Microelectronics – Chapter 02

Large-signal & Small-signal Analysis

Winter Term 2022/23
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Matthias Kuhl

Laboratory for Microelectronics

Department of Microsystems Engineering – IMTEK
University of Freiburg

Overview

• General Considerations
• Operating / Bias Point
• Principle of Superposition
• From Large-signal to Small-signal Analysis
• MOS Transistor – Small-signal Model
• Derivation of Small-signal Parameters
• Small-signal Model with Capacitors

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 Overview

• General Considerations
• Operating / Bias Point
• Principle of Superposition
• From Large-signal to Small-signal Analysis
• MOS Transistor – Small-signal Model

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Large-signal Behavior & Bias Point

VDD
0.12 µm CMOS, 𝑊/𝐿 = 10/10
𝑉 = 1.2 V, 𝑅 = 100 kΩ
R
=𝑣

iD D
vOUT
𝑉 operating / bias point
G off saturation triode
𝑉 (𝑉 = 𝑉 )
M1
𝑣

vIN
for analog operation
S, B
(in saturation)
inverter 𝑉
with resistive load 𝑉
𝑣 =𝑣
v =v Inverter as a digital element: 𝑣 = 0 V|𝑉 →𝑣 = 𝑉 |0 V
Inverter as an analog amplifier:
𝑣 =𝑣
Define 𝐼 and thus 𝑉 by setting 𝑉 for
=𝑉 − 𝑅𝑖
• high amplification of small signal variations 𝑣 around 𝑉
• high signal swing 𝑣 around 𝑉

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 Bias Point & Graphical Illustration of Amplification
𝑉
20uA −𝑣
𝑖 =
𝑅 𝑉 = 0.50 V 𝑉 = 1.2 V
𝛽
15uA
𝑖 = 𝑣 −𝑉 𝑅 = 10 kΩ
𝑉 = 0.45 V 2
𝑉 𝑣 = 𝑉 − 𝑅𝑖 iR
𝑅 10uA 𝑖 =𝑖 vOUT
𝑉 = 0.40 V iD D
G
𝐵𝑃 𝑖 =𝐺 𝑣 vIN 𝑀 (10/10)
𝑉𝑣 = 0.35 V 𝑣 = −𝑅𝑖
i 5uA
S, B
𝑉 = 0.30 V = −𝐺 𝑅𝑣
𝑉 = 0.25 V
0A
0V 0.2V 0.4V 0.6V 0.8V 1.0V 1.2V
ID(M1)
V_UDS 𝑣
𝑣 𝑉
𝑣
transconductance 𝐴= = −𝐺 𝑅
𝑣
𝑣 =𝑣 𝑣 ⟶𝑖 𝑣 𝑖 𝑖
𝐴= 𝐺 = =
𝑣 =𝑣 𝑖 ⟶𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣

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Overview

• General Considerations
• Operating / Bias Point
• Principle of Superposition
• From Large-signal to Small-signal Analysis
• MOS Transistor – Small-signal Model

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 Superposition in Linear Networks
In a linear network, the principle of superposition is applicable!

𝑅 ||𝑅
𝑣 = 𝑓 𝑉 | = 𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑅 ||𝑅
example:
𝑅 ||𝑅
+𝑓 𝑉 | + 𝑉
RR1 1 𝑅 + 𝑅 ||𝑅
RR2
2
𝑅 ||𝑅
UDC1 Iiout +𝑓 𝑣 | + 𝑣
V DC1 OUT 𝑅 + 𝑅 ||𝑅
UvACac1
1
R
RLL Uvout
OUT
𝑣
UVDCDC2
2 𝑖 = = 𝑖 𝑉 |
𝑅
+𝑖 𝑉 |
+𝑖 𝑣 |

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Non-linear Networks
In a non-linear network, the principle of superposition is not applicable!

example: iD

𝑖 (𝑣 )-characteristic of a diode:
R1
R2
𝑖 =𝐼 𝑒 −1
VDC1 iD ≠ 𝑖 𝑉 |
vac1
vOUT +𝑖 𝑉 | BP id
ID
= vD
VDC2
+𝑖 𝑣 | vd

VD vD
Here, a linear approximation is performed by means of a
large-signal & small-signal analysis
according to a first-order Taylor series approximation of the non-linear circuit elements!
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 Overview

• General Considerations
• Operating / Bias Point
• Principle of Superposition
• From Large-signal to Small-signal Analysis
• MOS Transistor – Small-signal Model

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Step 1 – Large-signal Analysis

Calculation of the bias point
Consider all DC current and voltage sources while neglecting all AC sources!
example: 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅

R1 𝑅
𝑅 ||𝑅 =
R2 2 Kirchhoff‘s voltage loop
VDC1 iD iD 𝑉 𝑉 𝑅
vac1 + −𝑣 − 𝑖 = 0
vOUT
𝑉 𝑉 vOUT 2 2 2
VDC2 +
2 2 = vD 𝑉 𝑉 𝑅
VDC2 + = 𝐼𝑒 −1 +𝑣
2 2 2

Thévenin equivalent

Solving for 𝑣 results in the bias point information

⟶ 𝑽𝐃 , 𝑰𝐃

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 Step 2 – Small-signal Analysis
iD
Based on the bias point, a first-order Taylor series approximation
for the diode's non-linear 𝑖 (𝑣 )-characteristic can be performed.

𝑖 𝑣 -characteristic: 𝑖 = 𝐼 (𝑒 − 1) ≈ 𝐼 𝑒 for ≫0

BP id
ID first-order Taylor series approximation
vd 𝜕𝑖
𝑖 ≈𝑖 𝑉 + 𝑣 −𝑉 =𝐼 +𝑔 𝑣
𝜕𝑣
VD vD

bias point (large-signal analysis), already calculated

slope of the tangent to the diode's 𝑖 (𝑣 )-characteristic at the bias point (small-signal parameter)

small-signal part 𝑣 of 𝑣 (small-signal analysis, still to be performed)

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Small-signal Analysis – Reference Point

Step 2: Small-signal analysis
As soon as the bias point and thus the slope of the straight line tangent to the non-linear I/V
characteristic is known, the bias point is of no further interest for the small signal analysis!

iD For this reason, the circuit is “moved” into the bias point whereby
a new reference point is defined for the small signal analysis.
We say the point is at “virtual ground”.
𝑖

BP id
Speaking in circuit terms, this is equivalent to removing
ID all DC sources.
vd
(DC voltage sources are to be shorted,
VD
DC current sources are to be disconnected.)
𝑣 vD

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 Small-signal Analysis – Equivalent Model
constant conductance 𝑔

𝑖 𝑡 =𝑖 𝑉 + 𝑣 𝑡 −𝑉 = 𝐼 + 𝑔 𝑣 (𝑡) 𝐼 𝑔 𝑣

𝐼 small-signal part 𝑣 (𝑡)

iD 𝑖
R1
R2
𝑖
VDC1
𝑣 (𝑡)
𝑣 (𝑡) 𝑔
𝑅 ∥𝑔
𝐼 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 (𝑡)
𝑅 +𝑅 ∥𝑔 ID 𝑖
𝑉 𝑣
vac1(t) is supposed to 𝑣
equivalent linear small- be a small AC signal!
VD vD
signal model
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Summary

• The principle of superposition is not applicable to non-linear circuits!

• In order to perform a small-signal analysis, a large-signal analysis (operating / bias point)
must be performed first, yielding the small-signal parameters!
• The principle of superposition is applicable to a small-signal analysis since the non-linear
network has been approximated by a linear one!
• DC sources are of no interest for the small-signal analysis!
For this reason
- short any DC voltage source =0⟶𝑅 = 0Ω

- open any branch with a DC current source =0⟶𝑅 =∞Ω

The circuit’s reference voltage (ground)

is thus moved onto the bias point!

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 Overview

• General Considerations
• MOS Transistor – Small-signal Model
• Derivation of Small-signal Parameters
• Small-signal Model with Capacitors

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Large-signal Equations
subthreshold region 𝑣 <𝑉 valid for channels with W, L > 1µm
𝑖 ≈0A

linear region 𝑣 >𝑉 && 𝑣 <𝑣 −𝑉

1
𝑖 =𝛽 𝑣 −𝑉 𝑣 − 𝑣 (1 + 𝜆𝑣 )
2

saturation region 𝑣 >𝑉 && 𝑣 >𝑣 −𝑉

𝛽 𝑊 𝜀
𝑖 = 𝑣 −𝑉 (1 + 𝜆𝑣 ) with 𝛽 = 𝛽 =𝜇 𝐶 , 𝐶 =
2 𝐿 𝑡

𝑉 =𝑉 , +𝛾  
2Φ + 𝑣 −   2Φ

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 Small-signal Parameters
linear region non-linear functions saturation region
1 𝛽
𝑖 =𝛽 𝑣 −𝑉 𝑣 − 𝑣 (1 + 𝜆𝑣 ) 𝑖 = 𝑣 −𝑉 (1 + 𝜆𝑣 )
2 2

𝑉 =𝑉 , +𝛾  
2Φ + 𝑣 −   2Φ

𝑖 = 𝑓(𝑣 , 𝑣 , 𝑣 )
𝑖 =𝑖
D
G B 𝑣 =𝑣
𝑣 𝑣 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑉
S =𝑔 =𝑔 = =𝑔
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑣
transconductance output transconductance
due to vGS conductance due to vBS
due to vDS
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Taylor Approximation
first-order Taylor approximation: 𝑖 = 𝐼 + 𝑖 𝑣 =𝑉 +𝑣
𝑣 =𝑉 +𝑣 𝑣 =𝑉 +𝑣
large signals (bias point): 𝐼 ,𝑉 ,𝑉 ,𝑉
small signals: 𝑖 ,𝑣 ,𝑣 ,𝑣

𝑖 =𝐼 +𝑖

large signal (bias point) small signal

𝐼 =𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖
𝑖 = 𝑣 −𝑉 + 𝑣 −𝑉 + 𝑣 −𝑉
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
=𝑔 𝑣 +𝑔 𝑣 +𝑔 𝑣
linear circuit

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 nMOS Transistor – Small-signal Model
id
G D
D
gmvugsgs v
uvgs ggmb
mbvvbs
ubsbs gds
gds uds vuds
vds vds iD DS
G B
S vSB
vGS
S
vuvbsbs

B
𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑉
𝑔 = 𝑔 = 𝑔 = =
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑣

transconductance due to vgs output conductance transconductance due to vbs

due to vds
voltage-controlled
current source
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Small-signal Parameters – Saturation

large-signal equations
𝛽
𝑖 = 𝑣 −𝑉 (1 + 𝜆𝑣 ) 𝑉 =𝑉 , +𝛾  
2Φ + 𝑣 −   2Φ
2

transconductance due to vGS

𝜕𝑖     𝑊 large-signal parameter
𝑔 = ≈𝛽 𝑉 −𝑉 = 2𝛽𝐼 = 2𝛽 𝐼
𝜕𝑣 𝐿 small-signal parameter

output conductance due to vDS output resistance

𝜕𝑖 𝛽 1 + 𝜆𝑉 𝜆𝐼 1
𝑔 = =𝜆 𝑉 −𝑉 = ≈ 𝜆𝐼 𝑟 ≈
𝜕𝑣 2 1 + 𝜆𝑉 1 + 𝜆𝑉 𝜆𝐼
transconductance due to vBS
𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑖 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝛾
𝑔 = = = −𝑔 =𝑔 =𝑔 = 𝜂𝑔
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣  
2 2Φ + 𝑉

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 Overview

• General Considerations
• MOS Transistor – Small-signal Model
• Derivation of Small-signal Parameters
• Small-signal Model with Capacitors

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Small-signal Model with Capacitors

D
D
CGD id CDB v
iD DS
G B
vSB
G gm vgs gmb vbs gds B vGS
S

CGS CSB

CGB

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 Small-signal Model with

D
if vSB = 0 V D
CGD id CDB v
iD DS
G B
vSB
G gm vgs gmb vbs gds B vGS
S

CGS CSB

CGB

𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶

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Simplified Small-signal Model with 𝑣 =0V

special case: vSB = 0 V

D
v
iD DS
CGD
id B
D G
G vSB
vGS
vgs 𝐶 gm vgs gds CDB vds S

S=B
𝐶 =𝐶 +𝐶

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 Small-signal Model – Typical Parameter Values

saturation (VGS = 350 mV, Vth ≈ 200 mV, VDS = 400 mV, VSB = 0 V)

W/L = 10/10 W/L = 1/10 W/L = 10/1 W/L = 1/1 W/L = 1/0.5

gm 57.2 µA/V 5.3 µA/V 511 µA/V 47.4 µA/V 80 µA/V

gds 0.16 µS 0.014 µS 6.4 µS 0.57 µS 1.37 µS

CGS 840 fF 84.2 fF 87.9 fF 8.8 fF 4.4 fF

CGD 4.6 fF 0.46 fF 3 fF 0.3 fF 0.3 fF

CDB same order of magnitude as CGD (min. 10x smaller than CGS)

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Small-signal Model – Summary

saturation region D
𝛽 𝑊
𝑖 = 𝑣 −𝑉 id CDB
2 𝐿 CGD
𝜕𝑖
𝑔 = ≈ 𝜆𝐼
𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑖 𝑊
𝑔 = =𝛽 𝑉 −𝑉 G gm vgs gmb vbs gds B
𝜕𝑣 𝐿

linear region CGS CSB

𝑊 𝑣
𝑖 =𝛽 𝑣 −𝑉 − 𝑣
𝐿 2 S
𝜕𝑖 𝑊 𝑣
𝑔 = =𝛽 𝑣 −𝑉 −
𝜕𝑣 𝐿 2 CGB
𝜕𝑖 𝑊
𝑔 = =𝛽 𝑉
𝜕𝑣 𝐿

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 Small-signal Conductance
10uA

iD
VGS = 400 mV

5uA

VGS = 300 mV
VGS = 200 mV
0A
linear region 0V 0.4V 0.8V 1.2V
80u ID(M1)
𝑖 ∝ 𝑣 gds 𝑊 10
𝑔 ∝𝑣 = saturation region
𝐿 10
𝑖 almost constant ≠ 𝑓 𝑣
40u 𝑔 ≈ 0 S (𝑟 → ∞ Ω)

0
0V 0.4V 0.8V 1.2V
D(ID(M1))
vDS
V_VDS
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Small-signal Transconductance
40uA

iD
VDS = 1.2 V

20uA

VDS = 100 mV

0A
saturation region 200mV
150u ID(M1)
300mV 400mV 500mV 600mV
linear region
𝑖 ∝ 𝑣 gm 𝑖 ∝𝑣
𝑔 ∝𝑣 100u
𝑔 constant ≠ 𝑓 𝑣

50u

0
200mV 300mV 400mV 500mV 600mV
D(ID(M1))
vGS
V_VGS
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 Summary

• Small-signal parameters are used to approximate the MOS behavior for “small”
signal variations.
• Small-signal parameters depend on the operating region of the MOS transistor.
• Small-signal parameters depend on the operating point & thus on large-signal
voltages and currents.

IMPORTANT to understand:
Even for small signals, the transistor still behaves according to the large-signal
equations (𝑖D ∝ 𝑣 in saturation).
 However, we assume a LINEAR behavior AT THE OPERATING POINT
for very, very small signals (Taylor approximation).

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Literature

• Razavi, chapter 2.4.3, pp. 33-36

• Sedra / Smith, chapter 4.6, pp. 287-298
• Allen / Holberg, chapter 3.3, pp. 87-92

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