisarticlebriefly
summarizes ofenvironmental
thebasicprinciples psychologyandfengshui.Sec-
ondly, we makea criticalcomparisonbetweenenvironmental
psychologyresearchandtheory andfengshui
constructs,focusingon two mainconcepts:restorativenessand control.These two aspectshave been
selectedas tworelevantfeaturesbybothenvironmental psychologyandfengshui,although each disci-
plinerefers to different
constructs
and methods in restorativeness
approaching and control.
This allowsa
critical
comparison amongdifferent
disciplines
approachingthesameissue.

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Environmentalpsychology betweenpeopleandthesociophysical
studiestherelationship features
ofthe
naturalandbuiltenvironments.
Itsprincipalaimsareto enhancehumanwell-being andimprove people-
environment (BonnesandCarrus,2004). Environmental
relations psychologyis thebranchofpsychology
concerned withproviding
a systematicexplanation oftherelationship
betweenpeopleandtheirenviron-
ment(RussellandSnodgrass,1987).It attemptsto achievetheseobjectivesthrough and
research,
theory,
thedesignofmorehuman-focused
practiceaimedat supporting buildingsandimproving therelationship
between peopleandnatural
andbuiltenvironments (Gifford,
2002).

Environmental psychology emergedas an autonomous fieldofstudywithinpsychological scienceduring

thelate1960sandearly1970s.Variousfactors fromthepsychological
originating research fieldplayedan
importantrole in theemergence and development of thediscipline.Because of theinfluence of these
different
factors,environmental psychology canbe characterized byfourdistinctiveaspects(Bonnesand
Carrus,2004):
(1) theattention paid to thephysicalcharacteristics of theenvironment wherehumanbehavior
occurs,
(2) thelargevariety ofresearch methods adopted,
(3) theattentionto sociallyrelevant
problems, and
(4) theinterdisciplinary
collaboration
practiceswithotherenvironmental fieldsthataredevotedtothe
designandmanagement ofeverydaylifeenvironments.

After theimportant madebyLewinin1951(e.g.,Bonnes,

point etal.,2003)tostresstheimportance oftheinterplay
between processes
psychological andthesociophysical environment,thesystematic studyofpeople'sinterac-
tionswiththeir surroundings
sociophysical from a psychologicalpointofviewbeganwithBarker's researchon
behavior in1968,thestudies
setting onterritoriality
andpersonal spacebyHallin1966andSommer in1969,and
ofenvironmental
thearticulation psychologyprinciplesmadebyIttelson,etal.,in1974.During thoseyears,
many
empirical studies
wereconducted ontopicssuchas crowding,personal environmental
space,territoriality, cogni-
tion,andenvironmentalstress.
Newbooks(e.g.,Canter, 1970;Ittelson,
1960)andjournals (e.g.,Environment and
BehaviorandJournal ofEnvironmental Psychology on environmental
) focusing psychology werepublished.

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 ofArchitectural
Journal Research
andPlanning
27:1(Spring
2010) 25

New research andprofessional

associations wereestablished
organizations [e.g.,theEnvironmental Design
ResearchAssociation(EDRA), theEnvironmental
Psychology sectionwithin
theInternational
Associationof
AppliedPsychology(IAAP),andtheInternational ofPeople-Environment
Association (IAPS)]. Doctoral
Studies
training
programs werealsoorganized, ofwhichwasattheCityUniversity
thefirst ofNewYork.

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH TOPICS

Thedynamic ofthevariety andexternal

ofinternal factors(BonnesandSecchiaroli, 1992)contributing tothe
of
emergence psychology's interest
specific in the sociophysical environment can be seen bycomparing
theempiricalstudiescarriedoutby environmental psychologists in varioussociocultural contexts,since
eachcontext was affected byinternal
differently and/or external factors.Forexample,a number ofstudies
aboutenvironments forspecialpopulations(e.g.,thepsychiatric hospitalsinIttelson,1960)weretriggered
by externaldemands, such as designersconsulting with social scientists.Studiesabout place attachment
,
(e.g. 1
Fried, 963),although by
triggered real-life
problems such as urban were
relocation, inspired bygeneral
psychological theories andprocesses(e.g.,theattachment theory forplace-attachment issues)appliedto
environmental issues.Theseinternal andexternal influences arealso clearconsidering themultiple para-
digms and methods used in environmentalpsychology's areasof inquiry.

Environmentalpsychologyresearchtopicscan be groupedintofivegeneraldomains:spatialbehavior,
environmental environmental
cognition, environmental
stressand restoration, and environ-
assessment,
mentalconcernandresourcemanagement (Bonnes andCarrus,2004).

Environmental psychology's inspatialbehaviorfocusesontheroleplayedbythespatialproperties

interest
oftheenvironment in shapingandregulating in everyday
socialinteractions In particular,
situations. the
researchis focusedon theanalysisof fourmajorpsychological personalspace,
concepts:territoriality,
andcrowding
privacy, (Sommer, 2004).

Environmentalpsychology research on environmental andspatialcognitionis focusedon theanalysisof

cognitivemapping,which can be definedas the of
process mentally acquiring, and
storing,
representing,
usinginformationaboutthespatialproperties of one's physicalsurroundings be-
and therelationships
elements
tweenitsconstitutive (Golledge,2004).People'sorientation,memory ofplaces,andwayfinding in
complex environmentsareall based oncognitive-mapping and
processes arethemain research in
topics this
areaofinquiry.

Environmental stressis relatedto actualorperceivedadverseproperties ofthephysicalenvironment that

can producebothpsychological andphysiological negativeeffectson people(Evans and Cohen,2004).
The researchinthisareais centered on theeffects ofenvironmental stresson psychophysical
well-being
andindividuals'strategies to cope withenvironmental suchas crowding,
stressors, etc.
noise,pollution,
Butenvironments can haverestorative functions,too:theycan promote psychophysicalwell-being.Re-
environments
storative arethosethatpromote - thatis,allowingpeopleto recoverphysical,
restoration
psychological,and social resources thathave been by copingand adaptingefforts
threatened (Hartig,
2004). The researchin thisareacan have important forarchitectural
implications design,especiallyfor
architecture
pertainingtohealth-care facilities.

Environmental psychology's traditionof researchon environmental assessment and appraisal(thefirst

beingmoreplace-centered, andthesecondmoreperson-centered) is focusedon(1) people'sevaluationand
judgment ofdifferent kindsofenvironments, (2) thephysical
propertiesofanenvironment to
thatarerelated
or
positive negativeevaluations, (3) the and
personal group differencesleadingto environmental
different
evaluations, and (4) theinteractions betweencognitiveand affective judgmentsin theevaluationof a
specificscene,withparticular focuson thelastthree(Bonaiuto,2004). One ofthemainconceptualand
practicaldisputesinthisareaofstudyis theuser'sevaluation validityandreliability. subjective
Integrating
and objectivedatarepresents an effortmadeto reducetheexistinggap betweendifferent typologiesof
evaluation(e.g.,expertvs. userevaluationsand Environmental
Technical Assessment (TEA) vs. Observer
BasedEnvironmental Assessment (OBEA) inBonnesandBonaiuto,1995).

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 Journal
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Environmentalconcernandresourcemanagement areasofstudyarerelatedto thegeneralbeliefthatthe

qualityoftheenvironmenthas rapidlydecreasedinthelastdecades.Thisphenomenon is relatedtothose
humanactivitiesthatcan cause relevantand irreversible local and global changes.Environmental
psychology'stradition
ofstudieson thistopicis focusedon thepsychologicalfactorsthatareat thebase
ofconservationandpreservationbehaviors(pro-environmental attitudesandbehaviors).

someconstructs
Obviously, andprocessesarerelevant acrossseveralofthesefivemaindomains.Some
examplesare thedegree of control
an individual
or a grouphas on his/her/its environment,
surrounding
processesinvolvedinthedevelopment
psychological ofplace attachment,
andplace identity.

ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY EMPIRICAL METHODS

As notedabove,environmental psychology is characterized

bya multidisciplinarynatureandapproach.
Thisalso meansthatitsempirical methodsareinfluenced bymultiple scientific
paradigms andmethods -
eachemphasizing a particular
facetoftheperson-environment (Stokols,1995).Environmental
relationships
psychology usesa widevariety ofmethods andapproaches tocarryoutresearch studies.Someofthemare
quitestandard social-science
methods such as naturalistic
observation anddescription, interviews,
rating
scales,and laboratory and someare materials
experiments, suchas videotaping or virtualreality.
Other
methods, including someofthoseusedto studypersonalspace,cognitive maps,andmovement through
buildings,arespecifictoenvironmental
psychology (Gifford,
2002).
Due totheconcernaboutexternal validity - thedegreetowhichresultsofa studyapplyincontexts that
are differentfromtheoneswheretheywereobtained- therehas beenan emphasisin environmental
psychology toconductfieldstudiesand/or fieldexperiments. Forthelatter,researchers
canclaimexternal
validitybecause the occurs
investigation in thesame settingwheretheresearchers wantto generalize
theirfindings,andtheycontrolforotherinfluences through randomassignment andotherfeatures ofthe
scientificmethod.Opportunities forfieldexperiments are quiterare,so environmental psychology re-
searchers oftenundertakefieldstudiesorsometimes laboratory experiments. Morerecently,
ononehand,
thewidespread ofinformation
application andcommunication technology (ICT) hasimproved thepossi-
bilityof gainingrelevantdata setsand resultswithinlaboratory settings usingICTs suchas sophisti-
catedsimulations ofreal-lifeenvironments, and situations
contexts, (e.g., immersivevirtualreality)or
allowinga massivedatagathering inrealtimewhilepeopleinteract withtheirusualeveryday-life environ-
ments(e.g., GPS andGIS technologies inThalenandShah,2007). On theotherhand,inthelastdecadethe
growingbodyofneuroscience knowledge, methods, andtechniques[e.g.,magneticresonanceimaging
(MRI)] appliedto human-environment interactionshas allowedresearchers to understand
neuralpro-
cesses accompanying psychologicaland behavioralprocessesmeasuredvia traditional environmental
psychology methods (Stamps,2005).
methodsareusuallydominant,
Quantitative withqualitative
approachesbeingusedeitheras preliminary
methods
investigation beforeusingquantitative
techniquesoras theelectivemethodforcertain issues.For
the of
example, development perceivedenvironmental-quality indicatorshas usuallybeenapproached by
integrating
preliminary qualitative withsubsequent
interviews questionnaireswithin thesamestudy. Other
topicssuchas placeattachment andenvironmental discoursehavefirstbeenapproached mostlyvia quali-
tativestudies,especiallyatthebeginningoftheirappearancein environmental thenlatervia
psychology,
studies.
quantitative Quantitativestudies
employ statistical
analysis to draw results.
significant

FENG SHUI

Theterm fengshuiis thetranscriptionoftwoChineseideograms towind(feng)andwater

corresponding
(shui),and itis so named"because itis a like
thing wind, whichyou cannotcomprehend, andlikewater,
whichyoucannotgrasp"(EitelandMicheli,1873/1 984:2).Windandwaterareconsideredtobe morethan
naturalforces:theyareprimemoversofchi,the"universal andpositiveenergy"thatoverwhelmsevery
formofanimate andinanimate
life(Emmons, 1992;Qiao,2001).

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 Journal
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2010) 27

The choiceof wind(corresponding to energyand movement) and water(calm and repose)reflects

the
ofyinandyang,twooppositeentities
dualisticprinciple thatattract
eachotherandcompletethemselves.
Fromthispointofview,spaceis also considered
tobe theresultofthesetwooppositeenergiesthatdefine
itsenergetic Whenever
quality. thebalanceexistingbetween;;/«andyang(orfengandshui)is missed,the
discomfort.
resultis environmental This,in turn,affectspeoplewho live,work,or studyin thatplace
(Rossbach,1983).Moreover,thechoiceofthetermsfengandshuiderivesfrom thevisionofwindandwater
as forcesthatshapetheland.

Thefengshuidiscipline andspreadinChinaaround5000B.C., butonlyinthelastfewdecadeshas

started
italsobecomeknownandbeguntobe usedinNorth AmericaandEuropeas a technical
andmethodological
designsystemdeemedto contribute
topeople'squalityoflife.

Feng shui theoriespromotebuildingwithcompleterespectforearthand nature(Wong,1996). These

theories refer
principally totheenergetic
conditions
(focusingonthefluxofchienergy) ofthebuilding
area,
andtheycanbe appliedtoanykindofenvironment,
from a singleroomtoa wholebuilding,
a home,anoffice,
ora shop.

Fengshuiprinciplesarerecognizable insomeofthemainEasternbeliefssuchas Taoism,Buddhism, and

Tantric-Tibetan
philosophy. Thefirst constructions
fengs/zw/-inspired weresacredbuildings,
liketemples,
tombs,andimperialresidences (e.g.,the13tombsof 16 MingImperators nearBeijing).Fengshuiexperts
chooseeachsiteaccording to an analysisoftheastrological,
symbolic,andnumeric ofthe
characteristics
area.Duringthedesignprocess,mostoftheattention is paidto integrating
thebuildingwiththesurround-
ingenvironment.Oneofthemostrepresentative Chineseconstructions tothislastprinciple
builtaccording
istheGreatWallofChina.Itis considered a monumentalconstructionperfectly withtheenviron-
integrated
ment,sinceitfollowsthetopography ofthelandformandconfers graceandmajestytothemilieuwithout
theenvironment's
altering physiognomy (Boerschmann, 1912).

Fengshuihas alwaysbeena noninstitutional disciplinebothin theEasternandWesternworld.It can be

considereda philosophyunderlyingdifferent
approaches toperson-environment Itis difficult
relations. to
closelyexaminefengshui, sincemostof theoriginalmanualsweredestroyed by theChinesePopular
Republicin 1949 after offengshuiillegal.
theydeclaredthepractice
IntheWest,oneofthefirst written tofengshuicamefrom
contributions Reverend ErnestJ.Eitel(a Protestant
missionaryin a Chinesecolony),whoin 1873published a bookaboutthistopicentitled
FengShuior the
Rudiments ofNaturalSciencein China.Currently,somein theWesternworldseemveryinterested inthe
of
application feng shuitobuilding as
design, theexamplesreferred
tointheopeningofthis can
paper testify.
SomeWestern architects
usefengshuiforthespatialorganization
ofbuildings, offices,
especially andmany
follow
fengshuiprinciples indesigning
residential
environments
topromotewellnessandharmony.

FENG SHUI PRINCIPLES

Fengshuiis a system ofspeculations andbeliefswithnoscientific proof- so far- ofitsclaims,principles,

andtheories.Chifluxis oneofthemostimportant conceptsoffengshui.Thepositiveforceofchipermeates
everything and is theoppositeof sha chi, a negativeenergyproducingnegativeeffectson boththe
environment and people.Whilechi spreadsoutthrough softand curvilinearforms, sha chi circulates
through rectilinear
orinterruptedshapes- theso-called"secretarrows."Thesecretarrowscancomefrom
naturalelements as wellas builtones.Examplesofshapesthatcouldproducesha chiincludea hilloran
overhang tooclosetothebackorthefront ofa building;pointed,irregularobjects(e.g.,thebranchesofa
treeorlampposts)infront ofa building'sentrance; andtallbuildingsthatthrowshadowson otherbuild-
ings.A chiforcecanalsotransform itselfintosha chi,especiallywhenchimovements aretoofast,causing
an excessivemassofenergy. Straight lines,acuteangles,andpointedobjectsall causea bad circulation of
chi.Forexample,inanapartment, a longcorridor is notrecommended becauseitcouldcausea quickfluxof
chianda lackofpositiveenergy inthewholedomestic environment. Inthiscase,fengshuirecommends the
useofmirrors, whichcanreflect chiand,consequently, letitflowmoreslowly(Rossbach,1983).

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 Journal andPlanning
ofArchitectural Research
27:1(Spring
2010) 28

TABLE1. Author's ofthemeanings

synthesis infeng
ofthefiveelements shui.
Wood Fire Earth Metal Water
East South Center West North
Spring Summer LateSummer Fall Winter
Green Red Yellow White,
gray Black
Creation,
growth Power Agriculture Money Communication
forthe
Suggested for
Suggested forthe
Suggested for
Suggested Suitable
forevery
ofasylums
design thedesign
of design of
ofterraces thedesign kindof environment
andhospitals centers
political andbalconies commercialcenters

Infengshuitheories, therearemanysuggestions to reestablish

theenergetic balanceof an environment
(e.g.,houses,offices)andallowtheregular fluxofchi.Forexample,objectssuchas windbells,aquariums,
screens, plants,andcurtains
paintings, sha chiandtranslate
attract itintochi, thegoodandpositiveenergy.
Itis noteasytotranslateandtofullyunderstand theabove-mentioned conceptswithin a Westernepistemo-
logica!framework, since itis notclearwhat chiflux is orhowwe couldassess it.

Thedualisticnature
ofchiis expressedthrough jw andyang.Theseareopposite butatthesametime,
entities,
theycomplement each other.
Everyphysical andnatural
environmentis characterized
by each oftheseentities.
Therefore,theycanbe considered ofreality.
categories
generalinterpretative Forexample,yincorresponds to
itemssuchas water,
earth,night,wallswithout windowsordoors,andfloors, whileyangcorresponds toitems
suchas sky,day,wallswithwindowsordoors,andceilings(Hwangbo,2002).Inthislight, fengshuiaimsto
evaluatetheenergetic of a
quality specific the
placethrough analysis of the and
yin yang elements andthetest
oftheir all features
balance.Basically, ofourrealitycanbe categorizedintermsofyinoryang.

Fivebasicelementscontribute
tofengshui:wood,fire,earth,metal,andwater.Eachelement is involvedin
botha generative circlethatbringsthefiveelements
anda destructive together - eachone depending on
theother.Each elementcorrespondsto specificenvironments, cardinalpoints,seasons,etc.
activities,
Table1 summarizesthemeaningsandthedesignapplicationsofthefiveelements. Theaimoffengshuiisto
achievea balancebetweenthefiveelementsin a givenenvironment by addingthemissingelementor
thoseinexcess.
eliminating

Another systemofcategories usedinfengshuiis the"FourAnimals":BlackTurtle, Red Phoenix,Green

Dragon,andWhiteTiger.Theyareconsidered tobe celestialguardiansofa building, bothto
corresponding
cardinalpointsandenvironmental In
shapes. particular,theBlack Turtle to
(correspondingnorth) provides
protectionforthehome,represented,forexample,bya hillor,inanurbanenvironment, bya buildingtaller
thanthehouse.TheRedPhoenix(south)is represented bya panoramic viewinfront ofthehouse,suchas
a gardenorsquare.TheGreenDragon(east)corresponds toa tree,hedge,orfenceor,ina naturalenviron-
ment,toa wood. the
Finally, White Tiger(west)corresponds to a robust ora
object building lowerthanthe
house.In a designprocess,thefengshuiexpertchoosesthebestplacetobuildonthebasisofthepresence
oftheenvironment,
ofthesecharacteristics naturalorurban.

EMPIRICAL TESTS OF FENG SHUI NOTIONS

an environment
Infengshuidiscipline, is considered
healthy init.All theories
whenchiis freetocirculate
andschoolsofthought fengsTzwz
characterizing agreeon thefundamental consequencesofthechangeof
sha chi(negativeenergy)intochi(positiveenergy)andabouttheimportance ofa goodflowofchithrough
environmentalshapes,sinceitwould bringhealth,peace,andluck(Xu, 1998).

started
testsoffengshuiprinciples
Empirical thescientific
thisbasicpoint:todiscoverandunderstand
from
meaningofthechiconcept.Chihasbeenconsideredbyexpertsingeobiology, andmedi-
bioarchitecture,

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 Journal
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cineas theequivalent
of,forexample,natural waves,Hartmann's
electromagnetic orgeopathogenic
knots,
zones.Thesecomparisons havepermitted somescientific
examinationofchi,butmostofthetimetheyhave
provenproblematic.In fact,experts'evaluations
abouttheexistenceof thisenergyand itsinfluence
on
humanwell-being arediscordant.
Furthermore,thedebateonthissubjecthasoften
becomeill-informedand
seriouslyunbalanced(Hwangbo,2002).
A frequent correspondence thathas been proposedis theone betweenfengshui and geobiology, an
field
interdisciplinary ofscientific
research investigatinglifeinthe context
of system Earth, and
past present.
Geobiologicalresearchdomainsareenvironmental problems ofglobalscale,historic-geological
issues,and
extraterrestrial
worlds(Noffke, 2005).Thehomogeneity oftheEarth'smagnetic fieldcanbe alteredby,for
example,underground running water,geologicalcrepes(faults),and reticular magneticfieldscalled
"Hartmann grids"(Ros, 1998). The Hartmann gridis made of meshes 2
measuringmeters (6.6 feet,north-
southoriented)by2.5 meters (8.2 feet,east-west oriented).Thepointwherethelinesintersect is knownas
the"Hartmann knot"or"geopathogenic zone"andis considered tobe bad forhumanhealth.Itseffectsare
worseifitcorresponds tounderground running waterora geologicalanomaly(e.g.,naturalgas orfaults)
1992).Geopathogen
(Dillenseger, pointshavebeenconsidered, insomecases,tobe theequivalent ofsha
chi energy(Meletani,1997). In literature, thereare contributions confirming thenegativeeffectsof
geopathogeniczonesonhumanwell-being andactivities.Inparticular,
theymaycauseirritability,
insomnia,
fatigue,
depression,anxiety,anddiminished immune function (Marchese,1997).A studyshowedthatsub-
jectspreferredthefengshuilandscapesrather thanthenon-fengshuilandscapes,butthispreference did
notreachstatistical
significance(Ke Tsung,2004). To measurethepreferences, self-rating
questionnaires
containingscalesforfivestatesofemotion, twotypesofcognitive andtwokindsofpreference
functioning,
wereusedbeforeandaftersubjectssawfengshuiandnon-fengshuilandscapes.

It is also important
to notethatthestudiesare oftenpublishedinfengshuijournals,and thescientific
validity oftheresearch
is often
compromised.Mostofthetime,theyareconducted withoutproperscientific
methodologies and instruments.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: FENG SHUI AND ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

IntheWestern world,thereis a growing tendency toapplyfengshuiprinciples andguidelines tothedesign

process.In particular,
thespreadofenvironmentalist ideashas facilitateda generalawarenessandcultural
opennesstodifferentwaysofconceptualizing theenvironment andthewell-being ofitsoccupants (Bonnes
and Bonaiuto,2002). ThisZeitgeist has contributedto theriseof broadinterests in different
formsof
environmental thinking,whether ornotscientifically
based,fromenvironmentally sustainabledevelopment
toNewAge,a formofalternative andalternative
spirituality characteristic
religion ofthelate20thcentury.
Moreover, theintuitivecorrelation existingbetweenbioarchitecture andfengshui(Ros, 1998)madethe
applicationofsomefengshuiprinciples tobuildingdesignappearplausible.Although thepositiveeffects
offengshuionhumanwell-being arenotyetscientificallydemonstrated, therearemanyassertions coming
fromfengshuiexperts promulgating itsmultipleadvantages,suchas overcoming hiddenillsormaximizing
comfortthrough themodification ofone's livingenvironment (Rossbach,1987).Othersclaimcombining
fengshuiandarchitecture helpsthedesigner to achievean efficient
systemofcirculation andplanning,a
non-aggressive structuralsystem,an interior conduciveto livingand working, and an appropriatesite
whereeverystructure is inharmony withitssurrounding environment (Lip, 1993).
Severalcharacteristics
ofenvironmental areembedded
psychology within
designguidelinessuggested byfeng
shui.Theprincipal
aimofenvironmental isthedesignofenvironments
psychology tofacilitate
human activities
thatmeettheneedsoftheiroccupants andpromotetheir (Bonaiuto,
well-being 2004;Gifford,2002).Thus,a broad
pointofcontactbetweenenvironmental and
psychology feng shui isrepresented
byan awareness ofthemultiple
influences
thephysical
environment canhaveonhuman andwell-being.
feelings Ontheother hand,infengshui,
theinfluence
ofanenvironment onpeopleislargelydeterministic.
Peopleliving,working,orstudying ina physical
areconsidered
setting to be passivevictims ofenvironmentalcharacteristics.
Thisperspective is replacedin
environmentalpsychology bythefocusontheinteractivenatureofthepeople-environment which
relationship,
viewsphysical as a vehicletopromote
settings humaneffectiveness andwell-being.
Withinthisperspective,the

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 ofArchitectural
Journal andPlanning
Research
27:1(Spring
2010) 30

physicalenvironmentprovides a rangeofopportunities
(orconstraints) withtheindividual
thatinteract capabili-
ofpeople.Forexample,
ties(ordeficits) thephysical
form ofa building influences
obviously wayfinding behavior.
However, withthespecific
one'sfamiliarity buildingor,moregenerally,
personalwayfindingskillsaregoingto
moderate thelinkbetween buildingformandwayfinding.

Althoughthisbasicdifference
between fengshuiandcontemporary environmental
psychologyintermsof
determinism
architectural betweenthesetwodisciplines:
exists,thereareatleasttwopointsofconvergence
and control.
restorativeness

RESTORATIVENESS

Therestorativequalitiesofan environment definethepotential ofdesignelements to function

therapeuti-
cognitive
cally,reducing andstress(EvansandMcCoy,1998).Restorative
fatigue designelementssuchas
windowviews,burning and
fireplaces, various , and
displays(e.g. aquariums moving water)canfunction
as
a copingresourcethatcanhelpbuilding occupantsaltertheirbalancebetweenenvironmental demandsand
personalresources(Coss, 1973).Moreover, certaintypesofsettings,suchas religioussanctuaries,
hospi-
tals,andothertherapeutic areexplicitly
facilities, designedwithrestorative intents.
Suchsettingsspecifi-
callyaimtoupliftthehumanspirit andpromote healing(EvansandMcCoy,1998).

In literature,
particular importance is givento therestorative roleplayedby directcontactwithnatural
elements,as wellas views of nature(Hartig Evans,1993;McCoyandEvans,2005). Indeed,theimpor-
and
tanceofa natural viewfroma windowhasbeenverified bynumerous studies,includingonesonmeasures
of perceivedstress,environmental satisfaction,
psychologicalsymptoms, and physiologicalprocesses
suchas bloodpressure (e.g.,Kaplan,etal., 1988;Ulrich,1984).Forexample,ina well-known studyonpost-
surgery thepatients
patients, withvisualaccessto a greenarea(rather thanto a wall) fromtheirwindow
demonstrated shortened recoverytime, reduced use ofanalgesics,reducednegativecomments fromhospi-
talpersonnel,andreducedpost-surgery complications (Ulrich,1984).Studieshavealso demonstratedthat
physiologicalstressis attenuatedby contactwithnature(Hartig,et al., 2003). On thebasisoftheseand
otherresults,designguidelinesrecommend buildingusershave contactwithgreenareas (e.g., views,
accessto a garden)inorderto improveenvironmental andreducestress.
satisfaction

In a parallelvein,onefengshuiconstruct is therestorative andhealingpropertyofan environment.Infeng

shui, as inenvironmentalpsychology, access to a green areafroma window orthepresence plantsina
of
roomsuchas an office,is considered veryusefulforpeople'swell-being, sinceit can producepositive
energies. According tofengshui, plantscan solvemanyinterior problems.Forexample,whenplacedina
corner, theyallowchitoriseandcirculate,andwhenplacedata protruding corner,theyshieldtheroomfrom
sharpedges (Rossbach,1983). Feng shui also suggestsusingaquariums or fountainsto enhancethe
restorative of
properties an environment, since from itsphilosophical
pointofview, wateris considered
a
purifying elementthatcan regenerate energy, turna negativeforceintoa positiveone,and contrastthe
negativeeffects ofthesecretarrows(Coss, 1973).

CONTROL

Controlcan be definedas masteryofthephysicalenvironment or theabilityto eitheralterthephysical

environment or regulatetheexposureto one's own surroundings (Evans and McCoy,1998). Controlis
consideredone of themostimportant dimensions of thepeople-environment relationshipand is often
withhighlevelsofenvironmental
associated Ina workenvironment,
satisfaction. forexample,somedifferent
waysofexerting control
areadjustingtemperature openingorclosinga windowordoor,and
orillumination,
These conditions
privacyand social interactions.
regulating are oftenassociatedwithhigherlevelsof
environmentalandjob satisfaction
experienced byworkers (Bonaiuto,etal., 2004).

Ontheother hand,lackofcontrol
is often withstress(EvansandCohen,1987),anditthreatens
associated the
needtoeffectively
individual interact space(Hedge,1991). Moreover,
withinterior prolonged with
experiences

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 Journal
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andPlanning
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27:1(Spring
2010) 31

uncontrollable
environmental
conditions
areassociatedwithlearnedhelplessness(Cohen,etal , 1986).There-
fore,lackofcontrol
canhavenegativeconsequences on user'shealth.Thisis whydesignguidelines often
attention
suggestpayingparticular to theflexibility
andresponsiveness oftheenvironment, as wellas the
importance - theability
ofprivacy toregulatesocialinteraction
(EvansandMcCoy,1998).
The dimension of controlalso playsan importantroleinfengshuidiscipline.In fact,fengshuťs design
guidelinesstresstheinfluenceofperceptionofcontrol on humanwell-being andpsychophysical balance.
Concerning thedesignofworkenvironments, forexample,fengshuisuggests locatingthedeskina position
whereitis alwayspossibleto controlthedoor;ifthisis notpossible,itsuggestsplacinga mirror
so thatit
reflects
anyoneentering. According tofengshui, mostofficesshouldalso havea doortomaintain control
oversocialinteraction.
Moreover, windowed doorsareconsidered lessoptimal,sinceeveryoneenteringcan
see theoccupantfirst,thusputtinghimorheron thedefensive to
(Rossbach,1983).According feng shui,
lackofcontrolis consideredstressfulandaffectstheenergeticequilibriumofan environment and,conse-
quently,thatof itsoccupants.

CONCLUSIONS

DespitethefactthatfengshuVs guidelineshavebeen(and continueto be) used forthedesignof many

all overtheworld,thereis no scientific
buildings evidencesubstantiating
itsinfluence
on people.On the
otherhand,eventhoughenvironmental psychology's designguidelinesarebasedon empiricalevidence
and belongto a tradition
of studiesfocusedon thecomplexrelationship betweenthepersonand the
environment, theyarenotnearlyas popularas thoseoffengshui.Therefore,further
developments should
aim,ontheonehand,toscientificallytestfengshuiprinciplesand,ontheotherhand,todisseminate better
theenvironmental psychological
knowledge tohelpdesignersimprovehumanwell-being, and
satisfaction,
performance.
Thecomparison betweenthesetwodisciplines hasunderlined somecontactpointsamongthem,inspiteof
theprofound in theirapproachesto researchandto person-environment
differences relationships.
Many
questionsremainaboutwhyfengshuihasbeenso successful inapplication,
whileenvironmental psychol-
ogyhas beenless successici.Perhapsitis becauseenvironmental psychology is less fashionable
or less
sinceno mystery
fascinating, is involvedinitspractice.
Designguidelinesofferedfrom fengshuiareoften
straightforwardandclear,offeringquickandeasysolutions thatanyonecanuse tosolvedesigndilemmas.
The presenceof numerous handbooksand guidesaboutfengshuVs applicationto dailyenvironments
facilitates
theapproachtothediscipline. Anyonecan consulta fengshuifast-guide andtryto applysome
easyrules.Butthisstilldoesnotmeanthattheunderlying methods,
principles, andconsequences offeng
shuiareclearorwellunderstood. Inotherwords,a critical
assessmentoffengshuiis stillneeded.Objective
andsystematic methods couldbe usedtoscientificallytestthevalidity
andconsequences offengshui,and
tobetterintegrateitwithinthecontemporary Western culture.

Atthesametime,thecontributions ofenvironmentalpsychologyto designshouldbe mademoreunder-

in to the
standable, particular, generalpublic. The that
guidelines come fromenvironmental
psychological
researchshouldbe better
explainedandmoreaffordableinpracticein ordertopromotethespreadofthe
disciplineandto improveawarenessaboutscientific
laws andmodels,whichhelpourunderstanding of
person-environmentrelationships.
Forthetimebeing,however,environmentalpsychology's
knowledgeandguidelines
shouldbe considered
moreseriously,
sincetheyarebasedonandproducedthroughscientific whilefengshuirelieson
methods,
anddoesnotprovidereliableandsystematic
speculation data.
empirical

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Additionalinformationmaybe obtainedby writing

directly MarinoBonaiutoat Sapienza
to Professor
ofRome,Department
University ofPsychology
ofDevelopmentalandSocialization ViadeiMarsi
Processes,
78-00185,Rome,Italy;email:marino.bonaiuto@uniromal
.it.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Wearegrateful
toProfessor
GaryW.Evansforhiscritical onearlier
feedback drafts
ofthismanuscript.

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL
SKETCHES
Marino
Bonaiuto
is Headof theDepartment
of Psychologyof Developmental Processes
andSocialization at Sapienza
ofRome,
University Hisresearch
Italy. interests
lieinthefields
ofenvironmental of
andthesocialpsychology
psychology
andbodily
verbal communication.
ElenaBilottais a Ph.D.student
in Environmental
Psychologyat CIRPA(Inter-university
Center in
forResearch
Environmental Rome,Italy.Herresearch
Psychology), interests
lie in thefieldof architectural andthe
psychology
between
relationship andwell-being.
design
Angela is a psychologist.
Stolfa Shereceived
herMaster's inWork
degree andOrganizational with
Psychology a dissertation
thesis
onfengshuiandenvironmentalpsychology.
revisions
Manuscript 22 October
completed 2009.

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