CONTOH PHD Nutritional Evaluation Moringa As Substitute Concentrate For Goat 2014

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF Moringa oleifera LAM. AS A

SUBSTITUTE FOR CONCENTRATE FEED FOR
BENGAL GOAT
NASRIN SULTANA
FP 2014 73
SUBSTITUTE FOR CONCENTRATE FEED FOR
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BENGAL GOAT
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By
NASRIN SULTANA
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Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
December 2014
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Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia
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DEDICATION
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TO THE SOUL OF MY MOTHER WITH
SUPPLICATION FOR FORGIVENESS
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AND
TO MY FATHER, WITH LOVE
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Abstract of thesis presented to the senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfillment
of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

SUBSTITUTE FOR CONCENTRATE FEED FOR BENGAL GOAT
By
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NASRIN SULTANA
December 2014
Chairman: Professor Abdul Razak Bin Alimon, PhD
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Faculty: Agriculture
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Insufficient quality feed is a major limiting factor for goat production in many
developing countries including Bangladesh. To overcome this problem, maximizing
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the use of locally available feed resources and locally grown forages is an alternative
option. Moringa oleifera tree is a small tree cultivated in many regions in the south
Asian countries and is not fully utilized as ruminant feed. Moringa foliage has not
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been extensively evaluated in terms of nutritional characterization at different cutting
intervals and its partial or whole replacement of concentrate in the diets of goats. It
contain polyunsaturated fatty acid and has antioxidant activity, however studies on
its effects on goat meat quality in Bangladesh have not been done yet. Therefore, the
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current study was undertaken with the objectives to (i) evaluate the nutritional
characteristics of different plant fractions of Moringa oleifera tree harvested at
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different cutting intervals and (ii) evaluate the growth performance and carcass and
meat quality of Black Bengal goats fed diets supplemented with moringa foliage. To
achieve these objectives three experiments were conducted
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In the first experiment, an existing moringa plot at BLRI with 180 trees, of area
201.86 m2 was used. The plot was divided into 12 blocks which size was 16 m2
having 15 plants and the plots were subjected to three regimes of 4, 6 or 8 weeks
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cutting intervals. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design
(RCBD) consisting of three treatments (4, 6 and 8 weeks cutting interval) with four
replications. The highest dry matter (DM) content of total foliage (2247.05; 242.83g
kg-1 ), leaf (261.26; 247.30g kg-1) and stem (204.10; 197.65g kg-1 ) were found at the
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6 and 8 weeks cutting intervals than 4 weeks cutting interval. The CP content of
total foliage (214.80 to 216.20g kg-1DM), leaf (256.65 to 261.33g kg-1DM) or stem
(81.30 to 88.44 g kg-1DM) did not differ significantly (P>0.05) among the cutting
intervals. The ADF (268.30; 268.46 g kg-1DM), NDF (347.11; 369.51g kg-1DM), and
ADL (99.89; 109.00 g kg-1DM) content of total foliage was significantly (P< 0.01)
lower in 4 and 6 weeks interval respectively than 8 weeks (310.29, 381.77 and
120.36g kg-1DM, respectively) whereas the fiber content in the leaf was similar
among the cutting intervals. IVDMD and IVOMD of total foliage were significantly
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(P<0.05) higher (801.63; 781.05 g kg-1 and 798.07; 785.06g kg-1DM, respectively) in
4 and 6 weeks interval than 8 weeks interval (772.10 and 761.35g kg-1DM,
respectively).Data from the present study suggests that moringa foliage and leaf were
better quality in terms of nutrient composition, IVDMD and IVOMD at 4 to 6 weeks
cutting interval compare to 8 week.
In the second experiment, moringa foliage samples were taken according to

experiment-1. Samples from four blocks in each treatment were pooled and taken
sample for analysis of the experiment. This experiment was arranged in complete
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randomized design (CRD) to determine the effect of cutting interval on ant-
nutritional compound, anti-oxidant activity and fatty acid profile of moringa foliage.
Total phenols (51.86; 43.89 mg tannic acid equivalent g-1DW), tannin (34.90; 43.89
mg tannic acid equivalent g-1DW), and condense tannin (0.23; 0.17 mg catechin
equivalent g-1 DW) content of moringa foliage were significantly (P<0.01) higher at
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4 and 6 weeks cutting interval than at 8 weeks (29.00, 16.66 and 0.14respectively).
Subsequently, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of moringa foliage was
significantly (P<0.05) higher (60.06 %) at 4 wks cutting interval than 6 and 8 wks
(55.96 and 53.97 % respectively).From the results obtained in the second experiment
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exposed that moringa foliage was possess higher antioxidant activity at 4 week
cutting interval than 6 and 8 week.H
In the third experiment, a total of thirty growing Black Bengal goats were allocated
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into five groups with six goats per treatment. The design of the experiment was a
completely randomized design (CRD). The rice straw was used as a basal diet at the
rate 30% of total feed. Concentrate mixture feed was substituted with moringa
foliage at 25, 50, 75 and 100 among remaining 70% diet. The five dietary treatments
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consisted of varying proportion of moringa foliage (MF) and concentrate (C), T1

(100MF); T2 (75MF:25C); T3 (50MF:50C); T4 (25MF: 75C) and T5 (100C).The
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duration of feeding and growth trial was 105 days. After completing the feeding trial,
digestibility trial was carried out. Then, four animals from each treatment were
randomly selected for slaughter to evaluate the carcass and meat quality. The CP and
energy content in moringa foliage and concentrate mixture were 19.95 and 20.04
percent and 11.36 and 11.31 MJ kg-1 DM respectively. Average daily live weight
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gain (67.83, 79.33, 74.33, 71.33 and 67.33 g d-1 respectively for 100M, 75M: 25C,
50C:50C, 25M: 75C and 100C diet) FCR (6.38, 6.30, 6.28, 6.46 and 6.80
respectively for 100M, 75M: 25C, 50C:50C, 25M: 75C and 100C diet), nutrient
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intake and utilization were not significantly (P>0.05) different among treatments
group except ADF intake and digestibility. Carcass weight and dressing percentage
was not (P>0.05) influenced by different dietary treatment. Percentage of lean meat
as percent of cold carcass weight was significantly (P<0.05) higher in 75M:25C
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(73.72%) and 100M (72.18%) diet compare to 50M:50C (69.60%), 25M:75C

(69.05%) and 100C (69.30%) diets. Similarly, lean:fat was also significantly
(P<0.05) higher in 75M:25C (15.01%) and 50M:50C (11.77%) than that of
50M:50C (69.60%), 25M:75C (69.05%) and 100C (69.30%) diets. Lean: fat was
increased upto 75% inclusion level of moringa foliage. Intramuscular fat was also
increased with increasing level of concentrate feed in diets. Drip loss of longissimus
dorsi (LD) muscle and cooking loss of semitendinosus (ST) muscle was found lower
(17.32%; 38.98%, respectively) (P<0.05) value in 100M diet and increased with
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increasing concentrate feed proportion (17.48, 20.22, 20.37 and 20.62% and 40.85,
41.61, 45.59 and 45.38% ,respectively for drip loss and cooking loss followed by
75M:25C, 50M:50C, 25M:75C and 100M diet). Conversely, shear-force (kg) of both
muscles was significantly (P<0.05) increased with increasing concentrate feed in
diet. Color characteristics in terms of lightness (L*), redness (a*) and hue angle (H °)
of longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle was higher (46.29, 12.55 and 44.89, respectively)
in 100M diet compare to other diets. Similar trend was observed in semitendinosus
(ST) muscle. Moringa foliage was increased the UFA and PUFA in longissimus dorsi
(LD) and semitendinosus (ST) muscles compared to that of a complete concentrate
diet. Additionally, proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acid and saturated fatty acid
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increased with increasing level of moringa foliage and proportion omega-6 and
omega-3 fatty acid was reduced with increasing level of moringa foliage in the diets.
Moringa foliage, which is affluent in the 18:3n-3, is an important device to generate
n-3 PUFA in the meat. Malondialdehyde (MDA), a major lipid oxidation substrate in
both longissimus dorsi (LD) and semitendinosus (ST) muscles was reduced with
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increasing supplementation of moringa foliage. The decreasing in lipid peroxidation
level in both muscles indicates the role of moringa foliage as an antioxidant that can
protect oxidized lipid in muscle
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The present study reveals goats fed moringa foliage supplemented diets achieved a
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favorable growth performance and more desirable leaner carcass with higher
proportion of meat and lower weight of subcutaneous fat to improve carcass
characteristics. Increasing moringa foliage in diet tended to improve meat quality in
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terms of water holding capacity and color characteristics. Substitution of concentrate
with moringa foliage in diet could also decrease the total SFA and increase
polyunsaturated fatty acids in chevon would be favorable in improving health and
well-being and reducing degenerative diseases in human being. Moreover, moringa
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foliage has the significant antioxidant potential, therefore, supplemented of moringa

foliage in diets to goats could protect products from oxidative deterioration during
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the postmortem period. The protective effect of moringa foliage may elucidate its
extensive use in shelf life of meat. Thus, moringa foliage could be used as a
substitute of expensive concentrate feed for goat.
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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah
PENILAIAN DALAM PEMAKANAN Moringa oleifera LAM. SEBAGAI

GANTIAN BAGI MAKANAN KONSENTRAT UNTUK BENGAL KAMBING
Oleh
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NASRIN SULTANA
Disember 2014
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Pengerusi: Profesor Abdul Razak Bin Alimon, PhD
Fakulti: Pertanian
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Makanan berkualiti yang tidak mencukupi adalah faktor utama untuk menghadkan
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pengeluaran kambing di negara-negara membangun termasuk Bangladesh. Untuk
mengatasi masalah ini, memaksimumkan penggunaan sumber makanan tempatan
yang sedia ada dan foraj tempatan yang berkembang adalah pilihan alternatif.
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Moringa oleifera adalah pokok kecil yang ditanam di kebanyakan rantau di negara-
negara Asia selatan dan tidak digunakan sepenuhnya sebagai makanan ruminan.
Daun Moringa belum dinilai secara meluas dari segi pencirian pemakanan pada
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jangka masa yang berbeza pemotongan dan penggantian sebahagian atau keseluruhan
konsentrat dalam diet kambing. Ia mengandungi asid lemak tak tepu dan mempunyai
aktiviti antioksidan, bagaimanapun kajian mengenai kesannya terhadap kualiti
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daging kambing di Bangladesh telah tidak dilakukan lagi. Oleh itu, kajian semasa
telah dijalankan dengan objektif untuk (i) menilai ciri-ciri pemakanan bahagian
tumbuhan yang berbeza pokok Moringa oleifera yang dituai pada selang
pemotongan yang berbeza dan (ii) menilai prestasi pertumbuhan, karkas dan kualiti
daging kambing Black Bengal yang diberi makan diet tambahan dengan daun
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moringa. Untuk mencapai objektif ini tiga eksperimen telah dijalankan. Dalam uji
kaji yang pertama, satu plot moringa sedia ada di BLRI dengan 180 pokok, dengan
keluasan 201.86 m2 adalah digunakan. Plot telah dibahagikan kepada 12 pokok yang
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saiz adalah 16 m2 dan mempunyai 15 pokok, dan plot tertakluk kepada tiga bahagian
4, 6 atau 8 minggu selang masa pemotongan. Reka bentuk eksperimen adalah
rekabentuk rawak lengkap blok (RCBD) yang terdiri daripada tiga rawatan (4, 6 dan
8 minggu selang masa pemotongan) dengan empat replikasi. Peratus berat kering
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tertinggi (DM) daripada jumlah foraj (2247.05; 242.83g kg-1), daun (261.26;
247.30g kg-1) dan batang (204.10; 197.65g kg-1) telah didapati pada 6 dan 8 minggu
masa pemotongan berbanding pada 4 minggu jangkamasa pemotongan. Kandungan
CP daripada jumlah dedaunan (214.80 untuk 216.20g kg-1DM), daun (256.65 untuk
261.33g kg-1DM) atau batang (81.30-88.44 g kg-1DM) tidak berbeza secara
signifikan (P>0.05) antara jangkamasa pemotongan. ADF (268.30; 268.46 g kg-
1DM), NDF (347.11; 369.51g kg-1DM), dan ADL (99.89; 109.00 g kg-1DM)
kandungan daripada jumlah dedaun adalah ketara (P<0.01) yang lebih rendah pada 4
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dan 6 minggu jangkamasa pemotongan berbanding daripada 8 minggu (310.29,
381.77 dan 120.36g kg-1DM) manakala kandungan serabut dalam daun adalah sama
antara jangkamasa pemotongan. IVDMD dan IVOMD nyata jumlah foraj (P<0.05)
lebih tinggi (801.63; 781.05 g kg-1 dan 798.07; 785.06g kg-1DM, masing-masing)
dalam tempoh 4 dan 6 minggu daripada tempoh 8 minggu (772,10 dan 761.35g kg-
1DM, masing-masing). Data dari kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa daun moringa
adalah lebih berkualiti dari segi kandungan nutrien, IVDMD dan IVOMD pada 4
hingga 6 minggu masa pemotongan berbanding 8 minggu.
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Dalam eksperimen kedua, sampel forage moringa diambil mengikut eksperimen 1.
Sampel dari empat blok di setiap rawatan telah dikumpulkan dan diambil sampel
untuk analisis eksperimen. Eksperimen ini telah disusun dalam rekabentuk rawak
lengkap (CRD) untuk menentukan kesan jangkamasa pemotongan pada faktor anti-
pemakanan, aktiviti anti-oksidan dan profil asid lemak forage moringa. Jumlah fenol
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(51.86; 43.89 mg asid tannic bersamaan g-1DW), tanin (34.90; 43.89 mg asid tannic
bersamaan g-1DW), dan kondensasi tanin (0.23; 0.17 mg bersamaan catechin g-1
DW) kandungan forage moringa nyata (P<0.01) lebih tinggi pada jangkamasa
pemotongan 4 dan 6 minggu berbanding pada 8 minggu (masing-masing 29.00,
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16.66 dan 0.14). Selepas itu, aktiviti radikal DPPH daripada daun moringa bererti
(P<0.05) lebih tinggi (60.06%) pada 4 minggu waktu pemotongan berbanding
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minggu 6 dan 8 (masing-masing 55.96 dan 53.97%). Keputusan yang diperolehi
dalam eksperimen kedua mendedahkan dedaunan moringa adalah mempunyai
aktiviti antioksidan yang lebih tinggi pada 4 minggu masa pemotongan berbanding 6
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dan 8 minggu.
Percubaan ketiga, sejumlah 30 ekor kambing Black Bengal telah diperuntukkan

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kepada lima kumpulan dengan enam kambing setiap rawatan. Reka bentuk
eksperimen adalah reka bentuk yang sama sekali rawak (CRD). Jerami padi
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digunakan sebagai diet yang basal pada kadar 30% daripada jumlah makanan.
Makanan campuran konsentrat diganti dengan daun moringa pada 25, 50, 75 dan 100
di kalangan baki 70% diet. Lima rawatan diet terdiri daripada perkadaran yang
berbeza-beza foraj moringa (MF) dan konsentrat (C), T1 (100MF); T2 (75MF: 25C);
T3 (50MF: 50C); T4 (25MF: 75C) dan T5 (100C). Tempoh penyusuan dan
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percubaan pertumbuhan adalah 105 hari. Selepas menamatkan ujian pemberian,

percubaan penghadaman dilakukan, empat haiwan dari setiap rawatan telah dipilih
secara rawak untuk disembelih untuk menilai kualiti karkas dan daging. CP dan
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tenaga kandungan dalam daun moringa dan konsentrat campuran ialah 19.95 dan
20.04 peratus dan 11.31 11.36 dan MJ masing-masing kg-1 DM. Purata pertambahan
berat badan harian hidup (67.83, 79.33, 74.33, 71.33 dan 67.33 g masing-masing d-1
untuk 100M, 75M: 25C, 50C: 50C, 25M: 75C dan diet 100C) FCR (6.38,6.30, 6.28,
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6.46 dan 6.80 masing-masing untuk 100M, 75M: 25C, 50C: 50C, 25M: 75C dan diet
100C), pengambilan nutrien dan penggunaan tidak bererti (P> 0.05) yang berbeza
antara kumpulan rawatan kecuali pengambilan ADF dan penghadaman. Berat karkas
dan peratus karkas tidak (P> 0.05) dipengaruhi oleh rawatan diet yang berbeza.
Peratusan daging tanpa lemak sebagai peratus daripada berat karkas sejuk nyata
(P<0.05) lebih tinggi di 75M: 25C (73.72%) dan 100M (72.18%) diet ke 50M: 50C
(69.60%), 25M: 75C (69.05%) dan 100C (69.30%) diet. Begitu juga, tanpa lemak:
lemak adalah juga ketara (P<0.05) lebih tinggi di 75M: 25C (15.01%) dan 50M: 50C
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(11.77%) berbanding dengan 50M: 50C (69.60%), 25M: 75C (69.05%) dan 100C
(69.30%) diet. Lemak telah meningkat hampir tahap kemasukan 75% daripada daun
moringa. Lemak intramuskular telah juga meningkat dengan peningkatan tahap
makanan konsentrat dalam diet.
Lemak intramuskular telah juga meningkat dengan peningkatan tahap makanan

konsentrat dalam diet. Drip loss daripada longissimus dorsi (LD) otot dan kehilangan
semitendinosus (ST) otot didapati lebih rendah (17.32%; 38.98%, masing-masing)
(P<0.05) nilai dalam 100M diet dan meningkat dengan peningkatan nisbah makanan
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konsentrat (17.48, 20.22, 20.37 dan 20.62% dan 40.85, 41.61, 45.59 dan 45.38%,
masing-masing) bagi drip loss dan cooking loss seperti berikut, 75M: 25C, 50M:
50C, 25M: 75C dan 100M diet). Sebaliknya, ricih-daya (kg) bagi kedua-dua otot
nyata (P<0.05) meningkat dengan peningkatan makanan konsentrat dalam diet. Ciri-
ciri warna dari segi ringan (L *), kemerahan (* a) dan sudut warna (H °) longissimus
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dorsi (LD) otot adalah lebih tinggi (46.29, 12.55 dan 44.89, masing-masing) dalam
100M diet ke diet lain. Aliran yang sama ditunjukkan dalam semitendinosus (ST)
otot. Daun Moringa telah meningkatkan UFA dan PUFA dalam longissimus dorsi
(LD) dan semitendinosus (ST) otot berbanding dengan diet konsentrat yang lengkap.
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Selain itu, nisbah asid lemak tak tepu dan asid lemak tepu meningkat dengan tahap
foraj moringa dan bahagian omega-6 dan omega-3 asid lemak yang semakin
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meningkat telah dikurangkan dengan meningkatkan tahap diet foraj moringa.
Moringa, yang mempengaruhi dalam 18 : 3n-3, adalah satu peranti yang penting
untuk menjana n-3 PUFA dalam daging. Malondialdehyde (MDA), yang utama
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substrat pengoksidaan lipid dalam kedua longissimus dorsi (LD) dan semitendinosus
(ST) otot berkurangan dengan peningkatan suplemen foraj moringa. Yang semakin
berkurangan di peringkat peroksidaan lipid dalam kedua-dua otot menunjukkan
peranan daun moringa sebagai antioksidan yang boleh melindungi lipid teroksida
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dalam otot.
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Kajian ini mendedahkan kambing yang ditambah diet daun moringa mencapai
prestasi pertumbuhan yang menggalakkan dan karkas lebih wajar lebih ramping
dengan kandungan daging yang berat daripada daging dan rendah lemak
subkutaneus memperbaiki ciri-ciri karkas. Peningkatan diet dedaun moringa
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cenderung untuk meningkatkan kualiti daging dari segi keupayaan pegangan air dan
ciri-ciri warna. Penggantian konsentrat dengan dedaun moringa dalam diet juga
boleh mengurangkan jumlah SFA dan meningkatkan asid lemak politaktepu dalam
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chevon memberi faedah dalam meningkatkan kesihatan dan kesejahteraan dan

mengurangkan penyakit degeneratif bagi manusia. Selain itu, daun moringa
mempunyai potensi antioksidan yang penting, oleh itu, ditambah dedaunan moringa
dalam diet untuk kambing boleh melindungi produk daripada kemerosotan oksidatif
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dalam tempoh bedah siasat. Kesan foraj moringa boleh menjelaskan perlindungan
penggunaan yang lama dalam penggunaan daging. Oleh itu, dedaun moringa boleh
digunakan sebagai pengganti makanan konsentrat mahal untuk kambing.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my eternal gratitude to Almighty Allah, who granted me the strength,

endurance and good health to complete this journey.
I am grateful and indebted to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Abdul Razak Alimon, for his patience,
tireless support, willingness to help, encouragement, kindness and guidance throughout the
research and during the preparation of thesis. I am very much grateful to the members of my
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supervisory committee namely Associate Professor Dr. Halimatun Yaakub and Dr. Awis
Qurni Sazili from the Faculty of Agriculture in UPM and Dr. Khan Shahidul Huque from
Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, Bangladesh, for their encouragement, constructive
discussion, excellent advice, comments, and suggestions throughout the study period.
Special thanks to Prof. Dr. Jothi Malar Panadam, Dr. Kassim Hamid and Dr. Shokri Jusoh
for their encouragement during my study period.
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I am very grateful to the Bangladesh Agriculture Research Council (BARC),
Bangladesh for giving me an opportunity via a scholarship to study for my PhD at
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UPM. I would like to thank Dr. Khan Shahidul Huque and Dr. Nazrul Islam, the past
and present Directors of the Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute, respectively
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for their permission and approval for me to study and for allowing me to conduct my
PhD research at the institute.
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My thanks and appreciations to the academic and support staff of the Department of
Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture. My sincere appreciation goes to Dr. Mahdi
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Ebrahimi of Physiology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, and Miss

Rohaida of Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Department of Animal Science for their
helpful efforts during my laboratory analysis. Special thanks to Dr. Mohammed Baba
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for his fine co-operation and moral support during my difficult time. I would like to
thank all my friends, Malaysian and international, for their friendship, among them,
Thayalini, Khin, Azad Bhnan Sabow, Atika Ibrahim, Khadijah, Suraya, Sharmilla,
Hazira, Tanisha and others who are not mentioned here but their help is fully
appreciated.
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My deep gratitude is extended to my husband, S.M. Jahangir Hossain for his

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patience, encouragement, support and for caring my beloved children throughout the
course of my study. My most loving children, Afia Zahin and Nazeefa Labiba who
was sacrificed the most to allow me to accomplish this study. You are an inspiration
to me on a daily basis to be more than what I was the day before. I would like to
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express my deepest appreciation to my father, Md. Ali Akbar for his love and
prayers. Your constructive ways of life, patience and advice inspire me for a greater
achievement in life. I would like to extend my special sincere thanks to my younger
sister and bothers for their encouragement and support. Finally, I would like to
express my deep appreciation to my friends forever; Farida Yasmin, Zennat Sultana
and Jannatara Khatun for their encouragement and moral support throughout this
educational journey.
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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been
accepted as fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
The members of the Supervisory Committee are as follows:
Abdul Razak Bin Alimon, PhD

Professor
Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)
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HalimatunYaakub, PhD
Associate Professor
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(Member)
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Awis Qurni Bin Sazili, PhD
Senior Lecturer H
(Member)
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Khan Shahidul Huque, PhD
Chief Scientific Officer
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Animal Production Research Division

Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute
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(Member)
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__________________________
BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD.
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Professor and Dean

School of Graduate Studies
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Date
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT i
ABSTRAK iv
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii
APPROVAL viii
DECLARATION x
LIST OF TABLES xv
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LIST OF FIGURES xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES xviii
LIST OF ABREVIATIONS xx
CHAPTER
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1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Research problem 2
1.2. Research hypothesis 3
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1.3. Objectives 3
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.
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Strategies of the utilization of tropical feed resources
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2.2. Plant Foliage as a Ruminant feed 4
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2.3. Distribution of Moringa tree 4
2.4. Botanical aspects of Moringa 5
2.5. Ecological requirement of Moringa 5
2.6. Biomass production 5
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2.7. Chemical composition of Moringa 6

2.7.1. Amino acid profile of Moringa 7
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2.7.2. Mineral composition of Moringa 7

2.7.3. Fatty acid composition of Moringa leaves 8
2.7.4. Anti-nutrients and bioactive compound of Moringa 8
2.7.5. Antioxidant of Moringa leaves 10
2.8. Utilization of Moringa tree 11
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2.9. Moringa use as a ruminant feed 11

2.10. Nutrients intake and digestibility of Moringa foliage in
12
ruminants
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2.11. Effect of feeding Moringa foliage on animal performance 12

2.12. Effect of Moringa foliage on milk yield and milk composition 13
2.13. Carcass characteristics 14
2.14. Meat quality attributes 14
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2.14.1. pH and the quality of meat 14

2.14.2. Meat color 15
2.14.3. Water holding capacity 15
2.15. Tenderness 16
2.16 Fats and fatty acids in goat meat 17
2.17. Lipid per oxidation 18
2.18. Conclusion 19
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3. EFFECT OF CUTTING INTERVALS ON YIELD AND NUTRIENT
COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PLANT FRACTIONS OF Moringa 20
oleifera TREE
3.1. Introduction 20
3.2. Materials and Methods 21
3.2.1. Location and agro-climatic of the experiment site 21
3.2.2. Preparation of experimental plot 22
3.2.3. Experimental layout , design and treatments 22
3.2.4. Harvesting procedure and data collection 23
3.2.5. DM yield of total foliage, leaf and stems 23
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3.2.6. Chemical analysis 23
3.2.7. In -vitro dry matter and organic matter digestibility 27
3.2.8. Statistical analysis 28
3.3. Results 29
3.3.1. Yield 29
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3.3.2. Nutrient composition 30
3.3.3. In-vitro dry matter and organic matter digestibility 32
3.4. Discussion 33
3.4.1. Yield 33
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3.4.2. Leaf stem ratio 34
3.4.3. Nutrient composition
H 34
3.4.4. In-vitro dry matter and organic matter digestibility 36
3.5. Conclusion 36
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4. EVALUATION OF ANTI-NUTRITIONAL COMPOUNDS,
ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY AND FATTY ACID PROFILE OF 37
MORINGA FOLIAGE AT DIFFERENT CUTTING INTERVALS
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4.2.1. Moringa foliage samples 38
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4.2.2. Determination of total phenol, non tannin phenol, tannins and

39
condensed tannins
4.2.3. Determination of total flavonoid 40
4.2.4. Determination of total saponin 40
4.2.5. Antioxidant activity (DPPH free radical scavenging activity) 41
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4.2.6. Determination of fatty acid composition 42

4.3. Results 43
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4.3.1. Anti-nutritional compounds 43

4.3.2. Antioxidant activity 44
4.3.3. Fatty acid composition 45
4.4. Discussion 45
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4.4.1. Anti-nutritional compounds 45

4.4.2. Antioxidant activity 47
4.4.3. Fatty acid composition 48
4.5. Conclusion 48
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5. EFFECTS OF SUBSTITUTION OF CONVENTIONAL
CONCENTRATE WITH MORINGA FOLIAGES ON THE
50
GROWTH PERFORMACE, CARCASS YIELD AND MEAT
QUALITY OF GOATS FED ON A PADDY STRAW BASE DIET
5.2.1. Location of the experiment 51
5.2.2. Experimental animals 52
5.2.3. Experimental diet and management 52
5.2.4. Experimental design 54
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5.2.5. Digestibility trial 54
5.2.6. Slaughter procedure and carcass sampling 55
5.2.7. Carcass cut 55
5.2.8. Meat quality 56
5.2.9. Chemical analysis 58
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5.2.10. Determination of gross energy content 58
5.2.11. Lipid extraction and fatty acid analysis 59
5.2.12. Lipid peroxidation 59
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5.3. Results 60
5.3.1. Chemical composition of experimental diet
H 60
5.3.2. Fatty acid composition of feed ingredients and experimental
60
diets
5.3.3. Feed intake and growth performance 62
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5.3.4. Nutrient Utilization 64
5.3.5. Carcass characteristics 65
5.3.6. Primal cut 68
5.3.7. Proximate composition 69
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5.3.9. Muscle fatty acid profile 74
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5.3.10. Lipid peroxidation in LD and ST muscles 77

5.4. Discussion 78
5.4.1. Chemical composition of experimental die 78
5.4.2. Feed intake and growth performance 78
5.4.3. Nutrient utilization 79
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5.4.4. Carcass composition 80

5.4.6. Fatty acid profile of muscles 83
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5.4.7. Lipid peroxidation in muscle 85

5.5. Conclusion 86
6. GENERAL DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND

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87
RECOMMENDATIONS
REFERENCES 91
APPENDICES 119
BIODATA OF STUDENT 134
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 135
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
3.1 Monthly rainfall temperature and humidity in 2011 21
3.2 Experimental layout of the treatments 22
3.3 Harvesting schedule for the experiment at different cutting intervals 22
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3.4 Fresh biomass and DM yield of different plant fractions and leaf 29
stem ratio of Moringa oleifera tree at different cutting intervals
3.5 Chemical composition, calcium and phosphorus content of the 31

different plant fractions ratio of Moringa oleifera tree at different
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cutting intervals
4.1 Total phenols, tannins, non-tannin phenols, condensed tannins, total 44

flavonoids, and total saponins in moringa foliage at different cutting
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intervals
4.2
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Effect of cutting intervals on fatty acid composition of moringa
foliage
45
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5.1 Ingredient (%) of concentrate and chemical composition of 53
concentrate mixture, moringa foliage and paddy straw (%DM)
5.2 Chemical composition of five experimental diet mixtures (% in DM) 54

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5.3 Fatty acid profiles (% of total fatty acid) of straw, moringa foliage 61
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and concentrate mixture
5.4 Fatty acid profiles (% of total fatty acid) of experimental diets of 61

Bengal goats fed paddy straw based diet
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5.5 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on growth performances 62

of Bengal goats fed paddy straw based diet
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5.6 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on intake of Bengal goats 63

fed paddy straw based diet
5.7 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on digestibility (%) of 64

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Bengal goats fed paddy straw based diet
5.8 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on nitrogen utilization (g 65

d–1animal–1) of Bengal goats fed paddy straw based diet
5.9 Carcass characteristics of Bengal goats fed different dietary 66

treatments
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5.10 Effect of dietary treatments on non-carcass components (%) of 67
slaughter weight in goats
5.11 Effect of dietary treatments on non-carcass fats (%) of slaughter 68

weight in goats
5.12 Percent of primal cut (%) of cold carcass of goats fed different 69
dietary treatments
5.13 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on proximate 70
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composition in longissimus dorsi and semitendinosus muscles of
Bengal goats
5.14 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on physico-chemical 73

characteristics of goats longissimus dorsi and semitendinosus
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muscles during post-mortem period
5.15 Fatty acid composition of longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles of 75

Bengal goats under different dietary treatments
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5.16 Fatty acid composition of semitendinosus (ST) muscles of Bengal
H 76
goats under different treatments
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xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
3.1 Effect of cutting intervals on IVDMD and IVOMD of moringa 33

foliage
4.1 DPPH radical scavenging activity of moringa foliage at 44

different cutting intervals at a concentration of 125 ug mg–1
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5.1 Effect of supplementation of moringa foliage on pH value in LD 71
muscle within 24 hours of Bengal goat
5.2 Antioxidant activity in LD and ST muscles of goats under different 77

levels of moringa foliage supplementation (mg MDA kg–1 muscle)
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xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
A.1 Preparation of solution for in vitro gas production 119
B.1 Proximate composition and metabolizable energy of feed 121

ingredient of concentrate mixture
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B.2 Fatty acid composition of soybean meal 121
B.3 Fatty acid composition in longissimus lumborum (LD) muscles 122

of goats under different treatments
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B.4 Fatty acid composition in semitendinosus (ST) muscles of goats 123
under different treatments
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B.5 List of price of feed ingredient and cost (kg-1) of feed in the 124
present experimental diet
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B.6 Economic implication of moringa foliage fed to goat at different 125
experimental diet
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C.1 Relationship between total phenol and DPPH inhibition 126
C.2 Relationship between flavonoid and DPPH inhibition 126

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C.3 Relationship of n: 6: n:3 ratio and PUFA:SFA among different 127

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levels of moringa foliage in diet
C.4 Relationship of MDA production (mg kg–1 meat) of LD and ST 127

muscle at different level of moringa foliage in diet
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C.5 Relationship between carcass fat (%) and at different level of 128
moringa foliage in diet
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C.6 Drip or cooking loss of LD muscle in response to moringa 128

foliage in diets
C.7 Drip or cooking loss of ST muscle in response to moringa 129

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foliage in diets
C.8 Shear force of LD and ST muscles in response to moringa 129

foliage in diets
D.1 Plants were cut uniformly at a height of 0.76 meter above the 130
ground
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D.2 After re-growth of experimental plot 131
D.3 Moringa foliage 132
D.4 Bengal goat in Bangladesh 133
D.5 Muscle samples were collected 133
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xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADF acid detergent fiber
ADG average daily gain
ADL acid detergent lignin
ANOVA analysis of variance
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BG Bengal goat
BHT butylated hydroxyl toluene
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BLRI Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute
BW body weight
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CETAB cetyl trimethylammonium bromide
°C
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degrees centigrade
CLA conjugated lenoleic acid

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CP crude protein
d day
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DCP dicalcium phosphate

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DM dry matter
DMD dry matter digestibility

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DMI dry matter intake
DPPH 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl
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DW dry weight
DSW dry sample weight

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EE ether extract
FA fatty acid
FAO food and agriculture organization
FCR feed conversion ratio
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FID flame ionized detector
FMAE fatty acid methyl esters
g gram
GE Gross energy
h hour
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ha hectare
IVDM in-vitro dry matter
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IVOM in-vitro organic matter
IVDMD in-vitro dry matter digestibility
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IVOMD in-vitro organic matter digestibility
KCl
H
potassium chloride
l litre
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kg kilo calories
LD longissimus dorsi
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MDA malondialdehyde
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ME metabolizable energy
MF moringa foliage
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m metre
ml milliliter
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mm millimeter
mg milligram
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MOL Moringa oleifera leaf
MUFA mono unsaturated fatty acids
n-3:n-6 ratio total n-3 PUFA to total n-6 PUFA ratio
NDF neutral detergent fiber

xxi
NDS neutral detergent solution
NRC Nutritional Research Council
OM organic matter
OMD organic matter digestibility
PUFA polyunsaturated fatty acid
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PUFA: SFA ratio total PUFA to total SFA ratio
SE standard error
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SFA saturated fatty acid
ST semitendinosus
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t ton
TBARS
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thiobarbituric acid reactive substances
TFC total flavonoid compounds

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TPC total phenol compounds
TNCF total non-carcass fat

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UNO United Nation Organization

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USFA unsaturated fatty acid
VSF Volodkevitch shear force

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W weight
WAD West African Dwarf goats

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WBSF Warner-Bratzler shear force
WHO World Health organization

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y year
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Feed unavailability is a most important constraint to the development of ruminant

production in the developing countries in Asia and in many parts of the world, where
the ruminant animals are usually raised on natural pastures, crop residues, agro-
industrial by-products and non-conventional feed resources; mainly of local fodder,
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shrubs or tree leaves which are usually deficient in nutrient contents. These feeds are
generally low in quality and imbalanced in terms of mineral and vitamin contents.
They are deficient in protein, energy, minerals and vitamins. Animals fed on these
feeds fail to get adequate nutrients for their maintenance and production, and show
poor productive and reproductive performances. These low quality roughages require
U
supplementation with concentrates as sources of protein, energy and macro and
micro minerals to support improved their performance. However, concentrates are
expensive and may not be accessible to small holder farmers.
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There is a general shortage of concentrate feed in the Asian countries which is
H
partially meet by importation. Imported feed ingredients lead to a higher production
cost of livestock products. Therefore, strategies need to be developed through
enhancing the production of indigenous feed resources and their efficient utilization
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for ruminants (Makkar, 2012).
Forage from fodder trees and shrubs may be contributed for increasing the supply of
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quality feed and availability of feed to resource-limited livestock farmers (Moyo et

al., 2012a). The most of fodder tree and shrub forages are cultivated easily with
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minimum cost and without using any modern technology (Mendieta-Araica et al.,
2011b). The tree fodders provide a cheap source of protein and micronutrients. Now
a days, scientists has been shown increasing research interests on searching
alternative protein sources for goats from forage trees and shrubs (Sanon et al.,
2008;Yayneshet et al., 2008; Marume, 2010 and Oni et al., 2010).
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Moringa oleifera Lamarck is a small non-leguminous multipurpose native tree to

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Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Afganistan (Sreelatha and Padma, 2009). It grows
fast, is rich in protein and contains negligible amounts of anti-nutritive compounds
(Nouala et al., 2006; Ogbe and affiku, 2011; Aye and Adegum, 2013, Mendieta-
Araica et al., 2011b). A major fraction of the protein of moringa leaves is true
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protein (Makkar, 2012) including a rich source of carotenoids, vitamin C and

antioxidants (Yang et al., 2006; Sreelatha and Padma, 2009) makes moringa leaves
more nutritionous feed for goats (Sarwatt et al., 2002; Asaolu et al., 2010, 2011 and
2012; Moyo et al., 2012a and) and other ruminant animals (Murro et al., 2003;
Sarwatt, et al., 2004; Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011b; Gerbregiorgis et al., 2012 and
Sánchez et al., 2006a).
1
The goat population in Bangladesh is 27.1 million (FAOSTAT, 2008). Most of the
goats possess Black Bengal which is about 90% of the total goats (DLS, 2010). The
characteristics of Black Bengal goats are small in size having live weight 16-18 kg
for a mature female and 24-26 kg for adult males, highly prolific, good meat and skin
quality and survive to harse environment (Chowdhury and Faruque, 2004; Khan and
Khatun, 2013). The goat stands second position in terms of meat, milk and skin
production, in placed of about 38.0, 23.0 and 28.0%, respectively to the total
contribution of livestock in Bangladesh (FAO, 1997). The goats are mostly raised by
small, marginal and landless farmers under scavenging system. Now a days,
established Govermment farms including some private organization are keeping goat
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unde semi-scavanging system (DLS, 2010). Goat are usually graze on fallow land,
embankment of river, road side and in the cultivable land between cropping interval
about eight hours.The goats are also grazing about eight hours in the pasture lands
and they are also provided some concentrate mixed (maize grain, wheat bran,
kheshari bran and soybean meal) under semi scavenging system. Goats have been
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recently documented as a tool of poverty alleviation by the Government of
Bangladesh (DLS, 2010).
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Meat production is the most important function of goats in the tropics (Devendra,
1991). The Bengal Goat (BG) of Bangladesh is kept mainly for meat production, and
H
their carcass quality was found to be low under traditional poor feeding system
(Chowdhury and Faruque, 2004). These animals are mainly raised under scavenging
and browsing system. However, raising them under a semi-intensive system with
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supplementation of quality feeds resulted in a higher average daily gain and
improved dressing percentage and carcass quality (Chowdhury and Faruque, 2004).
Most of the goats in the South East Asia are reared by small holder farmers, rarely
getting concentrate feeds due to high feed cost and capital constraint. Moringa trees
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are available and grow abundantly at farm levels, and it’s foliages may support better
growth, and carcass yield and meat quality.
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1.1. Research Problem

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The world consumption of animal products might be double in a future period of four
decades than that of the reporting year, and a large part of the increase would be in
the Asia (FAO, 2011). The average per capita meat consumption in the Asia is lower
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than the world average (Makkar, 2012). The demand of animal protein has been
increasing with the rise of population, urbanization, and income and dietary shift to
high quality food in the most parts of the Asia. However, availability of feeds both in
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terms of quality and quantity is considered to be the most limiting factor for goat
production in Bangladesh, and efficient utilization of locally available feed resources
may increase feed availability cost effectively at farm levels.To increase goat
production, maximum utilization of indigenous feed resources could be an alternative
to expensive concentrate feed.
2
1.2. Research hypothesis
Bangladesh has available Moringa oleifera tree, but still are not utilized as ruminant
feed. Moringa foliage has not been evaluated in terms of nutritional characterization
at different cutting interval and the effect of partial or whole substitution of
concentrate feed on goat performances and the effect of polyunsaturated fatty acid
and antioxidant activity in moringa foliage on goat meat quality in Bangladesh. An
optimum level of moringa foliage inclusion in diets replacing concentrate feeds with
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an enhanced growth performance and meat quality of Bengal goats (BG) was
determined through conducting feeding trials. Hence, the research hypotheses are:
i) The nutrient composition and digestibility of moringa foliage is
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sufficiently high and can be used as feed for ruminants
ii) Moringa foliage can replace partially or wholly the concentrate
component in Bengal goat diet.
iii) The carcass composition and quality of goats fed diets supplemented with
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moringa foliage is superior to that of goats receiving diet of straw and
concentrate only. H
1.3. Research Objectives
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The general objective of this study was to evaluate the nutritional characterization of
different plant fractions of Moringa oleifera tree harvested at different cutting
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intervals, and to evaluate the growth performance and carcass and meat quality of
Black Bengal goats fed diets supplemented with moringa foliage.The specific
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objectives were as follows:
1. To determine nutrient composition of different plant fractions of Moringa

oleifera harvested at different cutting intervals.
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2. To determine anti-nutritional compounds, anti-oxidant activity and fatty acid

composition of moringa foliages at different cutting interval.
3. To evaluate the effects of partial and whole replacement of concentrate feed
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by moringa foliage on the growth, carcass composition and meat quality of

Bengal goats fed on a paddy straw based diet.
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3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Strategies of the utilization of tropical feed resources
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Preston and Leng (1987) suggested that the important steps to develop feeding
systems in the tropics is to select available and cost effective carbohydrate resources
on priority basis followed by identification of quality supplements considering their
nutritional quality and costs. The supplementary feeds, especially those having both
rumen degradable and/or undegradable nutritional properties to support a higher
fermentation of cell wall materials in the rumen and a better production performance
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of ruminant animals are more desirable.
2.2. Plant Foliage as a Ruminant Feed
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Tree foliage and shrubs generally contain high crude protein ranging from 12 up to -
30% DM (Norton, 1994; Leng, 1997). The apparent digestibility of the total N of low
quality basal diet supplemented with these foliages varied from 41 to 68% in sheep
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(Melaku et al., 2004; Patra et al., 2002), goats (Nherera et al., 1998; Anbarasu et al.,
2004; Bhatta et al., 2005) and cattle (Beever et al., 1986). Currently, scientists have
been showing their interests on the use of tree species as good-quality fodder,
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especially in dry periods, when fodder availability to farmers is limited by its

production. Tree species like Leucaena leucocephala, Zizipus jujuba, Morus alba,
Terminalia arjuna, Gliricidia sepium, Calliandra calothyrsus and Moringa oleifera
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have been extensively studied as livestock fodder. Moringa oleifera is an incredible

plant species, having ability to yield high biomass with quality nutritional values for
feeding ruminant livestock (Sánchez et al., 2006b).
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2.3. Distribution of Moringa tree

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The Moringa oleifera tree cultivates throughout the most of the tropics, and it is
native to India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Afghanistan (Sreelatha and Padma, 2009).
It is widely spread throughout the tropics and sub-tropics region of Africa and Asia.
Moringa oleifera is cultivated extensively as vegetable crops in India and in various
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parts of Africa (Radovich, 2011). Currently, it is widely cultivated and has become
naturalized in many parts of the world. In Nicaragua, moringa was naturalized as an
ornamental tree in addition use as hedge of household (Morton, 1991).
4
2.4. Botanical aspects of Moringa
Moringa oleifera Lam (synonym: Moringa pterygosperma Gaertner), commonly

referred to as the ‘drumstick tree’ or horseradish tree’ belongs to the mono-genus
family “Moringaceae” having 12 other species. The tree ranges in height from 7 to
12 m, has tuberous roots, soft and spongy wood, short trunk (25 cm thick), and
slender, wide spreading, drooping, fragile branches (Ramachandran et al., 1980; von
Maydell, 1986).
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2.5. Ecological requirements of Moringa
Moringa requires daily temperatures from 25 to 30⁰C, annual rainfall of 500-1500
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mm, high solar radiation and a well-drained soil for optimum leaf and pod
production (Sànchez et al., 2006b). Its growth slows below 20°C temperatures.
Moringa can grow in minimum annual rainfall at 250 mm and with a maximum at
over 3,000 mm, but the roots have a tendency to decompose in waterlogged soil. It
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grows best in altitudes up to 600 m; however, it grows at altitudes of up to 1200 m in
some tropical areas and has been reported to grow at 2000 m (Martin, 2007).
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Moringa is relatively tolerant to drought and responds well to irrigation and
fertilization. It tolerates a wide range of soil types (pH 4.5–9), except heavy clays,
and prefers a neutral to slightly acidic soil, but grows quite well in alkaline
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conditions up to a pH of 9 (Martin, 2007).
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2.6. Biomass production

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Moringa biomass is produced for different purposes such as vegetable crop, livestock
fodder, green manure biogas, plant growth enhancer and as bio-pesticides. The two
important factors that determine the suitability of fodder trees or shrubs as forage
species; one is the significant levels of edible biomass production and the other is the
tolerance to ability to regowth (Benavidez, 1996). Moringa has been found to be
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tolerant to pruning under different cutting frequencies (Sánchez et al., 2006b; Foidl
et al., 2002). The maximum edible DM yield depends on several factors such as
cutting interval, wheather over the year (rainfall, temperature and humidity etc.),
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fertilization and density of plantation (Foidl et al., 2002; Sánchez et al., 2006b and
Mendieta-Aracia et al., 2013). Nouman et al. (2013) found that maximum fresh
biomass was obtained in the hot rainy season when the plants were harvested at 30
cm cutting level. In addition they also found that higher cutting levels gave more dry
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matter yield compared to lower ones. Fadiyimu et al. (2011) also obtained the
highest yields with 4 to 6 weeks cutting interval at a height of 150 cm in the rainy
season; however, the lowest yield was at 12 weeks cutting interval when harvested at
the cutting height of 150 cm in the dry season. According to Fadiyimu et al. (2011),
in the dry season the treatment response was quite different and that the highest
yields were obtained with the 12 weeks harvest interval at 100 cm cutting level. The
DM yield of moringa obtained was comparable to the DM production of Calliandra
calothyrsus (17 t ha–1 y–1) and Gliricidia sepium (17.7 t ha–1 y–1) as reported by
5
Catchpoole and Blair (1990) and higher than the DM yield of Sesbania grandiflora
(13.93 t ha–1 y–1) cited in Sánchez et al. (2006b). These data suggest moringa has the
potential for higher fodder productivity compared to other fodder trees.
2.7. Chemical composition of Moringa
Dry matter percentage is a very important component of a feed that needs to be

known before ration formulation. So that, the animals may have an optimum level
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feed intake that meet their daily requirement. DM is defined as feed material after
removal of water, while the moisture content indicates the amount of water present in
the feed ingredient. The DM content in different fractions of moringa varied from
110.4 (Mendieta-Aracia et al., 2013) to 460.0 g kg–1 (Aregheore, 2002). Mendieta-
Aracia et al. (2013) found 110.4 and 203.8 g kg–1 dry matter content in fine and
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coarse fractions respectively in 45 day old fresh foliage. Sánchez et al. (2006b)
observed that the dry matter content of fresh foliage increased from 164 to 228 g kg–1
in plants aged 45 and 75 days, respectively. The highest DM content (460.0 g kg–1)
of the moringa foliage was reported by Aregheore (2002). The variations in DM can
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be explained by cutting frequency, stage of maturity, succulence of materials, and the
ratio of different fractions. H
Several authors have suggested moringa as an excellent fodder, with high CP
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concentrations (Fadiyimu et al., 2010; Ndemanisho et al., 2007; Soliva et al., 2005;
Gidamis et al., 2003; Aregheore, 2002; Foidl et al., 2002). A wide variation in CP
content of different fractions of moringa has been reported, varying from 62.0 to
338.0 g kg–1 DM (Makkar and Becker, 1997; Gidamis et al., 2003). Kakengi et al.
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(2005) observed that incorporation of soft twigs and leaves in leaf meal instead of
leaves alone decreased CP concentration in the meal by 22%. Similarly, Afuang et
al. (2003) and Murro et al. (2003) obtained 254.0 g kg–1 DM CP when only leaves
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were used in leaf meal in contrast to 120.0 g kg–1 DM CP obtained when leaves and
branches were used in the leaf meal. Pok et al. (2005) observed that there was no
significant difference between new (327.0 g kg–1 DM) and old tropical tree leaves
(300.0 g kg–1 DM).
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A wide variation in ADF, NDF, ADL, EE and ash content of moringa has been
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reported by various researchers, with the variations of ADF from 79.0 to 684.0 g kg–1
DM (Kakengi et al., 2005; Mendieta-Aracia et al., 2013), NDF from 111.0 to 684.0
g kg–1 DM (Kakengi et al., 2005; Makkar and Becker, 1997), ADL from 11.0 to
111.0 g kg–1 DM (Makkar and Becker, 1997; Mendieta-Aracia et al., 2013), EE from
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22.6 to 109.1 g kg–1 DM (Jongrungruangchock et al., 2010; Manh et al., 2005), and
ash from 69.0 to 204.0 g kg–1 DM (Makkar and Becker, 1997; Gupta et al., 1989). A
number of reasons may be attributed to the seeming disparity in the contents.
However, the main reason is the proportion of leaf and non-leaf fractions which
impact the chemical composition of moringa forage. Moreover, agro-climatic
circumstances and different maturity stage of trees may be sources of variation in the
chemical composition (Reyes and Fermin, 2003). In addition, some authors have
6
reported that the drying and preservation method can be influenced in chemical
composition of moringa forage (Mendieta-Aracia et al., 2013).
2.7.1. Amino acid profile of Moringa
The amino acid profile of moringa leaves were investigated by several authors
(Makkar and Becker 1997 and 1996; Sanchez-Machado et al., 2010; Gupta et al.,
1989; Moyo et al., 2011). The total amino acid concentration of leaves, pods and
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flowers were 127.7, 74.5 and 116.7 mg g–1 respectively, while total essential amino
acids represented 44, 30 and 31%, respectively (Sanchez-Machado et al., 2010). The
highest amino acid value was observed in the leaves than stem, bark and seed of
moringa tree. Makkar and Becker (1996) reported that amino acid content in
extracted moringa leaves was higher than that of unextracted leaves. The amino acid
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profile of moringa leaves follows the standard WHO/FAO/UNO amino acid pattern
that recommended for children (Makkar and Becker, 1996). It is established that
rumen microorganisms can synthesize essential amino acids from other amino acids,
peptides or non-protein nitrogenous substances (Moyo et al., 2011). The efficiency
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of microbial protein production depends on the presence of sufficient amino acids,
peptides and most macro and micro minerals (Swanepoel et al., 2010). It is important
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to maximize microbial protein synthesis in the rumen to ensure the availability of
optimum amino acid to ruminant animals (Stern et al., 2006). Moringa leaves have
been reported to provide a high quality protein due to its amino acid composition
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(Foidl et al., 2001; Sanchez-Machado et al., 2010 and Moyo et al., 2011). Total
protein digestibility of moringa leaves is high (85-90%) and out of this 49% is
digestible in the rumen, and the rest would be available in the small intestine
depending on the quality of the amino acids (Ben Salem et al., 2004).
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2.7.2. Mineral composition of Moringa
Minerals are an important component of animal feed ingredients. It is essential to

supply optimum level of minerals to maintain normal and proper functions of the
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body as well as maintenance of good health. If animals do not consume the required
minerals, they are faced with many problem such as; reduced production and
fertility, weakness of the bone, and increased incidences of non-infectious diseases.
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Animals cannot synthesize minerals in their body but must be supplied from plants
and other feed ingredients (Mosha et al., 1995). Moringa leaves have reasonable
amounts of major and trace minerals (Aslam et al., 2005). Several works have
reported a wide variation of Ca from 19.0 to 54.3 g kg–1 DM (Ogbe and Affiku,
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2011; Aye and Adegum, 2013), P from 12.9 to 60.0 g kg–1 DM (Aslam et al., 2005;
Gupta et al., 1989), Mg from 30.0 to 50.0 g kg–1 DM (Gupta et al., 1989; Moyo et
al., 2011), K from 9.7 to 21.7 kg–1 DM ( Ogbe and Affiku, 2011; Aslam et al., 2005),
and Na from 1.6 to 2.3 g kg–1 DM (Moyo et al., 2011; Aslam et al., 2005) in moringa
leaves. It has also been reported that moringa leaves have reasonable trace minerals
(Aye and Adegum, 2013; Moyo et al., 2011; Ogbe and Affiku 2011; Aslam et al.,
2005). The variations in mineral content of moringa leaves could be due to variation
in agro climatic conditions, mineral content in the soil on which the plant is grown,
7
season and temperature (Nouman et al., 2013). Mc.Dowell (2003) reported that
2300, 2700 and 2800 mg kg–1 of P; 6000, 6500 and 4600 mg kg–1 of K; 4600, 5100
and 3000 mg kg–1 of Ca and 1000, 1500 and 1600 mg kg–1 of Mg are sufficient for
beef cattle, sheep and goats, respectively. Moringa leaves contain adequate amounts
of minerals that could maintain good health of ruminant livestock (Nouman et al.,
2013 and Aslam et al., 2005). Hence, Moringa foliage is recommended to farmers as
a fodder crop to feed their livestock.
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2.7.3. Fatty acid composition in Moringa leaves
There are several reports on the fatty acid composition of moringa. Several authors
have identified different numbers of fatty acids in moringa leaves, such as Soliva et
al. (2005), Sanchez-Machado et al. (2010), Amaglo et al. (2010), Moyo et al. (2011)
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and Qwele et al. (2013) who identified 11, 14, 15, 17 and 13 fatty acids, respectively.
Polyunsaturated fatty acid was found to be present in high amounts in moringa
leaves, except for the findings of Qwele et al. (2013). They obtained higher amounts
(63.40%) of oleic acid (C18:1) than linoleic (11.86%) and linolenic acids (1.64%).
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Linolenic acid (C18:3n-3) concentrations varied from 37.3% (Amaglo et al., 2010) to
66.7% (Soliva et al., 2005) whereas linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) ranged from 6.11%
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(Sanchez-Machado et al., 2010) to 15.9% (Amaglo et al., 2010). Among mono-
unsaturated fatty acids, oleic acid (C18:1) recorded the highest value (63.40%) in
moringa leaves (Qwele et al., 2013). Linoleic acid and lenolenic acid are considered
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as essential fatty acids, and arachidonic acid is a precursor of biologically active
eicosanoids (Sanchez-Machado et al., 2004). Moringa leaves contain more dietary
poly-unsaturated fatty acids than saturated fatty acids. A higher quantity of poly-
unsaturated fatty acids and lower quantity of saturated fatty acids in feed ingredients
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are desirable (Hoffman and Wiklund, 2006).

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2.7.4. Anti-nutrients and bioactive compounds in Moringa
Anti-nutrients and bioactive compounds in plants are produced as secondary

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metabolites causing pharmacological or toxicological effect in humans and animals

when ingested at high dosages. Anti-nutrients put forth anti-nutritional or anti-
physiological effects on humans and animals. Conversely, bioactive compounds
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serve a defensive role in human as well as animal health (Felix and Mello, 2000).
There are many anti-nutrients in plants that when present at low levels provide
beneficial effects, such as prevention of diseases like coronary diseases and cancers
(Redden et al., 2005). This suggests that anti-nutrients might not always be harmful
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even if lacking in nutritive value. The balance between beneficial and harmful effects
of bioactives and anti-nutrients depend on their concentration, chemical structure,
time of exposure and interaction with other dietary components (Muzquiz et al.,
2001). For this reason, they can be considered as anti-nutritional factors with
negative effects or bioactive compounds with positive effects on health.
Many tropical fodder legumes have secondary compounds which limit nutrient
consumption and utilization (Leng, 1997; Makkar, 1993). Moringa oleifera Lam is a
non-leguminous multipurpose tree with a negligible amount of anti-nutritional
8
compounds that have no negative effects (Makkar and Becker, 1996 and 1997) on
human as well as animal feeding. The total amount of tannins detected in moringa
leaves ranged from 30.0 mg kg–1 DM (Aye and Adegun, 2013) to 22.0 g kg–1 DM
(Gidamis et al., 2003), which is very negligible. Aye and Adegun (2013) found that
tannin content of moringa leaf meal (30.9 mg kg–1 DM) was lower than that of
gliricidia leaf meal (35.1 mg kg–1 DM) and leucaena leaf meal (37.9 mg kg–1 DM).
These concentrations of tannins have no any adverse effects when consumed by
animals (Makkar and Becker, 1996). Several authors detected total phenols in
moringa leaves under different conditions. Siddhuraju and Becker (2003) observed
total phenolics in moringa leaves of 42.0, 29.4 and 36.6 g kg–1 DM from Nicaragua,
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India and Niger, respectively. Leaf samples collected from Nicaragua had a higher
concentration of total phenolics than Niger and India. However, these values were
lower than the values reported for moringa leaves (Makker and Becker, 1997). The
total phenolic content in the mature leaf was higher (48.8 g kg–1 DM) compared to
the tender leaf (36.02 g kg–1 DM) (Sreelatha and Padma, 2009). Conversely, Reedy
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and Urooj (2010) obtained higher (25.0 g kg–1 DM) phenolics in tender leaves than
mature ones. Pakade et al. (2013) observed that the total phenolic content in moringa
leaves was almost twice that of green vegetables. Sultana et al. (2009) tested the total
phenolics in moringa leaves using different solvents. They observed the highest total
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phenolic contents in aqueous methanol and ethanol extracts than in absolute solvents.
They also obtained higher phenolic contents using shaker technique than the
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refluxing technique. Wangcharoen and Gomolmanee (2011) obtained a higher (9.23
g kg–1 DM) phenolic value in moringa leaves using aqueous extracts compared to
ethanol extracts (5.51 g kg–1DM), which is attributed to phenolics being more water
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soluble than ethanol soluble. Saikia and Upadhyaya (2011) reported that moringa
leaves contain 13.4 g kg–1 DM of total phenolics. Little phenolics (16.0g kg–1 DM)
were detected and no tannins were found when moringa leaves were extracted in
80% ethanol (Makkar and Becker, 1996).
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Another phenolic compound is flavonoids. Flavinoids are the largest family of

polyphenolic compounds. Sometimes polyphenols and flavonoids are used inter
changeably. All flavonoids are polyphenols, but not all polyphenols are flavonoids.
In recent years, attention of scientists has been aimed at identification of flvonoids in
the different parts of moringa tree used as human food and livestock feed. Pakade et
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al. (2013) observed that flavonoid contents in moringa leaves ranged from 24.0 to
40.8 g kg–1 DM. They also reported that total flavonoids of moringa were almost
three times more than some selected vegetables. Siddhuraju and Beacker (2003)
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found that flavonoid content of moringa leaves varied according to location; the
flavonoid values were 44.3, 21.0 and 38.1 g kg–1 DM in moringa leaves from
Nicaragua, India and Niger, respectively. Iqbal and Bhanger (2006) also observed
that flvonoids in moringa leaves varied from 69.3 to 125.3 g kg–1 DM depending on
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different locations. Sreelatha and Padma (2009) obtained higher flavonoid values
(27.0 g kg–1 DM) in mature leaves than tender leaves (15.0 g kg–1 DM). Aye and
Adegum (2013) reported that falvonoid content was lower (23.4 g kg–1 DM) in
moringa leaves than gliricidia (52.5 g kg–1 DM) and leucaena (45.7 g kg–1 DM).
Thus, results from different authors varied depending on location, stage of maturity,
climatic condition, extraction methods, parts of the plant, post-harvest handling,
processing and storage conditions.
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Other anti-nutritional factors present in moringa leaves are nitrate (0.5 mmol 100 g–
1
), oxalate (4.1%), saponin (1.2%) and phytate (3.1%) (Gupta et al., 1989). Ogbe and
Affiku (2011) also found similar values of phytate (2.59%) and saponin (1.6%) in
moringa leaves. They detected trypsin inhibitor (3.05%), while trypsin inhibitor
activity was not detected by Gupta et al. (1989). Aye and Adegum (2013) obtained
saponin values (6.55%) which were approximately similar to that reported by
Makker and Becker (1996 and 1997), but were higher than that of reported by Gupta
et al. (1989) and Ogbe and Affiku (2011). Aye and Adegum (2013) also found that
saponin content of gliricidia leaf meal (7.51%) was higher than moringa leaf meal
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(6.55%) and leucaena leaf meal (5.88%). Phytates content in legume ranged from 1
to 5%. They decrease the bioavailability of minerals in monogastrics (Reddy et al.,
1982). The leaves of moringa are quite rich in minerals and the presence of oxalates
and phytates at concentrations of 4.1 % and 3.1% respectively that may be decreased
the bioavailability of mineral in animals. Saponins from some plants have adverse
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effects on the growth of animals, but those present in moringa leaves appear to be
non-offensive to animals and humans (Makkar and Becker, 1997). Most of the anti-
nutritional factors mentioned above are soluble in aqueous ethanol and would most
probably be absent in the extracted leaves (Makkar and Becker, 1997). Moringa
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oleifera leaves had negligible polyphenolics, saponins, phytates, oxalates and trypsin
inhibitors, with contents similar to that present in soybean meal. Therefore, the
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Moringa oleifera leaves are a potential good source of feed for ruminants.
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2.7.5. Antioxidants in Moringa leaves
Natural antioxidants comprise of vitamin C, tocopherols and their derivatives, and ß-

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carotene that naturally occurs in plant parts (Reddy and Urooj, 2010). The plant
phenolics such as flavonoids are natural compounds which may act as antioxidants
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by mechanisms contributing to anti-carcinogenic action (Toda et al., 1985).
Fruits, vegetables, spice, leaves, roots and barks of certain plants have been exploited
as potential sources of natural antioxidants (Shahidi and Naczk, 2003). Some plants
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contain natural antioxidants such as vitamin, tocopherols, flavonoids and other

phenolic compound (Landrault et al., 2001). It has been reported that the leaves of
moringa have an appreciable amount of antioxidant due to their higher amounts of
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polyphenols (Moyo et al., 2012b; Sreelatha and Padma, 2009; Verma et al., 2009).
These properties were associated with carotenoids, vitamins, minerals, amino acids,
steroids, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolics in Moringa oleifera leaves
(Verma et al., 2009). The major bioactive compounds of the phenolic group present
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in moringa leaves have been reported to be flavonoids, such as quercetin and

kaempferol that act as natural antioxidants due to their marked antioxidant activity
(Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003; Nambiar et al., 2005). Various nutrients and
phytochemicals which have been quantified in different parts of moringa could be
documented as natural dietary antioxidant sources (Singh et al., 2009; Amaglo et al.,
2010). In recent publications, the antioxidant activities of moringa leaves were
shown to be very high owing to high concentrations of polyphenolics (Sreelatha and
Padma, 2009; Verma et al., 2009). Moreover, according to Yang et al. (2006)
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moringa leaves have significant amounts of ß-carotene, ascorbic acid and alpha-
tocopherols which are even higher compared to materials recognized for high
antioxidant contents such as strawberries high in phenolic, hot pepper high in
ascorbate, carrots high in ß-carotene, and soybean which is high in alpha-tocopherol.
This is by virtue of appreciable amounts of phenoloic acids, flavonoids, tannins and
vitamins in the different parts of the moringa tree. It is an excellent source of a wide
range of dietary antioxidants.
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2.8. Utilization of Moringa tree
Moringa oleifera is a multipurpose tree which has received much attention as a

highly nutritive food crop of the tropics. Moringa leaves, flowers and immature pods
have been reported as an excellent nutritive vegetable in many countries, particularly
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in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Philipines, Hawaii and in many parts of Africa
(Anwar and Bhanger, 2003; Anwer et al., 2005). Approximately all parts of the
plant, including the root, bark, gum, leaf, fruit, flowers, seed and seed oil are used as
remedies for various ailments in South Asia (Anwar et al., 2007). The tree produces
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valuable fodder and livestock feed, and is also used in the manufactures of a high-
value industrial oil and as a good water-treatment compound (Mayer and Stelz, 1993,
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Palada, 1996; Tauscher, 1994). The most important industrial application is the use
of moringa seeds for water purification purposes (Kalogo et al., 2001; Broin et al.,
2002). Moringa leaf extract is also used as a growth regulating hormone, and is
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known as an idle plant growth enhancer (Makkar and Becker, 1996; Nouman et al.,
2014).
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2.9. Moringa use as a ruminant feed

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Ruminant production in the tropical countries depends almost entirely on crop

residues, particularly straw and agro industrial by-products as feed. These feed stuffs
are low in protein, energy and minerals and high in lingo-cellulose compounds (Van
Soest, 2006). Intestinal enzymes poorly digest these feeds, and therefore the host
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must rely on microbial fermentation (Dewhurst et al., 2000). Supplementation of low

quality rougahges with protein rich feeds may improve their nutritional qualities. A
potential feeding strategy should be developed for ruminant animals through the use
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of trees and shrubs fodder (Pezo, 1991). One of these potential trees is Moringa
oleifera, which grows throughout the tropics. Moringa leaves are used as livestock
feed and its twigs are reported to be very palatable to ruminants and have appreciable
crude protein levels (Sarwatt et al., 2002; Murro et al., 2003; Sarwatt et al., 2004;
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and Sánchez et al., 2006a; Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011a; Asaolu et al., 2010, 2011
and 2012; Moyo et al., 2012a and Gerbregiorgis et al., 2012). The use of forage
legumes for supplementation has been suggested as an alternative protein source
(Ndmanisho, 1996; Roothaert and Paterson, 1997). However, many tropical fodder
legumes contain secondary plant compounds which limit intake and nutrient
utilization by ruminant animals (Leng, 1997; Makkar, 1993). Moringa oleifera is a
non-leguminous multipurpose tree with a high crude protein in their leaves (251.00 g
kg–1 DM) and a negligible content of tannins and other anti-nutritive compounds
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(Makkar and Becker, 1996). Therefore, it offers an alternative protein source to
ruminants. Another significant characteristic of moringa is higher production of
fresh biomass yield per unit area compared with other forage crops to supplement
ruminants as protein source (Foidl et al., 2002; Sànchez et al., 2006b; Fadiyimu et
al., 2011; Mendieta-Araica et al., 2013).
2.10. Nutrient intake and digestibility of Moringa foliage in ruminants
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The supplementation of protein to low quality roughage diets has been found to
increase total DM intake (Guthrie and Wagner, 1988). Goodchild and McMeniman
(1994) pointed out that the inclusion of 20-50% of plant rich protein in the diet
resulted in 10-45% increase in intake of fibrous forage. Substituting moringa leaves
to low quality Rhodes grass increased intake and the digestibility of nutrients with
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increasing moringa (Moringa stenopetela) leaves (Gebregiorgis et al., 2012). Asaolu
et al. (2012) observed that the DMI of WAD goats were 354.5, 311.3, 288.5 and
299.6 g animal–1d–1 for mixed concentrate, dry moringa foliage, gliricidia and
leucaena supplementations with cassava peel basal diet. The DMI of WAD goats on
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mixed concentrate and dry moringa foliage based diet was comparable. Asaolu et al.,
(2011) compared DMI and the nutrient digestibility of WAD goats using different
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tree forage, such as, moringa, leucaena and gliricidia. They obtained the highest DMI
and nutrient digestibility on absolute moringa compared to leucaena and gliricidia.
Moringa oleifera leaf has also been reported to improve intake as well as nutrient
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utilization (Asaolu et al., 2010) in goat. Fadiyimu et al. (2010) obtained
contradictory results in the case of DMI, where they observed that increased levels of
moringa forage reduced DMI; however, the digestibility of DM, OM, CP or NFE in
goats was increased. Intake values of animal according to Asaolu et al. (2011 and
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2010) and Fadiyimu et al. (2010) were lower than the findings (428.5 g day–1) of
Manh et al. (2005). Nouala et al. (2006) also observed that moringa leaves are
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capable of being used as a supplement to low quality roughage to enhance the

efficiency of nutrient utilization. Sarwatt et al. (2002) employed sunflower seed cake
(SSC) with moringa leaves on small East African goats fed low-quality Chloris
gayana hay to evaluate dry matter intake and digestibility. Increasing replacement
levels of moringa leaves with sun flower seed cake (SSC) increased the digestibility
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of DM and NDF in goats. They suggested that moringa leaves could be used as a
substitute for sunflower seed cake (SSC) or other conventional supplemental feed.
Aregheore (2002) recorded a higher dry matter intake and digestibility of nutrients of
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goat by supplementation with 20 and 50% moringa leaves. They concluded that
Moringa oleifera leaves could be utilized at 20 and 50% levels of total daily forage
allowance as a cheap protein supplement in low quality basal diets for goats.In
conclusion, moringa leaf has beneficial effects on intake and nutrient utilization due
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to its positive effect of the rumen environments.

2.11. Effect of feeding Moringa forage on animal performance
Moringa olieifera has attracted the attention of scientists for its quality as a fodder.
Moringa leaves or foliage are a good protein source that is a suitable substitute of
soybean, rapeseed, cotton seed cake and sunflower seed cake for ruminants, and they
are able to enhance microbial protein synthesis in the rumen (Sarwatt et al., 2002 and
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2004, Soliva et al., 2005). Supplementing the basal diet with graded levels (150 g
moringa + rhodes grass hay, 300 g moringa + hay and 450 g moringa + hay) of dry
moringa leaves in sheep resulted in body weight gains of 42.2, 79.1 and 110.1 g
head–1 day–1 respectively, while a negative body weight gain of -13.3 1 g head–1 day–1
was recorded for the control (with basal diet) (Gebregiorgis et al., 2012). Asaolu et
al. (2012) employed mixed concentrates of dry leaves of moringa, leucaena and
gliricidia as supplements to the basal diet with cassava peels, to investigate the effect
on the body weight gain of WAD goats. They reported that the body weight gain
(21.43 g d–1 animal–1) with mixed concentrates was comparable to the value of 20.83
g d–1 animal–1 for dry moringa leaves as supplement, while lower growth rates of
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14.88 g and 15.48 g d–1 animal–1 respectively, were observed for gliricidia and
leucaena. When Moringa oleifera leaf meal replaced a cotton seed cake based rhodes
grass hay diet in growing sheep the result was a gradual increase in body weight gain
with the increasing levels of Moringa oleifera leaves (Murro et al., 2003). They
suggested that Moringa oleifera leaf meal could be employed as a substitute protein
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source to cotton seed cake in ruminant livestock. Aregheore (2002) reported that
Moringa oleifera at 20 and 50% level of total daily forage allowance could serve as
an inexpensive protein supplement in batiki grass based diets for goats. However,
moringa foliage or leave has not been evaluated as nutritional value either in goats or
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other ruminant in Bangladesh. Therefore, it can be concluded that Moringa oleifera
leaf meal is a potential source of proteins when fed with poor quality roughage. It
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can be easily grown by smallholder farmers in rural areas and may be used as a
supplement to their animals in cut and carry systems, especially in the dry season,
when farmers experience shortage of protein rich feed.
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2.12. Effect of Moringa foliage on milk yield and milk composition
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There are many factors that affect milk yield, including genetics and feeding
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management. It has been reported that feeding moringa leaf or foliage to dairy cow
increases milk yield (Sánchez et al., 2006a; Sarwatt et al., 2004). There was no
difference between moringa leaf meal and commercial concentrate on milk
production and its composition when fed to dairy cows, indicating that moringaas a
protein source is similar to commercially available concentrate in terms of its effects
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on lactation (Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011a). There was also no difference in milk

yield between the fresh and ensiled moringa when compared with a conventional
concentrate diet of elephant grass. Milk composition was not affected by any of the
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treatments where moringa leaf was used as a feed (Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011a).
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There is some evidence in the literature that feeding fresh moringa to dairy cows can
cause off-flavour and aroma (Sánchez et al., 2006a). Avoiding feeding fresh moringa
before the morning milking has been suggested to decrease the problem
(Agrodesierto, 2010). However, when moringa silage was fed instead of fresh
moringa, no problems in organoleptic characteristics were detected (Mendieta-Araica
et al., 2011a).
2.13. Carcass Characteristics
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Different goat breeds in the world have variations in body size and carcass
characteristics (Devendra and Burns, 1983; Warmington and Kirton, 1990). A high
proportion of muscle with a low proportion of bone and an optimal level of fat cover
is the characteristics of a superior goat carcass. The proportions are also mostly
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influenced by the stage of maturity or mature size of the animal, diet and nutritional
factors and the management system (Taylor et al., 1989; Sebsibe et al., 2007).
However, a very little work has been done on the effect of moringa foliage on
carcass characteristics. Moyo et al. (2012a) observed that there was no significant
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difference in carcass characteristics when Moringa oleifera and sunflower seed cake
as protein sources were fed to goats.
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2.14. Meat quality attributes
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The combination of various properties of fresh and processed meat is well- defined in
terms of meat quality (Nam et al., 2009). The meat quality parameters related to
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visual appeal (color, water holding capacity and fatness) and palatability (tenderness,
juiciness, flavor and aroma) are regarded as the key factors that determine the
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consumers’ initial and continued interest in the meat (Chambers and Bowers, 1993;
Issanchou, 1996). These factors may be evaluated directly or indirectly by various
physical, biochemical, histological, and sensory analyses. However, there is no
literature on the physical characteristics of meat quality of goats fed with moringa
foliage.
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2.14.1. pH and the quality of meat

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The pH of the muscle is one of the most important parameters which affect the meat
quality. Normally, the pH in the muscle decreases from pH 7.0 upon slaughter to
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approximately pH 5.3 - 5.8 (Hannula and Puolanne, 2004) at 24 h post slaughter.

Diet may influence the muscle glycogen concentration and the pH value at the time
of slaughter (Rosenvold et al., 2001). Sufficient glycogen concentrations at slaughter
allow the muscle to achieve an ultimate pH (pHu) of around 5.5 (Young et al., 2004).
After slaughter, the muscle becomes anaerobic and glycogen is converted to lactic
acid via the glycolytic pathway. It has been reported that a lower pH appeared in
supplemented goat meat compared to non-supplemented goat meat due to sufficient
glycogen level in supplemented animals (Xazela et al., 2012). On the other hand,
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ultimate pH (pHu) increased when animals were fed insufficient nutrition resulting in
low glycogen reserves in animals (Mushi et al., 2009). The muscle fiber types (red
and white) can also explain the differences in the meat pH. The muscle fibers differ
in their mechanism of energy metabolism before and after slaughter (Swatland,
1982). It has been reported that a high pHu is usually associated with stress in
animals (Dhanda et al., 2003).
2.14.2. Meat color
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Color is an important parameter to meat industry as well as consumers. Consumers
prefer to purchase meat that is red as an indicator of freshness and wholesomeness
rather than brown in color (Mancini and Hunt, 2005). Several factors influence meat
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color, such as age, sex, intramuscular fat, moisture content, pre-slaughtering
conditions, processing, presence of muscle pigments (Northcutt, 2001) and storage
time (Karaoglu et al., 2005).
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Myoglobin is water soluble protein that constitutes about 80-90% of total pigments
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present responsible for meat colour, although other pigments such as haemoglobin
and cytochrome C may also play a role in the colour of meat (Mancini and Hunt,
2005). The myoglobin “pigment” has a purplish red color and this is the color of
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freshly cut meat. When a freshly cut surface of meat comes in contact with air,
myoglobin is oxygenated and converted to oxymyoglobin and brownish
metmyoglobin occurs due to the oxidation of the central iron atom within the haem
group (Faustman et al., 2010). Muscle fibre type also affects meat color. Muscle
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comprised of higher proportion of the red fibre type contains more myoglobin, lipid
has greater oxygen consumption to discolor more rapidly than those with higher
white fibre type content (Faustman et al., 2010). Meat color can be assessed using
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visual appraisal or it can be measured by instruments using three dimensional color

space analysis, eg. CIE Lab-values (also known as L*a*b*). The Hunter Lab color
values, especially a* values, are a good indication of meat redness; higher a* value
leads to redder meat.
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2.14.3. Water holding capacity

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Water is a major part of lean muscle accounting for approximately 75% of its weight
(Aberle et al., 2001). The ability of fresh meat to retain both inherent and added
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water is termed WHC (Aberle et al., 2001; Hamm, 1986). Fennema (1985) indicated
that there are three types of water in the muscle, and each fraction differs in its
mobility. The bound water exists next to proteins and has reduced mobility as well as
strong resistance to freezing. During post mortem, the amount of bound water in the
muscle does not change or may change very little (Offer and Knight, 1988). The
bound water accounts for less than 10% of the total water in muscle (Huff-Lonergan
and Lonergan, 2005). The immobilised or entrapped water is another fraction of
water, which accounts for up to 85% of the total water that exists in the meat (Pearce
et al., 2011). This water is held within the structure of muscle either by steric (space)
15
effects and/or by attraction to the bound water. This type of water is not bound to
protein and can easily convert to ice during freezing. The third type of water present
in the muscle is known as free water which is readily seen in pre rigor meat. Weak
surface forces mostly hold the free water, and its outpouring from the tissue is
unimpeded (Fennema, 1985).
2.14.3.1. Drip loss
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Drip loss is a significant quality criterion for both consumers and retailers. Drip loss
is said to be discharge of a red fluid from meat that mainly consisted of water and
proteins (Offer and Knight, 1988). High drip loss is not desirable because it reduces
the appeal of the meat, and valuable proteins and flavor compound are lost in the
waste matter (Lawrie, 1998; Varnam and Sutherland, 1995). Drip losses not only
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affect the meat quality but also reduce its weight, and hence, have an effect on
economic value of meat (Offer and Knight, 1988). Higher drip loss has been shown
to occur during early post mortem storage and gradually decreases as ageing
continues (Kristensen and Purslow, 2001).
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2.14.3.2. Cooking loss
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Cooking losses from chevon are very important because the water that remains in the
cooked meat is the major contributor to the sensation of juiciness (Webb et al.,
2005). Pearce et al. (2011) reported that the structural changes during cooking
resulted in the important loss of water which ranged between 15 to 35%. The
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findings of Dhanda et al. (2003), Werdi Pratiwi et al. (2006), Yilmaz et al. (2009)
and Ekiz et al. (2010) showed higher percentages of cooking losses which ranged
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between 32 to 40%. Other studies (Kannan et al., 2001; Sen et al., 2004; Peňa et al.,
2009) have documented moderate percentages (14- 27%) of cooking losses in cooked
goat meat, while Santos et al.(2008) presented the lowest cooking losses in goat meat
that ranged from 10 to 12%. Santos et al. (2008) attributed these variations to the
differences in cooking temperature, ultimate pH and the types of muscle cuts
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involved. Additionally, Schonfeldt et al. (1993) and Dhanda et al. (1999a) reported
that breed differences affect the cooking yield. Kannan et al. (2001) also reported
that cooking losses were varried in muscles taken samples from different locations. It
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has been suggested that high cooking losses could probably explain why goat meat
seems to be less juicy than lamb or mutton (Tshabalala et al., 2003).
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2.15. Tenderness
Tenderness is an important criterion of meat that determines consumer’s

acceptability (Miller et al., 2001). The type of muscle, location and function are
among the most important factors determining fiber type composition within an
animal. Generally, the muscles which are previously involved in maintaining posture
are more oxidative and are composed predominantly of Type I fibers than those
16
muscles involved in locomotion (Ono et al., 1998). The measurement techniques,
following a common basic principle, is to detect the amount of mechanical force
required to shear or compress well-orientated muscle fibers in a cooked meat sample.
It has been reported that the best aging day is 4 d post-slaughter and an extended
aging of chevon may not be an added advantage (Karami et al., 2011). Kadim et al.
(2003) reported that the mean shear force values were the lowest in LD muscles,
while SM muscles had the highest due to differences in connective tissue content or
sarcomere length.
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2.16. Fats and Fatty acids in goat meat
Fats and fatty acids in muscle and adipose tissue are major factors which appreciably
involve meat quality as well as the nutritional value of meat (Wood et al., 2008) and
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palatability (Smith et al., 2004). The fatty acids present in the muscle and in the
intramuscular adipose tissue is the main source of intramuscular fat (IMF). It has
been reported that diet, age and production system influence the fatty acid profile in
bovine and caprine tissues (Dhanda et al., 1999b). Only a few investigators have
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described the fatty acid profiles of goat meat (Potchoiba et al., 1990; Park and
Washington, 1993; Johnson et al., 1995; Santos-Filho et al., 2005; Atti et al., 2006;
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Talpur et al., 2008; Karimi et al., 2011; Ebrahimi et al., 2012b and 2013; Qwele et
al., 2013). The fatty acid profile in ruminants is less affected by dietary fatty acids
compared to non-ruminants. However, several studies on ruminants have shown that
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different diets can affect the fatty acid profiles of the meat (Solomon et al., 1991;
Enser et al., 1998; French et al., 2000; Rhee et al., 2000; Van Harten et al., 2003;
Coltro et al., 2005; Talpur et al., 2008; Ebrahimi et al., 2012b and 2013; Qwele et
al., 2013). Ebrahimi et al. (2012b and 2013) reported that feeding oil palm fronds to
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goats increased omega-3 fatty acid (C18:3n-3) in the sub-cutaneous fat and
loggisimus dorsei (LD), biceps femories (BF) and infra spinatus (SI) muscles.
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Moreover, Qwele et al. (2013) showed that desirable fatty acid of goat muscle was
increased with the supplementation of moringa leaves.
Muscle lipids of ruminants frequently had a high content of SFAs (Aurousseau et al.,
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2004), as a result of the microbial bio-hydrogenation process in the rumen (Jenkins et

al., 2008). However, the SFA content of the muscle lipids are typically much lower
compared to that of the subcutaneous fats (Wood et al., 2003). Oleic (C18:1),
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palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0) and linoleic (C18:2n-6) acids are the main FAs in
the muscle lipids of goats (Banskalieva et al., 2000). Therefore, the FA content of
muscle lipids in goats is comparable to other ruminants, except that the PUFA
content of muscle lipids in goats is higher than in mutton and beef (Banskalieva et
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al., 2000).
17
The levels of SFAs such as myristic (C14:0) and palmitic (C16:0) acids in meat is of
special nutritional concern in the human population in the light of their role in
increasing plasma low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, a main risk factor for
cardiovascular diseases in human, although stearic (C18:0) acid has a neutral effect
(Leheska et al., 2008; Peňa et al., 2009).
The ruminant products have higher concentrations of CLA, mainly c9t11CLA, than
those from non-ruminants (Chin et al., 1992). It has been reported that CLA have
several beneficial effects on health-related disorders (Bhattacharya et al., 2006). The
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endogenous synthesis of c9t11CLA is formed by the action of Δ9 desaturase enzyme
on t11C18:1, which is the intermediate product of microbial biohydrogenation of
lenoleic and lenolenic acids in the rumen. It has been thought that increasing
t11C18:1 production in the rumen will increase tissue level c9t11CLA (Raes et al.,
2004).
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The two main fatty acids which are not synthesized de novo by animal cells, are
linoleic (C18:2n-6) and α-linolenic (C18:3n-3) acids (Simopoulos, 2008). Linoleic
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acid, normally high in grains, can be converted to longer chain n-6 fatty acid as
arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6). Linolenic acid, normally high in grass and leaves, can
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be converted to longer chain n-3 fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic (C20;5n-3) and
docosahexaenoic (C22:6n-3) acids (Wood et al., 2003).
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The PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3 FA ratios are usually used to evaluate the nutritional
value of fat food. The recommended ratio in human diets is 0.45 for the PUFA/SFA
ratio and 4:1 for the n-6/n-3 (Simopoulos, 2008). Increasing n-3 fatty acids content in
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ruminant products and decreasing their SFAs using nutritional resources could be of
most interest of research, and this may be achieved by feeding moringa foliage to
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goats.
2.17. Lipid peroxidation

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Lipids are found in muscles as either structural components of membranes or storage

droplets of triacyl-glycerols between muscle ﬁbres and adipose tissue of meat
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(Verma et al., 2009). Meat is a major component of the human diet due to its high
nutritive value, particularly with high quality proteins, vitamins and minerals.
However, it is highly susceptible to auto-oxidation of lipids and fabrication of free
radicals, which result in oxidative deterioration and off-flavour development when
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exposed to oxygen or light (Faseseas et al., 2007). According to Lahucky et al.

(2010), antioxidants have the potential to minimize rancidity and retard lipid
peroxidation without causing any damage to the sensory or nutritional properties of
meat products. Over the years, synthetic antioxidants have been widely used to
preserve meat and meat products (Faseseas et al., 2007). However, their safety has
been queried by researchers due to their toxicity, pathogenicity and carcinogenic
effects on humans and animals (Hayes et al., 2010). Dietary supplementation with
antioxidants has thus been found to be a more effective way of reducing lipid
18
peroxidation of meat products and controlling its stability compared to post mortem
addition of antioxidants (Jung et al., 2010). Accordingly, feeding animals with plants
containing antioxidant compounds might serve as a route to pass antioxidants into
the circulatory system to be distributed and retained in the tissues (Jung et al., 2010).
This was confirmed in studies conducted in broilers with positive influence in meat
quality characteristics (Sarraga and Garcia Regueiro, 1999). Yang et al. (2002) and
Mercier et al. (2004) showed that vitamin E supplementation proved that natural
antioxidants can be incorporated in the muscle through dietary delivery in beef to
improve lipid stability and meat quality. Karimi et al. (2011) observed that
supplementation of vitamin E and herbal plants increased antioxidant capacity of
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goat meat. Qwele et al. (2013) reported that Moringa oleifera leaf meal has
antioxidant potential in goat meat which improved the quality of meat for human
consumption. Siu and Draper (1978) indicated malondialdehyde (MDA) as one of
the specific cases of secondary oxidation products. Malondialdehyde is a good index
for lipid oxidation evaluation because of its odor and activity during reaction,
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whereas no colour or flavour could be recognized from primary oxidation products
(Descalzo and Sancho, 2008).
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2.18. Conclusion
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Paddy straw is a low quality roughage used widely as ruminant feed. It is of low
quality due to the low content of nitrogen and mineral and high cell wall
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components. Sufficient evidence exists to suggest that the supplementation of
fermentable nitrogen or by-pass protein may improve the utilization of low quality
roughage by ruminants. Locally produced, available, and cheaper feed resources
could be alternatives to imported feeds for any livestock industry development
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program. Data available on the nutritional value of moringaleaf and foliage have
shown that these are quality feeds with an enormous variability in chemical
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composition. These characteristics may have a significant impact when fed to

animals either on increasing the performance or the expected quality of the products
(e.g. meat, milk). However, a very little work has been done on the effect of moringa
foliage on carcass characteristics (Moyo et al., 2012a). There is no literature on the
physical characteristics of meat quality in goats fed with moringa foliage. Hence, this
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research work has been planned to undertake to investigate in addition to the

chemical composition, anti-nutritional factors and antioxidant capacity of
moringafoliage, the production performances of Bengal goats. Additionally, the
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impact on the quality of meat produced from goats fed high amounts of moringa
foliage will be quantified. The results obtained would serve as a guide to planning
feeding strategies of goats maximizing the utilization of moringa foliage in the
countries including Bangladesh, where moringa trees are naturally available.
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19
CHAPTER 3
EFFECT OF CUTTING INTERVALS ON NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF

DIFFERENT PLANT FRACTIONS OF MORINGA OLEIFERA TREE
3.1. Introduction
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One of the major factors limiting productivity of ruminant animals of the tropical
countries is the shortage of feed during the dry period of a year. Growing interests on
the use of plant forage in ruminant diets may improve feed supply and help the
utilization of low quality roughages. Moringa oleifera, a tropical plant, grows in a
range of agronomical conditions and at homesteads. Moringa may grow in acid to
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alkaline soil (Duke, 1983) and may tolerate the dry season up to 6 months. The tree
grows well at an altitude from 0 to 1800 meters above the sea level and at a rainfall
of between 500 and 1500 mm y–1.
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Moringa has a high growth rate and the ability to produce large amounts of fresh
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biomass even at high planting densities (Foidl et al., 2001). The effect of planting
densities on dry matter yield was studied by Sánchez et al. (2006b) and the authors
reported the yield of 17.6, 16.9 and 18.9 t ha–1 y–1 at the plant densities of 250,000,
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500,000 and 750,000 plant ha–1, respectively. The effect of cutting interval on dry
matter (DM) yield was studied and a total yield of 13.5, 15.2 and 24.7 t ha–1y–1 were
found at 45, 60 and 75 days, respectively (Sánchez et al., 2006b). Foidl et al. (2002)
reported a dry matter yield of 120 t ha–1y–1from eight harvests year–1. They also
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showed that the densely planted moringa trees were not allowed to grow timber by
frequent harvests of the foliages at every 45 to 50 days and help good quality forage
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biomass production for feeding livestock.
The protein content of moringa biomass ranged from 19.3% to 26.4% in DM

(Makkar and Becker, 1996; Aregheore 2002; Sànchez et al., 2006b; Mendieta-Araica
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et al.,2013) and a negligible amount of anti-nutritional compounds (Makkar and

Becker, 1996 and 1997) makes it an effective protein source for ruminants. There is
evidence that Moringa oleifera compares favorably to commercial concentrates
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(Murro et al., 2003; Sarwatt et al., 2002, 2004; Nouala et al., 2006; Sànchez et al.,
2006a; Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011b), and it maintains optimum animal
performances through efficient rumen functions (Singh and Makkar, 2002). Moringa
oleifera was evaluated to a limited extent on nutrient composition, and its use as a
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potential animal feed worldwide. However, there is no report on nutritional

composition of moringa foliage and its utilization as an animal feed in Bangladesh
condition. Therefore, there was a need for searching information on the nutrient
composition of moringa foliage at different cutting intervals.
20
Thus, the objective of the present study was to determine the effects of cutting
intervals on the nutrient composition of different plant fractions of Moringa oleifera
tree.
3.2. Materials and Methods
3.2.1. Location and agro-climate of the experimental site
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This study was conducted using the fodder plot of the Bangladesh Livestock
Research Institute, Bangladesh. The research station was located at 23°42’0”N,
90°22’30”E and at an altitude of 4 meters above the sea level. The Agro ecological
zone belongs to the Madhupur Tract (Agro Ecological Zone 28) of Bangladesh, with
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Red-Brown Terrace strong acidic (pH 4.5–5.7) soils, with a very little (< 1.5%)
organic matter (Huq and Shoaib, 2013). The land area was composed of alluvium
soil of the Pleistocene period. The soils of this tract had clayey texture. Total annual
rainfall was about 1776 mm (April to Oct.) with a mean of 222 mm, and mean
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relative humidity ranged from 54 to 83%. The present study was conducted during
the monsoon season from June 2011 to October, 2011, when the average daily
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rainfall, temperature and humidity were 279.6 mm, 28.8°C and 78%, respectively.
Monthly rainfall, temperature and humidity data in 2011 is presented in Table 3.1.
The experiment was conducted during monsoon season, since moringa can grow in
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minimum annual rainfall at 250 mm and temperature from 25 to 30⁰C.
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Table 3.1 Monthly rainfall temperature and humidity in 2011

Rainfall
Temperature Humidity
Months (mm)
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Minimum Maximum Average

January 0 8.2 27.8 23.4 69
February 0 13.0 31.0 28.7 54
March 20 16.0 34.5 32.1 57
April 123 20.2 35.8 33.5 64
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May 235 21.3 35.3 33.4 76

June 314 23.2 36.0 29.0 80
July 356 23.9 35.4 29.3 79
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August 409 24.5 35.0 28.6 82

September 207 23.7 36.2 29.1 77
October 112 22.0 34.5 28.2 73
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November 0 17.2 32.4 23.9 67

December 0 11.0 30.0 19.4 73
Source: Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMP).
21
3.2.2. Preparation of experimental plot
The foliages comprising of leaves and twigs were collected from the moringa plants
planted in May, 2009. The trees had about 2 meters height and propagated for
feeding goats. Fertilizers at the rate of 500 kg goat manure ha–1, 125 kg urea ha–1,
100 kg Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) ha–1, 50 kg Zinc Sulphate ZnSO4) and 25 kg
ha–1 Borax were applied. Weeding was done manually once in a month. Pest and
disease incidences were not experienced during the experiment.
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3.2.3. Experimental layout, design and treatment
The area of main experimental plot was 201.67 m2 and was planted with 180 plants.
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The main plot was divided into 12 plots. Each plot measured 16 m2 had a total of 15
plants. Planting distance was 1.25 m × 0.75 m. There were 4 blocks and each block
has 4 plots. Three cutting intervals at 4, 6, 8 weeks were arranged in a randomized
complete block design with 4 replications. The experimental layout is presented in
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Table 3.2. The experiment was conducted during rainy season.
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Table 3.2 Experimental layout of the treatments
Treatments Block-1 Block-2 Block-3 Block-4
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T1 (4 weeks 4 6 8 4
T2 (6 weeks) 6 8 4 6
T3 (8 weeks) 8 4 6 8
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The trees were cut uniformly at the same height (0.76 meter) above the ground
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(Appendix; Plates. D.1).Subsequently, the harvests were carried out at 4, 6 and 8 wks
of intervals during the experimental period. The harvesting schedule of the
experiment is presented in Table 3.3.
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Table 3.3 Harvesting schedule for the experiment at different cutting intervals
Harvesting Plants were cut uniformly 1st cutting 2nd cutting
interval at a height of 0.76 meter
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Date
(weeks) above the ground
4 10/6/2011 9/7/2011 7/8/2011
6 10/6/2011 23/7/2011 4/9/2011
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8 10/6/2011 6/8/2011 2/10/2011
22
3.2.4. Harvesting procedure and data collection
A sharp knife was used to harvest foliages.The total fresh matter was harvested from
each block in the day as specified Table 3.2, weighed and recorded to determine the
yield on fresh basis. Fresh yield was considered as the total foliage (leaf + stem)
which were the bi-pinnately compound leaves of Moringa oleifera (Appendix; Plates
D.3).The biomass harvested from each of the plots was separated into two fractions:
leaf and stem. The leaves included leaf blades and petioles. Leaf to stem ratio was
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determined manually by separation of the whole compound leaf into leaf (with
petiole) and stem. Leaves and stems were weighed to determine the fresh yield of
leaves and stems and the ratio of leaves and stems of the total foliage. Samples of
total foliage, leaf and stem fractions were taken from each block.
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3.2.5. DM yield of total foliage, leaves and stems
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The sub-samples of plant fractions (total foliage, leaves and stems) were chopped
into a length of 3 to 5 cm and they were dried in a forced air oven at 65 °C for 48 h to
determine DM (AOAC, 2000). The fresh yield was converted into DM yield plot –1
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ha–1 according to the following equation:
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DM yield plot–1 = weight of fresh material × DM/100
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3.2.6. Chemical analysis

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3.2.6.1. Determination of dry matter
The DM of the sample was determined following the method described by AOAC
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(2000). Empty porcelain crucibles were soaked in and cleaned with detergent and
rinsed in distilled water, dried in the oven at 105°C overnight and then they were
cooled in desiccators for 15 minutes and weighed (W1). Approximately, 1.0 g of
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sample was placed in a previously weighed empty crucible and the weight of sample
and crucible was recorded (W2). The crucible was covered with a lid and it was kept
in an oven at 105°C until a constant weight was achieved. After 24 hours of drying,
the crucibles were removed from the oven, cooled in desiccators, and weighed (W3)
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again. Each sample had three replications and average of the values was taken for
further use. The moisture and dry matter (DM) content of the samples were
calculated using the following formula.
Dry matter % = {(W3-W1) ÷ (W2-W1)} x 100
23
Where,
W1= dry weight of crucible
W2= weight of fresh sample + crucible
W3= weight dry sample + crucible
% Moisture= 100 – DM%
3.2.6.2 Determination of Ash
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Clean and dried empty crucibles were weighed and about 1.0 g of sample was placed
in to a crucible (AOAC, 2000). The crucibles with samples were covered and placed
in a muffle furnace. The temperature was increased gradually at 550 to 600°C and
the samples were ignited for six hours. The crucibles were then transferred to
desiccators, cooled and weighed. Each sample was replicated three times and the
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mean values were recorded.
% ash = {(weight of ash) ÷ (sample dry weight)} ×100
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3.2.6.3. Determination of Crude Protein
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3.2.6.3.1. Digestion of Samples
Crude protein was determined according to the Kjeldahl method described by AOAC
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(2000). Approximately 0.5 g of sample and 12.5 ml of concentrated H 2SO4 were

placed in pre-washed digestion tubes. One selenium tablet (Kjeltabs 1000, Sweden)
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was added to each tube to facilitate digestion. Placing the tubes in a rack they were
placed in a digestion block. Initially, the samples were digested at 270°C for 60
minutes and finally for an hour at 400°C. Any undigested samples in the tubes were
digested completely by extending heating period for another 30-60 minute.
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3.2.6.3.2. Crude protein determination

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The entrapped ammonia was liberated from the entrapped suphate salts of ammonia
by an automated steam distillation apparatus [Automatic 2400 Kjeltec Analyzer Unit
(Foss, Tecator, Sweden)]. About 25 ml of receiver solution was dispensed into the
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titration vessel from a tank through a pump and simultaneously water was dispensed
into the digestion tube from a water tank through a pump. A 50 ml sample of alkali
(40% NaOH) was then dispensed into the tube by a pump. After a short delay, the
steam valve opened and water was delivered to the condenser. The liberated gas was
condensed in the condenser and delivered to the titration vessels containing receiver
solution. The distillation was continued until the end point was reached. Depending
on the color of the indicator (pink) in the solution vessel during distillation, the titrant
was dispensed by a burette from the tank. When distillation was completed, the drain
24
valve was opened and the titrant vessel drains while steam continues to flush the
system. The result was obtained from the screen of the system.
3.2.6.4. Determination of Neutral Detergent Fiber (NDF)
The NDF of the sample was determined following the method described by Van
Soest et al. (1991). About 1.0 g of the sample was placed in a 600 ml beaker and 100
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ml detergent solution was added. The solution was brought to boiling point and the
temperature was adjusted to avoid foaming. The temperature was adjusted and
heated for 60 minutes from the onset of boiling. The sample was filtered through the
crucible under vacuum to drain the detergent. The residue in the crucible was rinsed
with hot water twice to wash out all of the detergent. The sample was washed twice
with acetone and dried under vacuum. The samples were then dried in an oven at
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105°C overnight.
% NDF = [(W2–W1) ÷ dry sample weight]×100
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Where,
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W1= crucible weight
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W2= crucible + fiber weight
3.2.6.5. Determination of Acid Detergent fiber (ADF)

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The ADF of the sample was determined following the method described by Van
Soest et al. (1991). Approximately 1.0 g of sample was placed in a 600 ml beaker
and 100 ml of solution of cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CETAB) in H2SO4
were added. The mixture was brought to boil and boiling was continued for 60
minutes. The contents of the beaker were filtered through a pre-weighed sintered
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glass crucible. The residue was rinsed twice with warm distilled water to wash out
the detergent, and then washed with acetone and finally dried under vacuum. The
crucibles were removed from the filtering manifold, placed in an oven and allowed to
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cool and weighed. The following formula was used to determine the ADF content.
% ADF = (fiber weight ÷ sample dry weight) ×100

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3.2.6.6. Determination of Acid Detergent Lignin (ADL)
The ADL of the sample was determined following the method described by Van
Soest et al. (1991). The same samples used for ADF determination were further
processed for ADL determination. The ADF detergent removes the protein and the
25
other acid soluble materials, which would interfere with lignin determination. The
ADF residue is mainly lignocelluloses and acid-insoluble ash (ash), of which the
cellulose was dissolved in 72% H2SO4 solution. By ashing the residue, the crude
lignin fraction, including cutin could be determined.
The ADL was determined following the method of Van Soest et al., (1991). The
crucibles were placed in the glass tray with one end 2 cm higher to drain away the
acid from the crucible. The content of the crucible were covered with cool H2SO4
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and stirred with a glass rod to obtain a smooth paste, by breaking all clumps. The
crucibles were filled about half way with a glass rod remaining in the crucible. The
crucibles were refilled with H2SO4 after one hour and stirred to drain the acid. The
process was repeated three times. After 3 hours, the residue was filtered off under
vacuum. The residue was rinsed once again with concentrate H2SO4. The filtered
contents were then washed with hot distilled water for five times and filtered off. The
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outside of the crucible was also washed to remove the residual acid. The crucibles
were then placed in the oven, dried at 105°C overnight and weighed (W1). The
crucible were ignited in a muffle furnace at 500°C for three hours, cooled at below
200°C, transferred to desiccators and weighed (W2).
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% Lignin= [(W2-W1) ÷ D.S.W] × 100
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Where,
W1= weight of crucible + lignin
W2 = weight of crucible + ash
D.S.W= dry sample weight from ADF sample
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3.2.6.7. Determination of Ether Extract (EE)
The EE of the sample was determined following the method described by AOAC
(2000). The ether extract was determined using the Soxtec system (Tecator,
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Sweden). About 1.0 g of sample was weighed into an extraction thimble. The
extraction cups were cleaned dried and cooled in desiccators and weighed (W1). The
thimbles were placed in an extraction unit along with previously weighed extraction
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cups. About 50 ml of solvent (petroleum benzene) was used for extraction. The
samples were allowed to reflux gently for 30 minutes at boiling point by keeping the
indicator at boiling point and by keeping the indicator at “Rinsing” position, and for
another 30 minutes for evaporation. After evaporating the solvent, cups were
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released and dried in the oven for 2-3 hours at 105°C. The cups were then cooled in
desiccators. After cooling, the cups were weighed again with the extract (W2). The
percentage of lipids was calculated as follows:
EE% = [(W2–W1) ÷ S.D.W] × 100
26
Where,
W1= weight of empty dry cup
W2= weight of empty cup + ether extract
S.D.W = sample dry weight.
3.2.6.8. Determination of Ca and P
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The Ca and P contents of moringa foliage and leaf samples were determined using the
wet digestion method of AOAC (2000). A sample of 1.0 g was placed in a digestion
flask overnight with 12.5 ml concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4). About 2 to 3 ml
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was added, and digested in a block heater in a fume
chamber. Initially, the mixture was heated at 2000C for 1 h and then the temperature
was raised to 3600C for one hour or allowed to continue until the solution became
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colorless. After cooling, the digested solution was made up to 100 ml with distilled
water, and filtered through Whatman No.1 filter paper into a plastic vial. Phosphorus
was determined using a spectrophotometer (UV-Visible Spectrophotometer, CARY
50 Probe), while the Ca content of moringa leaves and total foliage was determined
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using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer, AAnalyst 400).
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3.2.7. In-vitro true dry matter and organic matter digestibility
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In-vitro dry matter and organic matter digestibility of the moringa foliage samples
were measured according to the technique of Menke and Steingass (1988) with some
modifications by Blümmel and Ørskov (1993) and Makkar et al. (1995), where the
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feed samples in the syringes were incubated in a thermostatically controlled water

bath instead of using a rotary incubator.
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3.2.7.1. Preparation of samples for analyses

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Approximately 500 mg of a sample in triplicate (at 4, 6 and 8 week cutting intervals)

was weighed and placed in 100 ml calibrated glass syringes (FORTUNA® Hiberle
Labortechnik, Germany). After the samples were transferred, the pistons of the
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syringes were lubricated with vaseline and inserted into the syringes. Buffered rumen
medium was added into the pre-warmed (39 °C) syringes. Blanks (syringe with
buffered rumen medium, without sample) in 3 replicates in different syringes were
also incubated.
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3.2.7.2. Preparation of buffered solution
The media was prepared following the method described by Menke and Steingass
(1988). The rumen fluid was collected from three fistulated goats in ladang-2 under
Animal Science Department that were maintained for three months on a ration based
27
on hay (60%) and concentrates (40%). The ration was offered equally in the morning
(8.00 am) and again in the evening (3.00 pm), and water was available adlibitum
throughout the period.
The rumen content was collected into a pre-warmed thermos flask. The rumen
content was strained and filtered through four layers of muslin cloth into another
flask. Throughout the process, the rumen fluid was flushed continuously with CO2
gas. The buffer medium was prepared according to Makker et al. (1995) (Appendix-
A.1). The solutions were poured into a flask following the sequence of 474.0 ml
PM
distilled water; 0.12 ml trace element solution; 237.0 ml buffer solution; 237.0 ml
main element solution; and 1.2 ml resazurin solution, and all of them was mixed
using a magnetic stirrer and kept warm at 39 °C in a water bath. CO2 gas was
bubbled in throughout the preparation. Five hundred ml of rumen fluid was added
when the indicator changed to colorless. The ratio of rumen fluid to buffer medium
was kept at 1:2 (v/v). The bubbling of CO2 was continued after the rumen fluid was
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poured into it. In 15 minutes time, the CO2 was bubbled in the submerged tube and
then it was raised during filling of the syringes. A 40 ml of the incubation medium
was dispensed into each syringe and incubated in a water bath at 39°C. The
procedure was repeated twice.
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3.2.7.3. In-vitro dry matter (IVDM) and organic matter (IVOM) digestibility
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After 24 hour, the incubation of samples was terminated by transferring the entire
residue into 600 ml spout-less beakers. The syringes were rinsed twice with neutral
detergent solution (NDS) and this was made sure by adding 100 ml NDS solution.
The procedure of Van Soest and Robertson (1985) for the determination of true
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digestibility was then applied by refluxing the incubated residues for 1 h and then
filtered in pre-tarred crucibles to recover the undigested matter. The filtered residues
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were dried overnight at 105°C, weighed, ashed in a furnace at 500°C for 5 h and
weighed again. The IVDM was calculated based on incubated samples minus oven
dried samples and the IVOM was calculated based on incubated samples minus the
residue of ash.
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3.2.8. Statistical analysis

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The analysis of variance was done on the data on the yield, and proximate analysis,
fiber components, IVDMD, IVOMD, Ca and P of different part of moringa tree
using the one way ANOVA in the SAS 9.2 software (2007). The differences in the
©
means were compared by Duncan'smultiple range tests at 5% level (P<0.05). Data on

IVDMD and IVOMD was used line chart and fitted in regression in excel
programme. The statistical model used for the analysis of variance was:
Yijk= µ + αi+ βj + eijk
28
Where,
Yijk = observation
µ = overall mean
αi = treatment effect
βj= block effect
eijk= error effect
3.3. Results
PM
3.3.1. Yield
The effects of cutting interval on fresh biomass yield of total foliage leaf and stem
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fractions of Moringa oleifera, and leaf stem ratios are presented in Table 3.4. The
yield of each harvest (t ha–1 cut–1) of fresh total foliage, leaf and stem fractions
increased significantly (P<0.05) with the increase of harvesting period. Conversely,
the estimated total yields (t ha–1 y–1) of the fresh matter of all fractions were
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decreased significantly (P<0.05) with the increase of harvesting intervals. The leaf to
stem ratio did not vary significantly (P>0.05) between the harvesting intervals.
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Table 3.4 Fresh biomass and DM yield of different plant fractions and
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leaf stem ratio of Moringa oleifera tree at different cutting intervals
(Mean ±SE; n = 4)
Variables Cutting interval (weeks)
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4 6 8
–1 –1
Fresh matter yield (t ha cut )
Total foliage 5.93±0.23 c 7.38± 0.44 b 8.84±0.28 a
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Leaf 3.69±0.14 c 4.65±0.29 b 5.70±0.19 a

c b
Stem 2.22±0.09 2.73±0.15 3.15±0.11a
–1 –1
Fresh matter yield (t ha y )
Total foliage 65.22 ±2.58 a 59.01±3.54ab 53.07±1.72b
a ab
Leaf 40.51±1.55 37.18±2.35 34.20±1.16b
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Stem 24.41±1.08 a 21.83±1.20ab 18.86 ±0.65b

–1 –1
Dry matter yield (t ha cut )
Total foliage 1.21 ± 0.07c 1.82 ± 0.12b 2.15 ± 0.07a
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b a
Leaf 0.79 ± 0.04 1.21 ± 0.07 1.41 ± 0.06a
Stem 0.41 ± 0.02c 0.56 ± 0.03b 0.62a ± 0.03a
–1 –1
Dry matter yield (t ha y )
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Total foliage 13.25±0.81 14.58 ± 0.94 12.89±0.45

Leaf 8.71±0.49 9.71 ± 0.59 8.47±0.38
Stem 4.48 ±0.22 4.46 ± 0.25 3.73±0.17
Leaf : stem 1.70±0.01 1.70±0.02 1.79±0.05
a,b,c
Means in the same row and in each treatment with different superscripts differ
significantly among cutting intervals at P<0.05 level; n= observation numbers.
29
The effects of different cutting intervals on the chemical composition of different

plant fractions of moringa tree are presented in Table 3.5. The DM contents of total
foliage, leaf or stem were significantly (P<0.05) different among the treatments, but
no definite pattern was observed. The highest DM content of all fractions was
obtained at 6 week interval, whereas the lowest DM content of all fractions was
recorded at 4 week interval. The DM content of total foliage, leaf or stem ranged
from 202.68 to 247.05, 214.62 to 261.26 and 183.03 to 204.10 g kg–1, respectively
PM
among the cutting intervals.
The CP content of total foliage, leaves or stem showed no significant (P>0.05)

differences among the treatments. Moreover, the CP content of all fractions did not
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change over the harvesting intervals.
The ADF content of total foliage or stem was significantly (P<0.05) higher at 8
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weeks of interval compared to that of the 6 and 4 weeks interval. The difference
between the latter was not significant (P>0.05). The leaf ADF value was not affected
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by the cutting interval. The mean NDF content in the stem fraction was the highest
(P<0.05) at 8 weeks cutting interval than at 6 and 4 weeks cutting interval,
respectively. The NDF content of total foliage was significantly (P<0.05) lower at 4
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weeks cutting interval than that of the 6 or 8 weeks intervals, while the NDF content
of leaf was not significantly (P>0.05) different among the treatments.
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The ADL content of total foliage and stem was significantly (P<0.05) increased with
the increase of cutting interval. But, the ADL value of leaves did not vary
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significantly with increasing cutting interval. The increase in lignifications from 4

weeks to 8 weeks was more distinct in the stem fraction than that was in the total
foliage.
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30
Table 3.5 Chemical composition, calcium and phosphorus content of
the different plant fractions of Moringa oleiferatree at different cutting
intervals (Mean ±SE; n = 4)
Variables Cutting interval (weeks)
4 6 8
–1
*DM (g kg )
Total foliage 202.68 ± 4.81 b 247.05±3.61 a 242.83±3.28 a
c a
Leaf 214.62 ± 4.13 261.26±0.84 247.30±4.43 b
Stem 183.03±2.38 b 204.10±1.42a 197.65 ±3.38 a
–1
PM
CP (g kg DM)
Total foliage 216.20 ±1.04 215.80±0.82 214.80±1.59
Leaf 261.18 ±0.59 256.65±2.92 261.33±2.00
Stem 85.15 ±2.99 81.30±1.33 88.43±2.23
ADF (g kg–1DM)
Total foliage 268.30±1.53b 268.46±1.59 b 310.29±6.12 a
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Leaf 160.78±4.11 165.85±1.78 171.02± 9.24
b b
Stem 492.10±4.62 498.41±5.21 527.5a±12.89
NDF (g kg–1DM)
Total foliage 347.11±4.61b 369.51±6.80b 381.77±5.36 a
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Leaf 289.45±3.99 304.45±5.01 302.85±4.48
Stem 679.45±5.08 c H 722.19±3.96b 757.93 ± 2.56a
ADL (g kg–1DM)
Total foliage 99.89±1.96c 109.00±2.05 b 120.36±3.49 a
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Leaf 64.66±0.47 65.23±1.35 67.44±0.37
Stem 175.03±4.90c 207.28±5.08 b 231.11±3.79a
–1
Ash (g kg DM)
Total foliage 84.00 ± 0.32 b 95.50 ±1.36 a 93.75±1.83a
b ab
96.77±1.38 a
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Leaf 91.03 ±1.26 92.91 ±1.25

Stem 76.93 ±3.16c 84.15 ±1.95 b 92.97± 0.95 a
–1
EE (g kg DM)
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Total foliage 43.03±3.79 43.86±2.69 49.05±1.89

Leaf 51.17 ± 2.31 52.11±1.57 53.67±1.30
Stem 20.21± 0.53 22.37±0.87 21.44±0.50
OM (g kg–1DM)
Total foliage 922.88 ± 0.82a 911.98 ±1.37b 915.68 ± 2.96b
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Leaf 916.30 ± 1.46a 908.30 ± 2.65ab 914.65 ± 1.76b

Stem 929.30 ± 2.89a 921.73 ± 3.31ab 913.68 ± 0.89b
Ca (g kg–1DM)
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Total foliage 19.81 ±1.31 21.95 ± 0.61 21.87 ±1.27

Leaf 30.38 ± 0.38 31.76 ± 0.20 32.22 ±1.08
P(g kg–1DM)
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Total foliage 2.30 ± 0.11 2.37± 0.15 2.39 ± 0.14

Leaf 3.13 ± 0.20 3.23 ± 0.09 3.10 ± 0.06
a,b,c
Means in the same row and in each treatment with different superscripts differ
significantly among cutting interval at P<0.05 level; n= observation numbers
*average DM value of two cut.
31
The ash content of the total foliage of moringa was significantly (P<0.05) higher at 6
or at 8 weeks than at 4 weeks. The ash content of leaves did not vary significantly
(P>0.05) with the increase of cutting interval. However, the ash content of stem was
significantly (P<0.05) increased with the increasing cutting interval. The highest
average (96.77 g kg–1 DM) ash content was found in leaves at 8 weeks cutting
interval and the lowest (76.93 g kg–1 DM) was in the stem at 4 weeks cutting
interval. The ash content of all fractions followed the order of leaf>total
foliage>stem.
PM
Increasing the harvesting interval did not have any significant influence on the ether
extract (crude fat) content of all plant fractions. The average ether extract content
was higher in the leaves than that was in the total foliage and in the stem.
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The OM matter content of total foliage, leaf and stem was significantly (P<0.05)
higher at 4 weeks cutting interval than 6 or 8 weeks cutting interval.
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The mean calcium and phosphorus content of the total foliage and leaves was not
significantly (P>0.05) different among the cutting intervals. The calcium content of
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the total foliage and leaves ranged from 19.81 to 21.95 and 30.38 to 32.22 g kg–1
DM, respectively while the phosphorus content of total foliage and leaves ranged
from 2.30 to 2.39 and 3.10 to 3.23 g kg–1 DM, respectively.
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3.3.3 In-vitro dry matter and organic matter digestibility
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The in-vitro dry matter (IVDMD) and in-vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD)
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declined linearly (P<0.05; r= 0.975; r= 0.986, respectively) with increasing cutting

interval (Figure 3.1).
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32
810
IVTDMD IVTOMD
Digestibility (g/ kg DM)

800 y = -14.763x + 814.45 y = -18.36x + 818.21
R² = 0.9508 R² = 0.9726
790
780
770
PM
760
750
740
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4 weeks 6 weeks 8 weeks
Harvesting interval
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Figure 3.1. Effect of cutting intervals on IVDMD and IVOMD of moringa foliage.
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3.4. Discussion
3.4.1. Yield
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The results of the present study showed that fresh biomas yield per cut (t ha–1 cut–1)
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increased significantly (P<0.05) with increasing of cutting interval.The estimated

higher (P<0.05) annual fresh biomass yields were found at 4 weeks cutting interval
compared to that of the 6 or 8 weeks. This may attributed to frequent defoliation
under wet season at 4 weeks cutting interval than at 6 and 8 weeks (Appadurai and
Holmes, 1964; Brougham, 1970). Frequent biomass harvests under standard
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agronomical practices may accelerate the biomass production of plants (Sánchez et

al., 2006b).
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The present findings were obtained from the existing mature moringa plants during
the rainy season with a mean monthly rainfall of 222 mm. The removal of all foliage
©
at all harvests favoured a re-growth owing to the availability of rainfall. However,

the leaves became pale yellow when the land was water logged and a more
defoliation was performed. The yield of moringa obtained in this study was also
comparable to the biomass production of Morus alba (Saddul et al., 2004) and
Sesbania grandiflora (Catchpoole and Blair, 1990), but it was higher than that of
Gliricidia sepium or that of Leucaena leucocephala (Ella et al., 1989) or that of
Sesbania sesban (Galang et al., 1990) or that of Chamaecytisus palmensis (Assefa,
1998). These findings suggest that moringa has the potential to produce a higher
biomass than calliandra, gliricidia, leucaena, sesbania or tagasaste.
33
3.4.2. Leaf stem ratio
The leaf to stem ratio of the present study was similar at 4, 6 and 8 weeks of cutting
interval. This finding was similar to that of Ella (1988) who also showed that the
increase of cutting intervals from 6 to 12 weeks increased leaf yield in leucaena,
gliricidia or callendaduring the wet season. Longer cutting intervals (12 weeks)
yielded more leaves (Tuwei et al., 2003). The production of leaf and stem in tree
forage is somewhat more closely related to temperature and particularly to rainfall,
PM
which influences forage quality and alter leaf to stem ratios (Buxton and False,
1994).
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The dry matter content of the different plant fractions of moringa at 4 week interval
was significantly P<0.05) lower than 6 or 8 week. The differences in DM content
may be due to the presence of higher moisture content in plants at a lower maturity
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stage. The DM obtained at 4 weeks of cutting interval in the present study was
similar to those obtained by Manh et al. (2005), Sánchez et al. (2006b), and
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Mendieta-Araica et al. (2013). However, the DM content of the total foliage and leaf
at 6 and 8 weeks interval were higher in the present study.
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There was no significant (P>0.05) differences in the CP content of total foliage, leaf
or stem fractions among the cutting intervals (Table 3.5). The CP in moringa leaf
ranged from 256.65 to 261.33 g kg –1 DM. The range of CP content of different
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fractions of moringa was found to be similar to that reported by Makkar and Becker
(1996 and 997), Manh et al. (2005), Sánchez et al. (2006b), Soliva et al. (2005) and
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Mendieta-Araica et al. (2013). Moreover, the CP content of different plant fractions

remained unchanged with the maturity up to 8 weeks. Sánchez et al. (2006b)
reported a similar result. The CP content of moringa stem was similar to that was
reported for guinea grass (91.7 g kg–1 DM) (Fadiyimu et al., 2010) or Napier grass
(Pannisetum purpureum) (79.9 to 109.0 g kg–1 DM) (Ansah et al., 2010), and even
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this may maintain the rumen microbial requirement of nitrogen (Shayo, 1997). The
ranges of CP value of moringa foliage (214.80 to 216.20 g kg–1 DM) and leaf
(256.65 to 261.33 g kg–1 DM) in the present study was higher than that of forage
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legumes (170.0 g kg–1 DM) and grasses (115.0 g kg–1DM) (Minson,1990).
Cutting intervals had no significant (P>0.05) effect on the ADF, NDF or ADL
©
content of moringa leaf (Table 3.5). The effect of cutting interval on cell wall
materials was more pronounced in the total foliage and stem fractions than that was
in leaves, indicating that the leaves had less cell wall material than the stems. The
range of ADF values (177.78 to 171.02 g kg–1 DM) of leaves in the present study,
and it was similar to that (160.0 and 170.0 g kg–1 DM, respectively) reported by
Nouala et al. (2006) and Manh et al. (2005). The ADF content in the total foliage
was supported by the findings of Sánchez et al. (2006b) but were different from
those of Makker and Becker (1997 and 1996), Foidl et al. (2001), and Soliva et al.
34
(2005) who had observed a lower ADF content (92.0 to 133.0 g kg–1 DM) in leaves
than that is recorded in the present study.
The ADF, NDF and ADL was significantly (P<0.05) increased with increasing
cutting interval (Table 3.5). The range of NDF values (679.45 to 757.93 g kg–1 DM)
of stem fractions of moringa obtained in this study was higher than the findings of
Mendieta-Araica et al. (2013), who reported the values of 657.6 to 683.1 g kg–1 DM
at different densities. The ADF and NDF content in the total foliage and leaf were
310.29 and 171.02 g kg–1 DM and 381.77 and 302.85g kg–1 DM, respectively at 8
PM
week cutting interval. This was higher than that was found at 4 or at 6 week
intervals. Epidermis and cell wall materials used to be changed into secondary
cellular wall and lignin content with the increase of age of maturity of plants
(Sánchez et al., 2006b). Moreover, variation in cell wall materials is affected by
agro-climatic conditions, soil types and fertilisation. However, the increasing cell
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wall materials (NDF, ADF, ADL etc.) of the stem fraction support anatomical
structure of the moringa plants (Van Soest, 1990) with the increasing cutting interval.
However, these values are found to be within the range of NDF content
recommended for the ruminant diets (NDF 25-35%, Norton, 1994 and ADF 23%, Lu
T
et al., 2008). Therefore, the moringa foliage irrespective of its maturity stage even up
to 8 weeks may be recommended for feeding the ruminant livestock.
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The ranges of ADL values for leaves (64.66 to 67.44 g kg–1DM) in the present study
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were lower than that reported by Mendieta-Araica et al. (2013; 82.0 g kg–1 DM)).
The low fiber content of moringa leaf may make it a potential protein source for
poultry and other monogastric animals as well.
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The ash content of the total foliage leaves and stems ranged from 84.00 to 95.50,
91.03 to 96.77, and 76.93 to 92.97 g kg–1 DM, respectively. The average ash contents
PY
of the whole foliage and leaf were similar to that was by Manh et al. (2005), Sánchez
et al.(2006b), Jongrungruangchock et al.(2010) and Fadiyimu et al. (2010). On the
other hand, a higher ash content of the leaves (111.0 to 194.0 g kg–1 DM) was
reported by Makkar and Becker (1996), Aregheore (2002), Murro et al. (2003),
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Sarwatt et al. (2004), Ndemanisho et al. (2007) and Asaolu et al. (2010). The high
ash content of moringa leaves implies that inorganic elements were present in
considerable amounts in leaves (McClements and Decker, 2009). The amounts of
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inorganic matter in the soil, their availability to the plants, season, climate and age
and stage of maturity affect inorganic content of leaves (Lukhele and Van Ryssen,
2003).
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The ranges of Ca content (30.38 to 32.22 g kg–1 DM) in leaves in the present study
was comparable to (36.5 g kg–1 DM) reported by Moyo et al. (2011) or that (36.4 g
kg–1 DM) reported by Anjorin et al. (2010). However, Yang et al. (2006) found a
higher level of Ca (45.0 g kg–1 DM) in leaves. The Ca value was higher in the present
study than that was reported by Aslam et al. (2005). McDowell (2003) reported that
2300, 2700 and 2800 mg kg–1 of P and 4600, 5100 and 3000 mg kg–1 of Ca was
sufficient for beef cattle, sheep and goats, respectively. The calcium level of the total
35
foliage ranged from 19.81 to 21.95 g kg–1 DM, and it may support their requirement
by the ruminant animals.
3.4.4. In-vitro dry matter and organic matter digestibility
The IVDMD and IVOMD of the moringa foliage was linearly decreased (P<0.05)
with the increasing of cutting intervals. Decreasing both digestibilities with
PM
increasing cutting interval might be due tissue aging and advancing of morphological
stage of moringa foliage (Hendrickson et al., 1997). Moreover, it has been reported
that ADF content in the forage is negatively correlated with digestibility (McDonald
et al., 2002). The in-vitro dry matter digestibility of the moringa foliage in this study
was higher (772.10 to 801.78 g kg–1 DM) than that reported by Sánchez et al.
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(2006b) (658.2 to 659.2 g kg–1 DM).The IVDMD values othe moringa foliage is
higher than those (447.0; 472.0 g kg–1 DM), respectively, reported by Sallam et al.,
(2008) and Rootheart (1999) for alfalfa hay and Leucaena diversifolia.The IVOMD
was also decreased with increasing cutting intervals that finding is in agreement with
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Assefa (1998) and Al-Masri (2009), respectively for tagasaste and Sesbania aculeate
forage. The IVOMD (761.35 to 798.08 g kg–1 DM) of the total moringa foliage in the
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present study was higher than that was reported (639.0-710.0; 682.0 g kg–1 DM) by
Al-Masri (2009) and Assefa (1998) for Sesbania aculeate and tagasaste, commonly
used as forages for ruminant. Aderinola and Binuomote (2014) was found that in-
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vitro organic matter digestibility was higher in moringa foliage than Blighia sapida
and Gliricidia sepium that are brows plant are used as feed for ruminants.
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3.5. Conclusion
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The nutritive value interms of IVDMD and IVOMD of whole foliage was higher at 4
an6 week cutting interval than 8 week. Conversely, ADF, NDF and ADL in moringa
foliage were lower at 4 and 6 week cutting interval than 8 week while ADF, NDF
and ADL of leaf of moringa were similar over the cutting interval. CP content of
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total foliage, leaf and stem was similar for all the cutting periods. Ca and P content of
moringa foliage and leaf were also same for all cutting intervals. Having higher CP,
high digestibility and lower fiber value in forage may be made good quality forage
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for ruminants. The present findings suggest that the nutritive value of moringa
foliage in terms of IVDMD, IVOMD, ADF, NDF and ADL harvested at 4 week
cutting interval is higher quality forage than 6 and 8 week.
©
36
CHAPTER 4
EVALUATION OF ANTI-NUTRITIONAL COMPOUNDS, ANTIOXIDANT

ACTIVITY AND FATTY ACID PROFILE OF MORINGAFOLIAGE AT
DIFFERENT CUTTING INTERVALS
4.1. Introduction
PM
Recently, many researchers have shown increasing interest in the use of fodder trees
and shrubs as feed resources to all classes of livestock to expand inexpensive and
indigenous available alternative feeds to sustain livestock production (Aye, 2007;
Fasuyi and Kehinde, 2009; and Asaolu et al., 2011). The International Institute for
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Tropical Agriculture (IITA) and the International Livestock Centre for Africa
(ILCA) developed the cultivation of Gliricidia sepium and Leucaena leucocephala
through alley farming and feed gardens for supplying fresh fodder to ruminants
(Jabbar et al., 1997). However, these species may have restrictions in terms of
T
productivity, palatability, presence of toxic substances and adaptability (Attah–Krah
and Reynolds, 1989; Akinbamijo et al., 2006). Also, the lack of interest of
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smallholder farmers to apply these tree species as supplements for ruminants has
required the search for other tree species. The limitations in nutritional exploitation
of tree leaves are the presence of anti-nutritional and toxic factors (Makkar et al.,
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1993).
Moringa oleifera is the most widely cultivated species of Moringaceae family in

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some Asian countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan

(Sreelatha and Padma, 2009). It yielded significant amounts of fodder during the wet
PY
and dry season (Fadiyimu et al., 2011; Sànchez et al., 2006b; Mendieta-Araica et
al., 2013; Nouman et al., 2013) and contains high proteins, amino acids (Foidle et
al., 2001), and negligible amounts of anti-nutritional compounds (Udom and Idoing,
2011). It may be one of the potential tree fodders as a source of quality feed for
ruminant animals.
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Anti-nutritional factors or plant secondary metabolites impact negatively on

C
digestion and or metabolism of ruminant animals when present higher amount in the
different parts of the plant (Kumar, 1992).On the other hand, bioactive or non-
nutritive compounds serve a protective role to human and animal health when
present low quantity (Felix and Mello, 2000). Redden et al. (2005) reported that
©
many anti-nutrients, when present at low levels, help prevention of diseases like,
coronary diseases and cancers in human and animals.
Moringa having its nutritional, therapeutic and prophylactic properties (Fahey, 2005)
attracted researchers’ attention (Moyo et al., 2011; Ogbe and Affiku, 2011; Yang et
al., 2006). It contains vitamins, minerals and amino acids (Anwar et al., 2007), and it
was reported that its phenolic compounds and flavonoids were directly linked to
37
antioxidant properties (Siddhuraju and Becker, 2003). Proper nutrition along with
bioactive compounds plays an important role in fighting against parasites and
diseases (Anwar et al., 2007) of animals. Animals exposed to pathogens, accumulate
a response to fight off an infection, and gain immunity, when it is fed properly with
diets containing required level of energy and proteins. They produce antibodies and
cells for communicating messages in parts of the animal’s body to fight infections
(Conroy, 2005).
Moringa leaves contain more dietary poly-unsaturated fatty acids than saturated fatty
PM
acids (Sanchez-Machado et al., 2010; Amaglo et al., 2010; Solivaet al., 2005 and
Sanchez-Machado et al., 2004). A higher quantity of poly-unsaturated fatty acids and
lower quantity of saturated fatty acids in feed ingredients are enviable (Hoffman and
Wilklund, 2006). PUFA is recommended in diet as it increases immune system in
both human and animal body, consequently promotes good health (Hoffman and
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Wiklund, 2006). Wood et al. (2008) suggested more consumption of alpha-linolenic
acid, which encourages the endogenous synthesis of long chain n-3 fatty acids. It has
been reported that the PUFA rich forage increased PUFA in animal product (Kălber
et al., 2011; Mapiye, et al., 2011, Patra and Saxena, 2011).
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There are considerable variations in the nutritional values, fatty acids and antioxidant
activity of moringa leaves. This depends on factors like season and agro-climatic
location, genetic background, environment and cultivation methods (Brisibe et al.,
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2009; Iqbal and Bhanger, 2006). Siddhuraju and Becker (2003) also reported that
antioxidant properties of Moringa oleifera leaves varied with agro-climatic locations.
However, information on anti-nutritional compounds, antioxidant activity and the
fatty acids of moringa foliage is scarce at different cutting intervals.
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Therefore, the objective of the present study was to determine the anti-nutritional
factors, antioxidant activity and fatty acid composition of moringa foliage at different
maturity or cutting intervals.
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4.2.1. Moringa foliage samples

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The samples of moringa foliage of the agronomic trial conducted during the rainy
season under experiment 1 were used for the present research work. Samples from
each block were dried, ground and kept for further analyses. In case of experiment-2,
samples were pooled for each four blocks of each treatment. Then subsample was
taken from each treatment.
38
4.2.2. Determination of total phenols, tannins, non-tannins and condensed
tannins
4.2.2.1. Sample extraction
One (1.0) g moringa foliage sample was taken in a 50 ml falcon tube and 40 ml
diethyl ether containing 1 percent acetic acid (v/v) was added and mixed to remove
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pigment material. The supernatant was discarded after 5 minutes and 20 ml of 70
percent aqueous acetone was added. The falcon tubes were sealed with a screw cap
and kept in an electrical shaker for 2 hours. The tubes were centrifuged at 3000 rpm
for 10 minutes, and the supernatant was kept in a refrigerator at 4 °C until further
analysis.
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4.2.2.2. Estimation of total phenols, tannins and non-tannin phenols
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Total phenols, tannins and non-tannin phenols were estimated following the
procedure of Makkar et al. (1993). Folin Ciocalteu reagent (1N), sodium carbonate
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(20%), insoluble polyvinyl polypyrrolidone and standard tannic acid solution (0.5 mg
ml–1) were used. Fifty micro litre (µl) of the extract was placed in a test tube in
triplicate and the volume was made to 1.0 ml with distilled water. Then 0.5 ml Folin
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Ciocalteu reagent solution was added to the test tubes and mixed properly, 2.5 ml
sodium carbonate solution was added and mixed, and allowed to react for 40 minutes
at room temperature. The absorbance of the solution was measured at 725 nm using a
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spectrophotometer (Secomam, Domont, France). A standard calibration plot was

generated at 725 nm using known the concentrations of tannic acid. The
concentrations of total phenols, tannins and non-tannin phenols were calculated from
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the calibration curve and expressed as mg tannic acid equivalent g–1 dry weight
(DW).
4.2.2.3. Estimation of condensed tannins

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Condense tannins were quantified following the method of Porter et al. (1986).
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Butanol-HCL and ferric ammonium sulphate reagent were used in this analysis.
About 0.5 ml sample of the extract solution was placed in a test tube in triplicates
and 3.0 ml of butanol-HCL and 0.1 ml of ferric ammonium sulphate reagent were
added. The test tubes with the solutions were mixed by a vortex to ensure proper
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mixing. Glass marbles were placed on the orifice of test tubes and the tubes were
boiled for 60 minutes. Then the test tubes were allowed to cool at the room
temperature and absorbance was recorded at 550 nm using a spectrophotometer
(Secomam, Domont, France). A standard calibration curve was produced at 550 nm
using the known concentration of catechin standards. The concentration of
condensed tannins was calculated from the calibration curve and was expressed as
mg catechin equivalent g–1 dry weight (DW).
39
4.2.3. Determination of total flavonoids
4.2.3.1. Sample extraction
For flavonoid estimation the method of Atanassova et al. (2011) was followed for the
extraction of sample. Exactly 1.0 g ground moringafoliage sample was placed in a
50 ml falcon tube and 40 ml of 80% aqueous methanol solution was added. The
falcon tube with the solution was kept in an electric shaker for 20 minutes, and then
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they were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes. The extract was prepared just
before the analysis to avoid any degradation.
4.2.3.2. Estimation of total flavonoids
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The amount of total flavonoids in the extracts was determined according to
Aluminum chloride assay (Atanassova et al., 2011) method. Exactly 1 ml of extract
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was placed in a 10 ml volumetric flask, and 4.0 ml of deionized water and 0.3 ml 5%
NaNO2 was added to the volumetric flask sequentially. After 5 minute, 0.3 ml 10%
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AlCl3 was added, after 6 minute, 2.0 ml 1M NaOH was added and finally a total
volume of 10ml was made with de-ionized water. The mixture was shaken well and
the absorbance was measured at 510 nm with a Spectrophotometer (Secomam,
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Domont, France). A standard series of concentrations of rutin (µg ml–1) was prepared
in distilled water. A standard calibration curve was produced at 510 nm using the
known concentrations of the rutin standard. The concentrations of flavonoids were
calculated using the calibration curve and expressed as mg rutin equivalent g–1 dry
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weight (DW).
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4.2.4. Determination of total saponin
4.2.4.1. Preparation of saponin extract

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Moringa foliage samples were de-fatted according to the method of Sanbongi et al.
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(1998) with some modifications. Twenty (20) g of finely ground samples were
soaked in 50 ml chloroform and kept overnight at room temperature, and the solution
was filtered through Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The de-fatted sample was dried in a
50 °C electric oven for five hours.
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Ten (10) g of de-fatted sample was placed in a 250 ml flask and 100 ml of 50%
aqueous methanol was added. The solution was kept on a magnetic stirrer overnight
at the room temperature. The content was centrifuged at 3000 g for 10 minutes and
the supernatant was collected. The extraction was repeated with the same solvent.
After centrifugation, the first and the second supernatants were combined and kept in
a refrigerator at 4 °C until analysis.
40
4.2.4.2. Estimation of total saponin
Total saponin content was determined according to Makkar et al. (2007) based on the
vanillin-sulfuric acid colorimetric reaction. The total saponin was determined by
adding 0.25 ml crude extract, 0.25 ml vanillin reagent (8%) and 0.25 ml of 72%
sulfuric acid in a test tube sequentially. The test tubes were vortexed and transferred
to a water bath at 60 °C. After 10 minutes, the test tubes were cooled in ice cold
water for 4 minutes and the absorbance was recorded at 544 nm using a
spectrophotometer (Secomam, Domont, France). A standard calibration curve was
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produced at 544 nm using known concentrations of diosgenin standard. The
concentrations of saponin was calculated from the calibration curve and expressed as
mg diosgenin equivalent g–1 dry weight (DW).
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4.2.5. Antioxidant activity (DPPH free radical scavenging activity)
4.2.5.1. Sample extraction for DPPH
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Moringa foliage was extracted for the determination of antioxidant activity according
to the procedure described in Section 4.2.3.1.
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4.2.5.2. Preparation of DPPH stock solution
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DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryhydrazyl) reagent from Sigma (Aldrich Co., Louis,

USA) was prepared in a 100 ml volumetric flask by dissolving 24 mg of dry DPPH
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in pure methanol and maintaining the final concentration of 0.1 mM DPPH in

methanol, the final volume was fixed.
4.2.5.3. Estimation of antioxidant activity of moringa foliage

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A 50 µl of sample extract was taken in a test tube and 3 ml of diluted DPPH solution
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was added. The mixture was shaken vigorously for a few seconds and incubated by
allowing it to stand at the room temperature for 30 min in a dark place. Methanol was
used as the blank (negative control). Then the absorbance was recorded at 517 nm
using a spectrophotometer (Secomam, Domont, France). Lower absorbance of the
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reaction mixture indicates a higher free radical scavenging activity. The activity was
calculated using the following equation (Yen and Duh, 1994): Free radical
scavenging activity (%) = [(A0 - A1)/ A0] x 100%
Where A0 is the absorbance of the control reaction and A1 is the absorbance of the
present sample. Trolox was used as the reference compound (positive control) at
concentrations from 0 to125 µg/ml.
41
4.2.6. Determination of fatty acid composition
The fatty acid composition of moringa foliage were determined by three major
processes, particularly with total lipid extraction, followed by preparation of fatty
acid methyl esters (FAME) by transmethylation, and finally quantification of FMAE
using a gas chromatography.
Prior to starting, all glassware were soaked for three hours in Decon 90 (Decon
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laboratories Ltd., Sussex, UK), brushed and totally washed with tap water. Then the
glassware was soaked in distilled water overnight and re-rinsed in the next morning
before drying in an oven maintained at 60 °C.
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4.2.6.1. Lipid extraction
The method described by Folch et al. (1957) and modified by Rajion et al. (1985)
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was used for the extraction of fatty acids from the samples. One g of sample was
homogenized in 25 ml chloroform/methanol (2:1 v/v) in 50-ml falcon plastic tubes.
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The tubes were allowed to stand overnight, then 10 ml normal saline solution was
added and was vortexed to allow proper mixing and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 5
minutes. The phases were separated after centrifugation. The non-lipid contaminants
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would be retained in the upper aqueous phase, therefore, this upper phase was
discarded and the lower phase was collected through glass Pasteur pipettes. A 100 µl
sample of heneicosanoic acid (C21:0) (Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, MO, USA) was
added to each extract prior to transmethylation to determine the individual fatty acid
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concentrations in the sample.

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4.2.6.2. Preparation of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME)
Extracted fatty acids were transmethylated (to FAME) using 14% Methanolic Boron
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Trifloride (Sigma, St. Louis MO, USA) according to the method of AOAC (2000).
Prior to transmethylation the extracted lipid was air-dried under a steady stream of
pure nitrogen on a heating block (40 °C). After drying, two ml of 0.66 N, methnolic
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potassium hydroxide was added to saponify the extracted lipid. The methylation
tubes were capped and heated in a boiling water bath for 10 minutes with occasional
shaking. After the tubes were cooled down in running water tap, 2 ml of 14%
Methanolic Boron Trifloride was added to initiate trans-esterification and the mixture
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was re-heated for 20 minutes in a boiling water bath (Rajion et al., 1985).
After cooling, four ml of distilled water and 4 ml petroleum ether were added and the
mixture was vortexed for one minute. The mixture was centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 5
minutes for the separation of the aqueous and organic phase. The upper petroleum
ether layer was transferred to 2ml screw capped GC vials (Agilent) and stored at 4°C
for Gas Chromatography.
42
4.2.6.3. Analysis of Fatty Acid Methyle Esters (FAME) with Gas
Chromatography
The prepared FAME was analysed using a gas chromatography (GC; Agilent,
7890A) equipped with an automatic sampler. A 30m x 0.25mm ID (0.20 µm film
thickness) Supelco SP-2330 capillary column (Supelco, Inc., Bellefonte, PA, USA)
was used to separate the methyl esters, which were detected with a flame ionized
detector (FID). The injector and detector temperature was 250 and 300 °C
respectively. The column was programmed to run at 100 °C for 2 min, warmed to
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170 C at 10 C /min, held for 2 min, warmed to 200C at 7.5 C /min, and then held
for 20 min to facilitate optimal separation. High purity nitrogen was the carrier gas
with a flow rate at 1.2 ml min–1 and split ratio of 1:20. Identification of fatty acids
was carried out by comparing relative FAME peak retention times of samples to
standards obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, MO, USA). Normalized percentage (%)
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of total FA was used to determine the differences in FA composition. Peak areas
were determined and calibrated using a personal computer integrator (Hewlett-
Packard, Avondale, PA).
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4.2.7. Statistical analysis H
The data were subjected to one way ANOVA of a completely randomized design
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using SAS (SAS, 2007). The cutting intervals were used as treatment effect. The
differences between means were compared using Duncan`s multiple range test (Steel
and Torrie, 1980) at 5% level (P<0.05).
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4.3. Results
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4.3.1. Anti-nutritional compounds

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The total phenols and tannin content of moringa foliage were significantly (P<0.05)
higher at 4 and 6 weeks cutting intervals than that found at 8 weeks (Table 4.1).
Total flavonoids was not significantly (P>0.05) higher at 4 and 6 weeks interval
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compared to that of 8 week. There was no significant (P>0.05) differences in non

tannin phenols and the saponins of moringafoliage at different cutting intervals.
However, the most of the bio-active or anti-nutrient compounds of moringa foliage
declined linearly and significantly (P<0.05) with increasing cutting intervals.
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43
Table 4.1 Total phenols, tannins, non-tannin phenols, condensed tannins, total
flavonoids, and total saponins inmoringa foliage at different cutting intervals
(Mean ± SE; n=3)
Anti-nutrients Treatments
4 wks 6wks 8 wks
1 a b
Total phenol 51.86±0.34 43.89±0.70 29.00±0.41 c
Non-tannin phenol1 16.95±0.49 15.93±2.51 12.34±1.58
1 a b
Tannin 34.90±0.70 27.96±1.94 16.66±1.18c
Condensed tannins2 0.23±0.02 a 0.17±0.01ab 0.14±0.02 b
3
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Total flavonoid 75.28 ±3.94 73.84±4.84 67.06±0.97
4
Total saponin 13.97±0.18 13.78±0.42 13.48 ±0.12
1
mg tannic acid equivalent g–1 dry weight (DW); 2mg catechin equivalent g–1D;3mg rutin
equivalent g–1 DW;4mg diosgenin equivalent g–1 DW; n= observation numbers.
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4.3.2. Antioxidant activity
The effects of total moringa foliage extracts on the DPPH radical scavenging activity
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are illustrated in Figure 4.1. The DPPH radical scavenging activity of methanolic
extract of moringa foliage was significantly (P<0.05) higher at 4 week cutting
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intervals than that was found at 6 or 8 week cutting intervals. The DPPH radical
scavenging activity is an established practice for determining the antioxidant activity
of plant extracts.
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62 a
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60
b
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58
Inhibition (%)
56 b
54
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52
50
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48
46
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4 Wk 6 Wk 8 Wk
Cutting interval
Figure 4.1.DPPH radical scavenging activity of moringa foliage at different

cutting intervals at a concentration of 125 ug mg–1. [Trolox used as standard;
Error bar=SE]
44
4.3.3. Fatty acid composition
The fatty acid compositions of total foliage of moringa at different cutting intervals
are presented in Table 4.2. Nine fatty acids, identified in the dried moringa foliage,
and they did not vary significantly (P>0.05) with the advancement of plant maturity.
In general, α-lenolenic acid (C18:3n-3) was found to be present in a higher amount
than the palmatic acid (C16:0), lenoleic acid (C18:2n-6), stearic acid (C18:0) or oleic
acid (C18:1n-9). Two polyunsaturated fatty acids were identified, namely α-linolenic
and lenoleic acids.
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Table 4.2 Effect of cutting intervals on fatty acid composition ofmoringa foliage
(Mean ± SE; n=3)
Treatments
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Fatty acids
4 Wk 6 Wk 8 Wk
C12:0 (Lauric ) 0.60±0.11 0.31±0.02 0.50±0.15
C14:0 (Myristic acid) 2.19±0.28 2.17±0.10 1.88±0.17
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) 21.45±2.68 22.40±1.69 21.10 ±0.44
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C16:1 (Palmitoleic acid) 2.23±0.13 2.68±0.36 2.11± 0.08
C17:0(Heptadecanoic acid) 0.96±0.24
H 1.24±0.06 1.30 ± 0.06
C18:0 (Stearic acid) 6.08±0.08 5.55±1.14 6.05±0.42
C18:1n-9 (Oleic acid) 4.93 ±0.33 4.86±0.91 4.09±0.34
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C18:2n-6 (linoleic) 13.32±0.38 12.53±0.57 13.35±0.80
C18:3n-3 (linolenic) 48.25±1.92 48.28±1.69 49.61±0.44
Total SFA 31.27±2.03 31.62±1.09 30.84±0.79
Total MUFA 7.15±0.25 7.54 ± 0.60 6.20±0.42
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Total n-6PUFA 13.32±0.38 12.53±0.57 13.55±0.80

Total n-3PUFA 48.25±1.92 48.28±1.69 49.61±0.44
Total PUFA 61.58±1.95 60.81 ±1.37 62.96±1.22
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n-6: n-3 0.28 ± 0.01 0.29±0.003 0.27±0.01

Total SFA: sum of (C12:0+C14:0+C16:0+C18:0)
Total MUFA: sum of (C16:1+C18:1n-9)
n-6: n-3= Total n-6PUFA ÷ Total n-3PUFA; n= observation numbers; Wk= week
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4.4. Discussion
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4.4.1. Anti-nutritional compounds

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Polyphenols, commonly known as tannins, non tannin phenols and condensed

tannins are found widely in many different plants, especially, those of tropical
regions. Adverse effects on productivity and health of animals may be shown when
these tree fodder plants are consumed at a higher amount (Kumar, 1992). Conversely,
minimal or optimal consumption by animals has a protective effect on animal health
(Redden et al., 2005; Felix and Mello, 2000). Flavonoids are also a class of
polyphenolics, and are common and widely distributed group of plant phenolic
compounds and it virtually occurs in all plant parts (Karimi et al., 2011). In the
45
present study, the total phenol content of the moringa foliage varied from 51.9 to
29.0 mg tannic acid equivalent g–1 dry weight, respectively. The level of tannic acid
of the moringa foliage of 6 or 8 week cutting intervals was similar to that reported by
several authors (Gupta et al., 1989; Makkar and Becker, 1997 and Nouman et al.,
2013). Makkar and Becker (1997) stated that the concentration of phenols found in
the collected foliage sample may not produce any adverse effects when used by
ruminants. On the other hand, Saikia and Upadhyaya (2011) and Iqbal and Bhanger
(2006) found a higher quantity of total phenols in moringa leaves compared to that
was found in the foliage of the present study. The tannin content of total moringa
foliage in the present study were 34.9, 28.0, and 16.7 mg tannic acid equivalent g–1
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dried sample collected at 4, 6 or 8 weeksof cutting intervals, respectively. The range
in tannin content of moringa foliage was similar to that was found by Makker and
Becker (1997), Moyo et al. (2011), and Aye and Adegum (2013). Conversely,
Krishnaiah et al. (2009) found a higher amount of tannin in moringa leaves
compared to that found in the moringa foliage sample of the present study. It was
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noted that the polyphenolic compounds were reduced with the increase in plant
maturity. However, Julkunen-Tiitto (1989) and Wiermann (1981) reported that
phenolic content increased with the increase of leaf age. Differences in the rainfall,
temperature, season, soil and agro-climatic conditions between the locations may
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have resulted in the variations in the content of phenols of different samples.
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The values of flavonoid in the total moringafoliage were 75.28, 73.84 and 67.06 mg
rutin equivalent g–1 DW at 4, 6 and 8 week intervals, respectively. The values of total
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flavonoid compounds (TFC) of moringa foliage found in this study were similar to
those of the moringa samples reported by Iqbal and Bhanger (2006), particularly in
the samples of Nawabshah and Jamshoro of Pakistan. However, the total phenol
compounds (TPC) of moringa foliage in this study was lower than that of moringa of
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Chakwal, Balakot and Chakwal of Pakistan. These differences could be attributed to

agro-climatic conditions and season, genetic variability, age, stage of leaf, and the
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post handling of samples.
It is recognized that phenol and flavonoid contents are directly associated with
antioxidant properties (Landrault et al., 2001). It has been reported that polyphenols
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and flavonoids have protective effects against various degenerative diseases due to
the association with free radicals (Deepa et al., 2009). According to Rice-Evans et al.
(1997) the number of hydroxyl groups and the amount of conjugation are two
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important factors that determine the antioxidant potential of phenolic compounds.

The better antioxidants are generally more conjugated and have numerous hydroxyl
groups present (n=2 to 5), which enables the antioxidant to scavenge several radicals
at once. The presence of these anti-nutritional or bioactive compounds in moringa
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foliage is a significant finding of the present study, which indicates that a higher
antioxidant activity of moringa foliage may be correlated with phenolic and
flavonoid contents.
Another group of anti-nutritional factors reported to occur in moringa leaves are the
saponins. The range of saponin values in moringa foliage was 13.48 to 13,97 mg
diogenin equivalent g–1 DW. The saponin values of moringa foliage found in this
46
study were similar to those of moringa leaf samples reported by Gupta et al. (1989).
However, the saponin content of moringa foliage in this study was much lower than
that reported by Makkar and Becker (1996 and 1997), Krishnaiah et al. (2009), and
Aye and Adegum (2013). Saponins include a large family of structurally related to
glycosides compounds, and consequently all saponins do not have the same impact
on livestock (Makkar and Becker, 1996). Some soponins provide protective effects,
while saponins from some other plants may have adverse effects on the growth of
animals particularly in the monogastrics. The saponin content of the Moringa
oleifera leaves appear to be relatively harmless, as the leaves are consumed by
humans without any adverse effects (Price et al., 1987; Liener, 1994).
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4.4.2. Antioxidant Activity
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The antioxidant activity of methanolic extracts from the total moringa foliage was
characterized by the DPPH radical scavenging test. The level of discoloration
designates the scavenging potential of the antioxidant extract, which indicates the
radical scavenging ability. At 4 weeks of cutting interval, moringa foliage exhibited
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the strongest activity as a DPPH scavenger in the present study. The antioxidant
activity of moringa foliage extract was comparable with that of the reference
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antioxidant (Trolox). The data obtained in the present study suggests that the extract
of moringa foliage has an effective antioxidant activity against free radicals and
gives significant protection against the oxidative damage of living cells. Nouman et
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al. (2013) found maximum antioxidant activities in moringa leaf in the rainy and in
the hot season, when the plants were harvested at a shorter cutting interval. A
positive correlation between temperature, rainfall and antioxidant activity of moringa
was observed by Yang et al. (2006). Based on the results of the present study, it was
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apparent that methanolic extracts from total moringa foliage had a positive
correlation between cutting intensity and antioxidant activity without the adverse
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effects on the yield and as well as the nutrient content at different cutting intervals
(Experiment-1). The antioxidant activity may be attributed to the fact that the plants
exhibit nutritional balance and improved self defense mechanisms to survive under
cutting stress.
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The antioxidant activities of plant extracts are linked with the presence of phenols,
flavonoids and tannins (Cao et al., 1996). A high correlation was found in the present
study between the scavenging potency and total phenolic (r2=0.912) and flavonoid
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(r2= 0.78) (Appendix; Figure, C.1 and C.2) contents of the moringa foliage extract. It
has been reported that the leaves of moringa tree could be used as a potential source
of natural antioxidants due to their potent antioxidant activity (Siddhuraju and
Becker, 2003). The results presented here suggest that moringa foliage is a potential
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source of natural phenolics, flavonoids and antioxidants.
Because of this high antioxidant activity, animals fed with the moringa foliage, might
have an enhancement of their physiological condition, animal’s defensive systemin
the presence ofimmune stimulating properties and acted as a growth promoter, like
that of antibiotics (Plachcinska et al., 1984 and Chiang et al., 2003).
47
4.4.3. Fatty acid composition
The fatty acid profiles of the moringa foliage in the current study are comparable to
other previous studies (Sena et al., 1998; Soliva et al., 2005; Sánchez-Machado et
al., 2010; Amalgo et al., 2010; and Moyo et al., 2011). Nine fatty acids from
moringa foliage were indentified in the present study, and they were in the range
similar to that reported by Sena et al., (1998). However, the results differ with that
reported by Soliva et al. (2005), Sánchez-Machado et al. (2010), Amalgo et al.
(2010) and Moyo et al. (2011). They reported 11, 14, 15 and 17 fatty acids,
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respectively. The variation could be attributed to the age of the leaves, sampling of
leaves, twigs and stems, soil type and agro-climatic conditions. The amounts of total
saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids determined in the moringa
foliage at different cutting intervals in the current study was consistent with the
results of Sánchez-Machado et al. (2010). The α-linolenic acid (C18: n-3) was found
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in a higher amount followed by palmitic acid (C16:0). These were similar to that was
reported by Sánchez-Machado et al. (2010) and Amaglo et al. (2010). Two
polyunsaturated fatty acids were identified, namely linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) and
linolenic acid (C18:3n-3). The share of α-linoleic acid (C18:3n-3) was 48.73%.
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Similar findings were observed by Sánchez-Machado et al. (2010), Soliva et
al.(2005), Amalgo et al. (2010) and Moyo et al. (2011). In the present study,
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moringa foliage of different cutting intervals showed a significant amount of α-
linolenic acid (C18:3n-3) and linoleic acid (C18:2n-6), and they are considered to be
essential fatty acids for ruminants (Syadati et al., 2012). The moringa foliage
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contained more dietary polyunsaturated acids than saturated fatty acids. Hoffman and
Wiklund (2006) recommended diets with a higher content of PUFA and a lower
content of SFA as desirable for promoting good health and preventing disease in
humans. Wood et al. (2008) suggested a higher consumption of α-linoleic acid
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(C18:3n-3), which encourages the endogenous synthesis of long chain omega-3 fatty
acids in animals and humans.
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Polyunsaturated fatty acids are important for human and animal health. They are of
attention because they are precursors of long chain n-3 PUFA such as,
ecosopantanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic(DHA) which are observed as the
important bio-regulators of many cellular processes (Khotimchenko, 2005). They are
associated with the improvement and functionality of the immune system. The
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composition of fatty acids in the animal’s body is linked to the presence of some of
their precursors in the diets, in view of the fact that some of the fatty acids are
absorbed in the body without biohydrogenation (Wood et al., 2003).
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4.5. Conclusion
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The amount of total phenol, tannin and condensed tannins of moringa foliage was
higher at 4 week cutting intervals than 6 or 8 week. Similarly, antioxidant activity of
moringa foliage was higher at 4 week cutting interval compared to 6 or 8 week
intervals. Fatty acid composition of moringa foliage was similar over the cutting
intervals and contained a more polyunsaturated fatty acid compared to saturated fatty
acids. The present study reveals that moringa foliage harvested at 4 week cutting
interval show a higher antioxidant activity than 6 and 8 week cutting interval.
48
It was found that the nutritive value of moringa foliage in terms of IVDMD,
IVOMD, ADF, NDF, ADL and antioxidant activity was higher at 4 week cutting
interval than 6 and 8 week in experiment 1 and 2. However, CP content of moringa
foliage was similar over the cutting intervals. Moreover, fresh biomass yield was
higher at 8 week cutting interval compare to 6 and 4 week in experiment 1. Large
amount of biomass of moringa foliage was required during the study period, for this
reason, moringa foliage was harvested at 8 week cutting interval for the experiment-
3.
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C
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49
CHAPTER 5
EFFECTS OF SUBSTITUTION OF CONVENTIONAL CONCENTRATE

WITH MORINGA FOLIAGES ON THE GROWTH PERFORMACE,
CARCASS YIELD AND MEAT QUALITY OF GOATS FED ON A PADDY
STRAW BASE DIET
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5.1. Introduction
The unavailability of quality feeds is the most important factor affecting the success
of livestock industries in the tropics. The small ruminant animals are usually raised
on crop residues, native pasture, agro-industrial by products and other non-
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conventional feed resources, generally low in protein. As a result, high levels of
production cannot be attained using poor quality feeds that hardly meet even the
maintenance requirement of animals. It has been reported that the intake and
digestibility of low quality hay was improved by supplementing with concentrates
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(Nurfeta, 2010). However, options for supplementation with concentrate are limited
by its cost and unavailability under smallholder production systems. Moreover, the
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capital constraints of resource poor producers and competition between humans and
monogastric animals for cereal grains limit prospects of using cereal grains as
ruminant feeds. In order to alleviate the problems related with the supply of protein
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supplements, there is a need to search for alternative protein sources that farmers
may produce cost effectively at farm levels. Manaye et al. (2009) observed that the
intake, digestibility and live weight gain of sheep were improved when a low-quality
grass was supplemented with Sesbania sesban tree leaves.
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In the recent years, there has been an increased attention on the use of alternative
protein sources of forage trees and shrubs used to be fed to goats (Sanon et al., 2008;
Fasuyi et al., 2005 and Marume, 2010). However, the presence of anti-nutritional and
toxic factors in edible biomass of forage trees and shrubs limit their use as animal
feeds (Makkar et al., 1993). However, tree fodder biomass may be harvested and
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sun-dried during the production seasons, and it may be preserved for feeding during
the feed scarce period. More importantly, the replacement of conventional
concentrates by tree fodders saves cost of feeding and may avoid using commercial
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concentrates (Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011b).
Moringa leaves posses nutritious, therapeutic and prophylactic properties with a

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range of crude protein varying from 23.0 to 40.0% (Marcu and Pharm, 2005;
Mendieta- Araica et al., 2011b). The leaves of the tree contain a high antioxidant
capacity due to the presence of high quantity of polyphenols (Moyo et al., 2012b;
Sreelatha and Padma, 2009 and Verma et al., 2009). It exhibits high antioxidant
activities due to the presence of carotenoids, vitamins, minerals, amino acids, sterols,
glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids and phenolics (Verma et al., 2009). It was reported
that both phenolic and flavonoid compounds in moringa leaves not only influence
lipid oxidation potential, but may also affect meat quality and fatty acid composition
50
(Sreelatha and Padma, 2009). In addition, phenolic compounds have merits of
increasing PUFA concentrations and yielding meat of a lighter color (Mapiye et al.,
2011 and Patra and Saxena, 2011).
Goat meat has gained acceptance around the world over the past few years, mainly
because it is relatively leaner than beef and mutton (Mahgoub et al., 2002). Goat
carcass tended to deposit more internal fat, and less subcutaneous and intramuscular
fat compared to beef and sheep carcass (Smith et al., 1978; Van Niekerk and Casey,
1988; Colomer-Rocher et al., 1992). Generally, in ruminant muscle lipids, the
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proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFA) is found often high (Bas and Morand-Fehr,
2000) and the poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are low. The dietary unsaturated
fat of ruminant diets is hydrogenated in the rumen (Jenkins et al., 2008) by the action
of rumen microbes. The excessive consumption of PUFA may increase the formation
of oxygen radicals and aldehydes, and they are thought to be partly responsible for
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carcinogenesis and ageing (Russo et al., 1999). On the other hand, a low intake of
saturated fat and increased PUFA/SFA ratio are associated with a low risk of human
coronary heart disease (Hu et al., 1999).
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The fatty acid profile of the meat of ruminant animals is less affected by the dietary
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fatty acids compared to that of non-ruminants. However, many reports on ruminants
have illuminated that the different types of diets may affect the fatty acid profile of
the meat (Van Niekerk and Casey, 1988; Solomon et al., 1991; Enser et al., 1998;
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Rhee et al., 2000; Van Harten et al., 2003; Coltro et al., 2005; Talpur et al., 2008). It
has been reported that moringa leaves are rich in n-3 PUFA (Sena et al.,1998; Soliva
et al., 2005; Sánchez-Machado et al., 2010; Amalgo et al., 2011 and Moyo et al.,
2011). However, information on the on the substitution of conventional concentrate
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with moringa foliage on growth, carcass characteristics and meat quality of Bengal
goats are limited. The utilization of moringa foliages, data available on them
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substantiate claims of its potentiality as a fodder crop, deserve research attention on

feeding impacts of Bengal goats on their growth performance, carcass characteristics
and meat quality.
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Therefore, the objective of the present experiment was to evaluate the effect of
substitute of conventional concentrate feed with moringa foliage on the growth,
nutrient utilization, carcass characteristics and meat quality of Bengal goats.
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5.2.1. Location of the experiment
The study was conducted in the Goat Research Farm of Bangladesh Livestock
Research Institute (BLRI), Savar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. The research station was
located at 23°42’0”N, 90°22’30”E and at an altitude of 4 meters above sea level.
51
5.2.2. Experimental animals
A total of 30 young Bengal male goats were selected from a flock of about 300
animals of the farm, and they were used in this study. The goats were 6 to 8 months
of age and had an average live weight of 8.07 ± 0.87 kg (Mean ±SE). All goats were
treated with helminthes (Endex, Novertis, India limited) prior to feeding
experimental diets. The selected goats were kept in individual pens measuring 1.25
m2 (1.25 m × 1.0 m) and adjusted with feeders and water buckets. They were
gradually adjusted to feeding with moringa foliages and paddy straw before the start
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of feeding the experimental diet.
5.2.3. Experimental diet and management
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Moringa oleifera foliage was harvested at 56 days (8 weeks of age) of growth during
the rainy season from the moringa plots of the BLRI. The collected moringa foliage
consisted of leaves, petioles, stems and soft rachis. The hard woody rachis was
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removed from the foliage to allow the intake of biomass having leaf to stem ratio of
2:1.The whole foliage was chopped and sun dried on thick plastic sheets for three
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days, then bagged and stored until further use. The conventional concentrate
ingredients (broken maize, wheat bran, soybean meal, and kheshari bran) were
procured from a local feed mill, and the dietary mixtures were prepared weekly for
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feeding the goats. Chemical composition of feed ingredients of concentrate mixture
is presented in Appendix.B (Table B.1 and B.2). The composition of conventional
concentrate mixture, moringa foliage and straw are given in Table 5.1. All diets were
considered to be iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous (Table 5.2) and formulated to meet
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the nutritional requirements of the growing goats adjusted according to their live
weight (NRC, 2007). The total feed was offered at 4.0% live weight on dry matter
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basis of each goat.The stipulated amount of straw, concentrate mixture and dry
moringa foliage for each goat of each treatment were weighed once a day. They are
divided in to two parts. One part was offered at 08:00, another part was given at
15:00. In case of concentrate (C) and moringa foliage (M) combination diets
(75M:25C, 50M:50C and 25M:75C), concentrate was offered prior to moringa
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foliage. The straw was offered after concentrate and moringa foliage in separate
feeder. The feeder and water buckets were cleaned daily before the fresh feed and
water were offered.The feed offered and refusals were recorded on a daily basis
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throughout the experimental period to estimate voluntary dry matter intake. The Dry
matter (DM) analysis of both feeds and refusals was done on the same day. The
feeding trial was conducted for 105 days. All animals were weighed before morning
feeding at the commencement of the experiment and weighed at each week. The
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average daily live weight gain was calculated by regressing cumulative live weight
on the days of feeding during the experimental period. The feed conversion
efficiency was calculated as a proportion of live weight gain to feed intake for the
whole experimental period.
52
Table 5.1 Ingredient (%) of concentrate and chemical composition of
concentrate mixture, moringa foliage and paddy straw (%DM)
Moringa foliage Paddy
Concentrate
Ingredients (harvested at 8 week straw
mixture
interval)
Broken maize 36 - -
Soybean meal 42 - -
Kheshari bran 8 - -
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Wheat bran 7 - -
Soybean oil 4.5 4.5 -
Vitamin mineral premix 0.5 0.5 -
Dicalcium phosphate (DCP) 1.0 1.0 -
Salt 1.0 1.0 -
Moringa foliage - 93.0 -
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Paddy straw - - 97.5
Molasses - - 2.5
Chemical Composition, % DM
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Dry matter 89.53 89.67 90.17
Crude protein 19.95
H 20.04 5.52
Organic matter 93.10 89.42 83.54
Ash 6.90 10.58 16.46
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Ether extract 5.23 5.13 2.18
Acid detergent Fiber 12.36 19.01 35.78
Neutral detergent fiber 40.66 32.38 63.31
Metabolizable Energy 11.31 11.36 5.26
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(MJ/kgDM)
Calcium (Ca) 0.41 2.28 0.32
Phosphorus (P) 0.77 0.35 0.14
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C
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53
5.2.4. Experimental design
The selected goats were divided into five equal groups each containing six animals,
and the following five diets were randomly allotted to five groups of animals. The
rice straw was used as a basal diet at the rate 30% of total feed. Concentrate mixture
feed was substituted with moringa foliage at 25, 50, 75 and 100 among remaining
70% diet. Five experimental treatments were:
100M = 70 % moringa foliage + 0.0% concentrate mixture
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75M:25C = 52.5% moringa foliage + 17.5% concentrate mixture
50M:50C = 35.0 % moringa foliage + 35.0 % concentrate mixture
25M:75C= 17.5% moringa foliage + 52.5 % concentrate mixture
100C = 70 % concentrate mixture + 0.0% moringa
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Table 5.2 Chemical composition of five experimental diet mixtures (% in DM)
Chemical Experimental diet
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composition 100M1 75M:25C2 50M:50C3 25M:75C4 100C5
DM 90.05 89.80
H 89.88 90.05 90.00
CP 15.62 15.64 15.65 15.67 15.68
ADF 21.66 20.56 19.54 18.51 17.42
NDF 37.53 38.74 40.05 41.43 42.61
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OM 87.66 88.30 88.94 89.59 90.23
Ash 12.34 11.70 11.06 10.41 9.77
EE 4.25 4.26 4.28 4.30 4.32
ME(MJ/kgDM) 9.53 9.52 9.51 9.50 9.50
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Ca 1.69 1.36 1.04 0.71 0.38

P 0.29 0.36 0.43 0.51 0.58
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Ca:P 5.90 3.79 2.39 1.40 0.66

M= Moringa foliage; C=Concentrate; DM= Dry Matter; CP = Crude Protein; ADF= Acid
Detergent Fiber; NDF= Neutral detergent fiber;OM=Organic Matter; EE= Ether extract;
ME= Metabolizable Energy (MJ/kg DM); Ca= Calcium; P= phosphorus. 1= (straw,30%:
moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 52.5%:
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concentrate, 17.5%); 3= ( straw,30%: moringa foliage ,35%: concentrate,35%); 4= (straw,

30%: moringa foliage, 17.5%: concentrate, 52.5%); 5=(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 0%:
concentrate, 70%).Chemcal composition is inclusive 30% straw for all diets.
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5.2.5. Digestibility trial

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Four goats from each of the dietary group were randomly selected for determining
digestibility of the feeds and nutrients using the total collection method during the
last ten days of the trial. Metabolic trays were placed under individual pens for the
collection of feces and urine separately. The animals were continued to feed on the
experimental diets. They were allowed 3 days to adjust with the additional
management system prior to start of the total collection of urine and feces for 7 days.
The feces of each of the animals were collected, weighed, and sampled (10%), and
kept in a freezer (-20°C) for further analysis. The total urine of each of the animal
54
was weighed, sampled (10%), and kept in plastic containers containing 100 ml 6N
H2SO4 to prevent ammonia loss. The containers were kept in a freezer. The samples
of feed and refusals of the total collection period were mixed thoroughly, and a
composite sample for each animal was taken for analysis of the chemical
components. Dry matter and crude protein was determined using the fresh sample
and the other chemical components (ether extract, ash, neutral detergent fiber, acid
detergent fiber and fatty acid profiles) were analyzed using dried and milled sample.
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5.2.6. Slaughter procedure and carcass sampling
At the end of the growth and digestibility trial, four goats were randomly selected
from each of the treatments for slaughtering. All the twenty animals selected were
fasted for twenty four hours and slaughtered according to the ‘Halal’ method. The
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fasted live weights of the animals were recorded before slaughtering, and individual
hot carcass weights were recorded immediately after evisceration. Non-carcass
components (skin, head, feet, lung, heart, liver, spleen, kidneys, kidney fat, and
gastro-intestinal tract fat) were removed and weighed individually. The stomach
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(rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum) and post-ruminal tract (small intestine,
large intestine and caecum) were removed and weighed separately. The digesta
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content of the stomach and post-ruminal tract were removed, and the empty tract was
washed and weighed. The carcasses were kept overnight at 4 °C, and then the chilled
carcasses were weighed and the chilling loss was determined in the next morning.
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Dressing percentage was calculated as hot carcass weight relative to fasted body
weight. The carcasses were divided into equal halves along the midline using a
carcass saw. The left half was used for the determination of meat quality and
chemical composition, while the right half was assigned for determining carcass
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composition (lean, bone and fat) and carcass cut. Carcass composition was calculated
based on cold carcass weight. Approximately 150 g of Longissimus dorsi (LD) and
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Semitendinosus (ST) muscles were sampled from the left side of the carcass after
overnight cooling at 4°C (Appendix; plates, D.5). All visible fat was removed from
the muscle surface, vacuum packed in polythene packs and stored at –80°C until
analysis.
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5.2.7. Carcass cuts

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The right side of each carcass was weighed and then separated into eight primal cuts
according to AUS-MEAT specifications:neck, shoulder, rack, loin, foreshank, flank,
leg champ and leg. The cuts were weighed and expressed as percentage of the total
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cold carcass. Each cut was dissected in to components of lean, bone and fat. The rib
eye area (LDmuscle area) between the 12th to 13thrib was determined using a tracing
paper and two-dimension polygon area calculator software.
55
5.2.8. Meat quality
5.2.8.1. Muscle pH Measurements (indirect method)
An indirect pH measurement of the carcass was conducted following the procedure

of Bendall (1975). A portable pH meter (Mettler Toledo, AG 8603, Switzerland) was
used to determine muscle pH. The pH meter was standardized with 4.0 and 7.0
buffers before the use. Immediately after the animals were dressed, about 10 g of
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meat was taken from the longissimus dorsi muscle. Then 3 g of meat sample was
placed into a blender beaker and 30 ml deionized water was added. The sample was
allowed to blend for 10 sec at maximum speed. During analysis, the solution was
continuously stirred on a stirrer plate to ensure that accurate pH values were
obtained. All samples were measured in duplicate.
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5.2.8.2. Muscle Color Determination
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The muscle color values were determined using a Color Flex spectrophotometer
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(Hunter Lab Reston, VA, USA) based on the International Commission on
Illumination (CIE) Lab-values (also known as L*, a*, b*) with D56 illuminant and
10˚ standard observer tristimulus values (X,Y,Z) and reflectance at specific
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wavelengths (400- 700 nm) to express the muscle color data. The three fundamental
CIE Lab outputs: L* is lightness on a scale runs from 0 indicating black (all light
absorbed) to 100 indicating white (all light reflected); a* is redness on a scale span
from +60 (red) to -60 (green); and b* is yellowness ranging from +60 (yellow) to -60
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(blue). The device was calibrated against black and white reference tiles prior to use.
The frozen muscle samples (LD and ST) were transferred from the -80°C freezer into
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a 4°C chiller. Samples were allowed to thaw overnight prior to analysis. Samples
were removed from their vacuum-packed bags and spread for 30 minutes in a tray
after which they were placed on the color meter and measured. For each sample a
total of three readings (the cup rotates 90˚ in the second and third reading) of L*, a*
and b* were recorded and then averaged (Hunt, 1980). The cup was cleaned after
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each sample measurement. Hue angle was calculated as tan−1 (b/a)*180/π, whereas
saturation index or chroma (a measure of color vividness) was calculated as √ (a2 +
b2) (Hunter and Harold, 1987).
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5.2.8.3. Water Holding Capacity Determination

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5.2.8.3.1. Drip loss measurement
The fresh sub-samples of Longissimus dorsi (LD) and Semitendinosus (ST) were
weighed (approximately 20 g) and recorded as initial weights (W1). The samples
were then placed in sealed polyethylene plastic bags, vacuumed, and then kept on a
plastic tray in a chiller at 4 °C. After 7 days of storage, the samples were
56
immediately removed from the bags, gently blotted to dry, weighed and weights
recorded as W2. The percentage of drip loss was calculated and expressed as the
percentage of differences of sample initial weight and sample weight after 7 days
storage divided by the sample initial weight (Honikel, 1998).
Drip loss (%) = [(W1- W2) ÷ W1] × 100
Where,
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W1 (g) = sample initial weight
W2 (g) = sample weight after 7 days storage
5.2.8.3.1. Cooking loss measurement
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The frozen sub-samples (in triplicates of each sample) of selected muscles (LD and
ST) were transferred from a -80°C freezer into a 4°C chiller overnight to thaw. The
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thawed samples were individually weighed and recorded as initial weight (W1), and
placed in water-impermeable and sealed plastic bags. The samples were then cooked
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in a pre-heated water bath set at 80 °C. When the internal temperature of the samples
reached at 78 °C as monitored using a stabbing temperature probe inserted into the
geometric centre of the sample, the cooking was allowed for another 10 min. The
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cooked samples were removed from the water bath, allowed to adjust at the room
temperature and removed from the bag, blotted to dry without squeezing, and re-
weighed (W2). The cooking loss percentages were calculated using the following
equation (Honikel, 1998).
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Cooking loss (%) = [(W1- W2) ÷ W1] × 100

Where,
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W1 (g) = initial sample weight

W2 (g) = cooked sample weight
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5.2.8.4. Instrumental Measurement of Meat Tenderness

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Meat tenderness was objectively measured using a Volodkevitch Bite Jaws shear
force test. The analysis was based on the mechanical force (kg) required to shear the
muscle fibers of a cooked meat sample. The textural assessment of cooked meat
tenderness was conducted using the TA.HD Plus® texture analyzer (stable Micro
System, Surrey,UK). The equipment was calibrated at 5 kg for weight, 10 mm return
distance for height and the blade speed was set at 10 mm sec–1.
57
The sample preparation was conducted following the procedure described by Sazili
et al. (2005). Frozen LD and ST muscles were thawed overnight at 4 °C. The
samples were cooked at 80 °C in a pre-heated water bath. The cooking was
maintained for 10 minutes further till the centre temperature of the samples reached
at 78 °C. The cooked samples were then removed from the water bath, adjusted to
room temperature overnight and transferred into a 4 °C chiller. From each of the
cooked samples, at least 3 replicate blocks (1× 1 × 2 cm) were cut parallel possible to
the direction of the muscle fibres. Each block was sheared with the Volodkevitch jaw
(stainless steel probe shaped like an incisor) on the texture analyzer (Stable Micro
System, Surrey, UK) in the centre and perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of
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the fibers (Brown et al., 1998). Shear force values were reported as the average of all
block values of each individual sample. The higher shear force value indicates
tougher meat, whereas tender meat was indicated by a lower shear force.
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5.2.9. Chemical Analysis
The samples of feed, refusal, faeces, LD and ST muscles were subjected to
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proximate analysis following the standard methods of AOAC (2000). Dry matter
(DM) was determined by oven drying in a forced air oven at 105 °C for 24 h. The N
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content of feed, faeces, urine, LD and ST muscle was determined using a Kjeltec
Auto Analyzer (Tecator, Hoganas, Sweden), while ether extract (EE) was determined
in petroleum ether using a Soxtec Auto Analyzer (Tecator). The ash content was
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determined by ashing the samples in a muffle furnace at 550 °C for 5h and the
Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) were determined
according to the method of Van Soest et al. (1991).
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5.2.10. Determination of Gross Energy Content

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The gross energy content of samples was determined using an adiabatic bomb
calorimeter (Leco Corporation, Michigan 49085 USA). Ten cm of nickel alloy fuse
(Parr Instument Co. Moline, IL, USA) was mounted on the top of the sample which
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was held by a sample holder. The sample holder assembly was placed in a
combusting chamber. The combusting chamber was sealed by replacing the bomb
cap, and turning it clockwise. The bomb was filled with oxygen (Malaysian Oxygen
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Bhd., Malaysia) until the pressure reached 420 psi.
The bomb bucket was filled with 2 l of distilled water and then placed in the bomb
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jack. Ignition leads were attached to the combusting chamber and the stirrer was
switched on. The bomb calorimeter automatically detected the gross energy content
of the sample. The reading was recorded and the combusting chamber removed from
the water bucket and disassembled. The air valve was slowly loosened to let out gas
from the bomb. Flushing the bomb with pure oxygen prior to charging it with the gas
for combustion would reduce the formation of nitric acid during combustion. Gross
energy (MJ/ kg DM) was obtained from the machine reading. Gross energy (GE) was
58
converted to ME Metabolizable energy, ME (MJ kg–1 DM) by the following formula
(Kuperus, 2002).
ME in straw = 36% of Gross energy (Kuperus, 2002), ME in high quality pasture or

concentrate= 66% of Gross energy (Kuperus, 2002).
5.2.11. Lipid Extraction and Fatty Acid Analysis
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The determination of fatty acid composition of feed ingredients was followed to
section 4.2.6 in chapter-4. The fatty acids analysis of the LD and ST muscles was
also followed same procedure. Incase of meat samples, column and temperature was
used different. The following column and temperature were used for meat samples.
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A 100 m × 0.25 mm ID × 0.2 µm film thickness capillary column was used to
separate the methyl esters, which were detected with a flame ionized detector (FID).
The injector and detector temperature was 250 and 270 °C respectively. The column
was programmed to run at 150 °C for 2 min, warmed to 158 °C at 1 °C min –1, held
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for 28 minutes, warmed to 220°C at 1°C min–1 and then held for 20 minutes to
achieve a satisfactory separation. H
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5.2.12. Lipid peroxidation
The lipid peroxidation in muscle was determined using the malondialdehyde assay.
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Malondialdehyde is a secondary product of lipid peroxidation and is the major

substrate in the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) test (Pryor, 1991).
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Lipid oxidation was measured using thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances

(TBARS) according to the method of Lynch and Frei (1993) modified by Mercier et
al. (1998). Meat samples (1.0 g) were homogenized in 4 mL 0.15 M KCl + 0.1 mM
BHT with Ultraturrax (1 min, medium speed). After homogenization, 200 μL of the
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sample were mixed with TBRAS solution and then heated in a water bath at 95 °C
for 60 min until pink color developed. After cooling, three ml of n-butyl alcohol was
added to the extracts and vortexed. The mixtures were centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 10
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min. The absorbance of supernatant was read against an appropriate blank at 532 NM
using a spectrophotometer (Secomam, Domont, France). The TBARS were
calculated from a standard curve of 1, 1, 3, 3-tetraethoxypropane and expressed as
mg malondialdehyde (MDA) kg–1 sample.
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5.2.13. Statistical analysis
The differences in treatments responses to goats were analyzed using a completely

randomized design following the one way ANOVA using the SAS (SAS,2007).The
59
treatment responses were compared using Duncan`s Multiple Range Test for
determining mean differences) at 5% level (P<0.05) (Steel and Torrie, 1980).
5.3. Results
5.3.1. Chemical composition of the experimental diet
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The nutritional composition of the experimental feed is depicted in Table 5.1. The
paddy straw used in the basal diet had low CP and high fiber. The ME value (MJ kg–
1
DM) of the concentrate mixture, moringa foliage and paddy straw were 11.31,
11.36 and 5.26, respectively. The nutrient compositions of the five experimental diets
are presented in Table 5.2. The five diets containing 15.62% to 15.68% CP and 9.50
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to 9.53 ME (MJ kg–1DM) were considered to be iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric. The
ADF, and NDF content of the five experimental diets was 21.66%, 20.56%, 19.54%,
18.51% and 17.42%, respectively; and 37.53%, 38.74%, 40.04%, 41.43%, and
42.61%, respectively. The ranges of estimated calcium and phosphorus were 0.38 to
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1.69 and 0.29 to 0.58% respectively.
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5.3.2. Fatty acid composition of feed ingredients and the experimental diets
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The fatty acid compositions of the experimental feeds and five experimental
treatments are presented in Table 5.3 and 5.4 respectively. Eight fatty acids were
identified in the feed ingredients. There were four saturated fatty acids consisting of
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myristic acid, pentadecanoic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid. The major
contribution of the total saturated fatty acid (SFA) of the experimental diets was from
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palmitic acid followed by the stearic acid. The monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA)
in the experimental feed was oleic acid that contained in the highest amount in
concentrate feed followed by straw and moringa foliage. The ranges of PUFA n-6
in feedingredients was from 2.95% to 5.04%, while the PUFA n-3 was from 4.49%
to 30.17%. The highest PUFA n-3 value was recorded from the moringa foliage
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(30.17%). The PUFA n-3 and the total polyunsaturated fatty acid was increased with
the increasing levels of moringa foliage, since moringa foliage had a higher content
of C18:3n-3 (Table 5.4). The PUFA: SFA ratio increased linearly (r2=0.99) from
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0.20 to 0.67 with the increase of MF level in diets. But, the n-6: n-3 ratio of different
experimental diets decreased linearly (r2=0.99) with the increase of MF level in the
diet (Appendix-C; Figure-C.3)
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60
Table 5.3 Fatty acid profiles (% of total fatty acid) of straw, moringa foliage
and concentrate mixture
Fatty acids Straw Moringa Concentrate
Total fatty acids (g 100g–1) 2.44 5.01 5.05
C14:0 (Myristic acid) 0.86 1.68 0.40
C15:0 (Pentadecanoic) 2.06 1.79 1.97
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) 28.81 28.14 27.47
C18:0 (Stearic acid) 13.29 8.00 9.50
C18:1n9 (Oleic acid) 45.45 25.88 52.73
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C18:2n6 (linoleic) 2.74 1.97 1.47
C18:3n6(γ-linolenic) 2.31 2.36 1.48
C18:3n3 (α-linolenic) 4.49 30.17 4.96
Total saturated 45.01 39.62 39.36
Total unsaturated 54.99 60.38 60.64
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Total monounsaturated 45.45 25.89 52.73
Total PUFA n-3 4.49 30.17 4.96
Total PUFA n-6 5.05 4.33 2.95
TOTAL PUFA 9.54 34.50 7.91
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n-6 : n-3 1.12 0.14 0.59
USFA: SFA 1.22 1.52 1.54
PUFA:SFA H 0.21 0.87 0.20
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Table 5.4 Fatty acid profiles (% of total fatty acid) of experimental diets
Treatments
Fatty acids
100M1 75M:25C2 50M:50C3 25M:5C4 100C5
Total fatty acid (g 100g–1)
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4.24 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27

C14:0 (Myristic acid) 1.43 1.21 0.99 0.76 0.54
C15:0 (Pentadecanoic) 1.87 1.90 1.93 1.97 2.00
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C16:0 (Palmitic acid) 28.34 28.14 28.11 27.99 27.87

C18:0 (Stearic acid) 9.59 9.83 10.11 10.37 10.64
C18:1n9 (Oleic acid) 31.75 36.37 41.15 45.85 50.55
C18:2n6 (linoleic) 2.20 2.11 2.03 1.94 1.85
C18:3n6(γ-linolenic) 2.35 2.18 2.04 1.88 1.73
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C18:3n3 (α-linolenic) 22.47 18.05 13.64 9.23 4.82

Total Saturated% 41.24 41.19 41.15 41.10 41.06
Total Unsaturated% 58.76 58.63 58.85 58.90 58.95
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Total Monoenes% 31.76 36.38 41.15 45.85 50.55

Total PUFA n-3% 22.47 17.96 13.64 9.23 4.82
Total PUFA n-6% 4.55 4.29 4.06 3.82 3.58
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TOTAL PUFA% 27.01 22.26 17.71 13.05 8.40

n-6 : n-3 ratio 0.44 0.52 0.60 0.67 0.75
USFA:SFA 1.43 1.43 1.44 1.44 1.44
PUFA:SFA 0.67 0.55 0.44 0.32 0.20
1= (straw-30%: moringa foliage -70%: concentrate-0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa
foliage, 52.5%: concentrate, 17.5%);3= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 35%:
concentrate-35%); 4= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 17.5%: concentrate, 52.5%);
5= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 0%: concentrate, 70%).
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5.3.3. Feed intake and growth performance
The body weight and daily gains of the goats fed with the five dietary treatments are
presented in Table 5.5. The mean initial and final live weights of the goats among the
diets were not significantly different (P>0.05). The average daily gains of goats was
not affected significantly (P>0.05) with substitution of moringa foliage. No definite
trend was found in live weight gain or FCR in response to graded level of moringa
foliage in diets (Table 5.5).The average daily live weight gain (ADG) of animals fed
75M:25C were higher (P>0.05) than those fed 50M: 50C, 25M:75C, 100M or 100C
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diet.
Table 5.5 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliageon growth performances of

Bengal goats fed paddy straw based diet (mean ± SE; n=6)
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Treatments
Variables 1 2
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C3 25M:75C4 100C5
T
Initial BW 8.13±1.07 8.16±0.81 7.99±0.73 7.90±1.07 8.16± 0.96
(kg)
Final BW
(kg)
Average
14.92±0.84
67.83±2.83
H
16.25±1.19
79.33±4.50
16.11±0.82
74.33±3.66
15.38±1.18
71.33±2.82
15.18±1.24
67.33±3.13
IG
daily live
weight gain
(g d–1)
FCR 6.38±0.44 6.30±0.37 6.28±0.48 6.46±0.57 6.80±0.29
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FCR= Feed conversion ratio, M = Moringa, C= concentrate.1= (straw, 30%: moringa

foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 52.5%: concentrate,
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17.5%); 3= ( straw, 0%: moringa foliage, 35%: concentrate, 35%); 4= ( straw, 30%: moringa
foliage, 17.5%: concentrate, 52.5%); 5=(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 0%: concentrate,
70%).
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The effect of replacement of moringa foliage with conventional concentrate on the

intake of Bengal goats fed a basal diet of paddy straw is presented in (Table
5.6).There were no significant (P>0.05) differences in total DM, CP, OM and NDF
C
intakes among the five experimental diets. The ADF intake of goats fed 100M diet
was significantly (P<0.05) higher than that of the goat fed 100C diet, and it reduced
significantly (P<0.05) with the reduction of MF level in the diet. The ranges of dry
matter intake (DMI) as percent of live weight of goats were from 3.50 to 3.86%. ME
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(MJ d–1) intake among treatments varied from 6.1 to 6.8.
62
PM
Table 5.6 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliageon intake of Bengal goats fed paddy straw based diet (Mean±SE; n=4)
Treatments
Variables 1 2
50M:50C3 25M:75C4 100C5
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100M 75M:25C
TDMI (g d–1) 577.10±42.5 574.79±45.03 570.20±28.4 556.86±48.4 543.25±45.1
T
DMI (% LW) 3.86±0.15 3.50±0.07 3.67±0.08 3.64±0.13 3.62±0.12
H
DMI (g/W0.75kg) 75.78±2.90 70.30±0.07 72.70±1.21 71.68±1.10 71.02±0.31
CPI (g d–1) 96.09±1.65 98.77±1.48 94.97±1.86 95.19±1.77 91.94±4.07
IG
ADFI (g d–1) 142.95±5.44a 127.5±4.55ab 118.02±5.03bc 103.93±6.60dc 96.41±5.91d
NDF(g d–1)
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236.08±16.89 252.61±20.64 248.04±11.08 253.37±23.61 243.46±15.51
OMI (g d–1) 508.40±38.06 528.96±47.50 509.32±25.51 481.48±44.88 471.45±30.7

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ME* intake (MJ d–1) 6.30±0.55 6.76±0.64 6.49±0.45 6.13±0.61 6.06±0.42
a,b,c
Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05.TDM=Total dry matter, DMI= Dry matter intake, CPI= crude
protein intake, ADFI= Acid detergent fiber intake, NDF= Neutral detergent fiber intake, OMI= Organic matter intake and ME = Metabolizable energy,
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LW= Live weight, n= number of observation; 1= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 52.5%:
concentrate, 17.5%); 3= ( straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 35%: concentrate, 35%); 4= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 17.5%: concentrate, 52.5%); 5=
(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 0%: concentrate, 70%);*=Estimated value.
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63
5.3.4. Nutrient utilization
The digestibility of DM, CP, OM or NDF was statistically similar (P>0.05) among
the treatment diets (Table 5.7). The ADF digestibility was significantly higher
(P<0.05) in goats on 100M treatment than that of 100C and 25M:75C diets while
there was no significant difference (P>0.05) between 75M:25C and 50M:50C diets,
however ADF digestibility increased positively with increase MF in the diet.
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The nitrogen balance of the goats is shown in Table 5.8. The intake of nitrogen,
excretion of faecal or urinary nitrogen, or the nitrogen retention of the goats fed
different diets did not vary significantly (P>0.05), and the entire group showed a
positive balance of nitrogen.
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Table 5.7 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliageon digestibility (%) of Bengal
goats fed paddy straw based diet (Mean±SE; n=4)
Treatments
T
Variables 1 2
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C3 25M:75C4 100C5
DM
CP
76.79±1.27
78.62±1.32
H
78.80±1.60
78.35±0.95
79.13±1.74
78.46 ±1.66
79.53±0.40
78.99±1.60
80.18±2.03
79.74±0.91
IG
ADF 78.09 ± 2.03a 74.79± 3.09ab 71.37±2.99ab 69.40±1.39b 67.88±1.58b
NDF 76.44± 0.27 80.35± 1.36 79.66± 1.82 79.11± 0.41 78.68± 1.63
OM 78.56±1.31 81.16±1.08 80.84 ±1.54 80.77±0.61 81.67±1.26
R
a,b,c
Means within a raw with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05.
DM= Dry matter, CP= Crude protein, ADF= Acid detergent fiber, NDF= Neutral detergent
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fiber and OM= Organic matter ; 1= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2=
(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 52.5%: concentrate, 17.5%); 3= ( straw, 30%: moringa
foliage, 35%: concentrate, 35%); 4= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage ,17.5%: concentrate,
52.5%); 5=(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 0%: concentrate, 70%)
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Table 5.8 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliageon nitrogen utilization (g d–
1
animal–1) of Bengal goats fed paddy straw based diet (Mean ± SE; n=4)
Treatments
Variables 1 2
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C3 25M:75C4 100C5
Nitrogen intake 15.38±1.12 15.80±1.85 15.20 ±0.57 15.23± 1.99 13.43 ± 0.64
Fecal nitrogen 3.26 ± 0.16 3.39±0.34 3.25 ± 0.17 3.11±0.22 2.96 ±0.25
Urinary 1.86 ± 0.20 1.54 ±0.15 1.45 ± 0.20 2.00 ± 0.24 1.54 ± 0.17
nitrogen
PM
Total nitrogen 5.11 ± 0.31 4.93 ±0.37 4.70 ± 0.18 5.11±0.35 4.49 ±0.36
excretion
Nitrogen 10.27±1.07 10.88±1.59 10.50±0.48 10.11±1.67 9.29±0.50
retention
1= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage,
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52.5%: concentrate, 17.5%); 3= ( straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 35%: concentrate, 35%); 4=
(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 17.5%:concentrate, 52.5%); 5=(straw, 30%: moringa foliage,
0%: concentrate, 70%).
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5.3.5. Carcass characteristics
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The carcass characteristics of the experimental goats fed with different replacement
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levels of moringa foliage are presented in Table 5.9. Slaughter weight, hot and cold
carcass weights did not differ significantly (P>0.05) among the treatments. Similarly,
there were no variations (P>0.05) in dressing percentage and the percentage of
chilling loss of the carcasses. The range of values of dressing percentage of the
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Bengal goats (BG) in the current study was from 51.42 to 52.62%. The percentages
of lean, and lean to fat ratio of the cold carcass were significantly higher (P<0.05) in
the goat fed 75M:25C and 100M diet compared to that of the other groups of
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animals. Conversely, the carcass fat percentage of the cold carcass was significantly
(P<0.05) higher in goats fed 100C, 25M:75C and 50M:50C diet than those fed
100M and 75M:25C diet. The differences in bone and lean to bone ratio of the
animals fed different diets were not significant (P>0.05), and likewise, the area of
longissimus dorsi muscle did not vary.
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65
Table 5.9 Carcass characteristics of Bengal goats fed different dietary
treatments (Mean ± SE; n=4)
Treatments
Variables 1 2
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C3 25M:75C4 100C5
Weight (kg)
Slaughter 15.03±0.79 15.52±1.59 14.98±1.59 15.28±1.23 15.63±1.29
Hot Carcass 7.86±0.58 8.20±0.95 7.67±0.71 7.98±0.71 8.09±0.62
Cold carcass 7.60±0.57 7.96±0.92 7.46±0.71 7.77±0.70 7.91±0.63
Dressing 52.13±1.12 52.62±0.93 51.42±1.31 52.12±0.82 51.92 ±1.46
PM
(%)
Chilling loss 3.41±0.16 3.03±0.38 2.89±0.29 2.76±0.11 2.47±0.33
(%)
Lean (%) 72.18 ± 1.25a 73.72±0.73a 69.6±0.65b 69.05±0.79b 69.30±0.72b
Bone (%) 21.65± 1.07 21.18±0.36 21.06±0.34 21.74±0.40 21.09±0.39
b
Fat (%) 6.17±0.25 5.11±0.61 b 9.34±0.31 a 9.21±0.78 a 9.62±0.69 a
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Lean: Fat 11.77±0.64b 15.01±1.64a 7.48±0.33c 7.71±0.83c 7.34±0.67c
Lean: Bone 3.37±0.23 3.48±0.08 3.31±0.09 3.18±0.0.08 3.29±0.08
REM area 6.72±0.63 6.84±0.57 6.76±0.88 6.93±0.65 6.22±0.06
2
(cm )
T
a,b,c
Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05;
REM= Rib Eye Muscle; Dressing (%) = (Hot carcass÷ Slaughter weight) ×100; 1= (straw,
H
30%: moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 52.5%:
concentrate, 17.5%); 3= ( straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 35%: concentrate, 35%); 4= (straw,
30%: moringa foliage, 17.5%: concentrate, 52.5%); 5= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 0%:
IG
concentrate, 70%).
The percent of slaughter weights of non-carcass components are summarized in

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Table 5.10. The dietary treatments did not significantly (P>0.05) influence the
percentage of slaughter weights, and as well as non-carcass organs, such as, skin,
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head, blood, four feet, lungs, kidney spleen, liver, heart, empty digestive tract or
rumen digesta (Table 5.10). However, the rumen digesta was increased (P>0.05) with
the increasing levels of moringa foliage. Non-carcass fat, such as, omental and
channel fat were increased (P<0.05) with the increasing levels of concentrate feed
(Table 5.11). However, the mesenteric and heart fat were lower (P>0.05) in the goats
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fed the sole moringa diet than that fed with the sole concentrate or the diet with
varying levels of moringa-concentrate diets
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Table 5.10 Effect of dietary treatments on non-carcass components (%) of
slaughter weight in goats (Mean±SE; n=4)
Treatments
Variables
100M1 75M:25C2 50M:50C3 25M:75C4 100C5
Slaughter 15.03±0.79 15.51±1.59 14.99±1.59 15.28±1.23 15.63±1.29

weight (kg)
Skin 10.09±0.84 10.08±0.19 9.41±0.09 10.08±0.16 8.71±0.37
Head 7.10±0.28 8.01± 0.75 8.46a±1.04 6.22±0.33 6.24±0.28
PM
Blood 3.91±0.21 4.23±0.17 4.12±0.22 3.61±0.22 3.81±0.03
Four feet 2.57±0.11 2.43±0.17 2.44±0.14 2.63±0.12 2.40±0.32
Lung 1.31±0.05 1.29±0.08 1.24±0.03 1.34±0.08 1.23±0.10
Kidney 0.36±0.01 0.37±0.02 0.45±0.02 0.40±0.04 0.42±0.02
Spleen 0.27±0.01 0.27±0.007 0.29±0.02 0.32±0.03 0.30±0.02
Liver 2.16±0.18 2.31±0.19 2.75±0.23 2.73±0.18 2.69±0.17
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Heart 0.38±0.01 0.43±0.02 0.43±0.04 0.43±0.03 0.48±0.006
Reticulo-rumen 10.06±0.27 8.46±1.01 8.16±0.44 7.42±0.58 7.5±1.10
with digesta
Post ruminal tract 6.63±0.43 7.31±0.81 7.67±0.28 6.65±0.07 6.97±0.38
T
with digesta
TGIT 16.68±0.67 15.76±1.82
H 15.83±0.65 14.08±0.64 14.51±1.42
ETGIT 6.57±0.63 6.25±0.53 7.68± 0.43 7.17±0.34 7.11 ± 0.68
Rumen digesta 10.11±0.85 9.92±1.10 8.17±0.72 7.26±0.48 7.02±1.28
1= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage,
IG
52.5%: concentrate, 17.5%); 3= ( straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 35%: concentrate, 35%); 4=
(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 17.5%: concentrate, 52.5%); 5=(straw, 30%: moringa foliage,
0%: concentrate, 70%); TGIT= Total gastro-intestinal tract; ETGIT= Empty total
gastrointestinal tract
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67
Table 5.11 Effect of dietary treatments on non-carcass fats (%) of slaughter
weight in goats (Mean ± SE; n=4)
Treatments
Variables 1 2 3 4 5
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
Omental fat/ 1.81±0.04c 1.85±0.21c 2.76±0.10b 2.70±0.39b 3.79±0.20a

rumen fat
Mesenteric/ 1.51±0.10 1.63±0.22 1.76±0.16 1.79±0.16 2.10±0.18
intestinal
0.97±0.10b 0.98±0.04b 1.58±0.16a 1.59±0.04a 1.54±0.09a
PM
Channel /
kidney fat
Heart fat 0.15±0.01 0.15±0.02 0.17±0.03 0.25±0.07 0.28±0.04

a,b,c
Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different
at 5% level.1= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%:
U
moringa foliage, 52.5%: concentrate, 17.5%); 3= ( straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 35%:
concentrate, 35%); 4= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 17.5%: concentrate, 52.5%); 5=(straw,
30%: moringa foliage, 0%: concentrate, 70%).
T
5.3.6. Primal cuts H
The effects of dietary treatments on different primal cuts as percent of cold carcass
IG
are presented in Table 5.12. No significant differences were observed in primal cuts
neck, shoulder, rack, loin, fore shank, leg chump and leg except the flank. Flank was
significantly (P<0.05) higher in 25M:75C and 100C dietary treatment than 100M and
75M:25C dietary treatments. In general, different combinations of moringa foliage
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and concentrate dietary supplementation had no specific trend on the different primal
cuts except flank.
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68
Table 5.12 Percent of primal cut (%) of cold carcass of goats fed different
dietary treatments (Mean±SE; n=4)
Treatments
Variables 1 2
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C3 25M:75C4 100C5
Cold carcass
7.60±0.57 7.96±0.92 7.46±0.71 7.77±0.70 7.91±0.63
weight (kg)
Primal cuts (%) based on cold carcass weight
PM
Neck 9.16 ± 0.33 9.56 ± 0.14 9.85 ± 0.17 9.73 ± 0.17 9.27 ± 0.34
Shoulder 20.53 ±0.39 20.72±0.39 20.60±0.54 20.27±0.40 20.57±0.15
Rack 10.55±0.16 9.64±0.37 10.12±0.65 10.03±0.30 10.40±0.35
Loin 11.54±0.16 10.99±0.30 10.74±0.21 10.87±0.48 11.55±0.84
Fore shank 8.62±0.31 8.97±0.36 8.45±0.60 8.16±0.15 8.14±0.42
Flank 8.66±0.28b 8.92±0.19b 9.65±0.51ab 10.79±0.57a 10.20±0.18a
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Leg chump 24.99±0.48 25.19±0.23 24.89±0.21 24.49±0.67 23.98±0.73
Leg 5.94±0.21 6.02±0.32 5.72±0.27 5.72±0.35 5.92±0.32
a,b,c
Means within a raw with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05. 1=
(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage,
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52.5%: concentrate, 17.5%); 3= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 35% :concentrate, 35%); 4=
(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 17.5%: concentrate, 52.5%); 5=(straw, 30%: moringa foliage,
H
0%: concentrate,70%).
IG
5.3.7. Proximate composition
The proximate composition of LD and ST muscles of goats fed different diets are
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presented in Table 5.13. No significant differences were found in terms of moisture,

and ash content in both LD and ST muscles. Protein content of LD muscle was
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significantly (P<0.05) higher in 100 M diet than others treatment while there was no
significant (P>0.05) difference in protein content in ST muscles among treatments.
However, the fat content of both the muscles was significantly (P<0.05) higher in
goats fed with 50M:50C, 25M:75C or 100C diet compared to that of the animal fed
75M:25C or 100M diet. The increasing levels of dietary concentrate to some extent
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decreased (P>0.05) moisture content and increased fat (P<0.05) without affecting the
crude protein or the ash content of both the muscles.
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69
Table 5.13 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on proximate composition
in
longissimus dorsi and semitendinosus muscles of Bengal goats (Mean±SE; n=4)
Treatments
Variables
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
longissimus dorsi muscle
Moisture 75.72±0.47 75.12±0.46 74.99±0.18 74.81±0.51 74.13±0.23
Crude protein 20.55±0.41a 19.39±0.09b 19.04±0.33b 19.32±0.22b 19.44±0.30b
Ether extract 1.91±0.03b 2.23±0.20b 3.56 ±0.20a 3.58±0.12a 4.28±0.39a
PM
Ash 1.06±0.04 1.11±0.03 1.15 ± 0.10 1.04 ± 0.05 1.01 ±0.02
Semitendinosusmuscle
Moisture 76.08±0.25 75.41±0.47 74.51±0.54 74.79±0.56 74.41±0.20
Crude protein 19.37±0.09 19.44±0.30 19.84±0.31 19.17±0.19 19.42±0.26
Ether extract 1.84±0.25b 2.17±0.27b 3.23±0.27a 3.51±0.18a 3.79±0.22a
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Ash 1.21±0.05 1.35±0.07 1.36±0.11 1.28±0.08 1.15±0.004
a,b,c
Means within a raw with different superscripts are significantly different at 5% level; 1=
(straw,30%: moringa foliage, 70%: concentrate, 0%); 2= (straw, 30%: moringa foliage,
52.5%: concentrate, 17.5%);3= ( straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 35%: concentrate, 35%); 4=
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(straw, 30%: moringa foliage, 17.5% : concentrate, 52.5%); 5=(straw, 30%: moringa foliage,
0%: concentrate, 70%)
H
IG
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70
5.3.8. Meat quality
5.3.8.1. Muscle pH
The mean carcass pH of goat meat immediately after slaughter of the animal did not
differ significantly (P>0.05) (Figure 5.1). The pH of goat meat valued ranges from
6.54 to 6.76.
PM
8
7 6.68 6.7 6.76 6.75 6.54
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Muscle pH
T
3
2
H
1
IG
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
Treatments
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Figure 5.1. Effect of supplementation of moringa foliage on pH value in LD

muscle within 24 hours of Bengal goat
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5.3.8.2. Water holding capacity

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The drip loss or cooking loss of the LD and the ST muscles of the goats fed different
diets are presented in Table 5.14. The drip loss of LD muscle of the goat fed with
100M and 75M:25C diet was significantly lower (P<0.05) than that of the goat fed
C
with 50M:50C, 25M:75C or 100C diet. The drip loss of the ST muscle of the goats
fed the concentrate diet tended to be higher (P>0.05). The cooking loss of the ST
muscle of the goat fed the increasing level of moringa foliage decreased significantly
(P<0.05). However, no significant difference (P>0.05) was observed in the cooking
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loss of LD muscle among the diets.
71
5.3.8.3 Tenderness (shear force values)
The Volodkevitch shear force (VSF) value of the LD muscles of goats fed the 100M
diet was significantly (P<0.05) higher than the muscle of the goats fed other diets
(Table 5.14). Similarly, the VSF values of the ST muscle of goats fed with 100M,
75M:25C, or 50M:50C diet were also higher (P<0.05) than that goat fed with
25M:75C or100C diet. It was observed that the LD muscles were more tender when
goat fed with the diet rich in mixed concentrate.
PM
5.3.8.3 Muscle color
The color of the LD and the ST muscles of the goats are presented in Table 5.14. The
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different levels of moringa foliage had significant effects on the lightness (L*),
redness (a*) and hue angle (H°) of LD muscle. The LD muscle color was lighter
(higher L* value; P <0.05) in goats fed with 100M, 75M:25C, 50M:50C or 25M:75C
diets than that fed with the 100C diet. However, no significant differences in the
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lightness of goats were found that fed with the 75M:25C, 50M:50C or 25M:75C diet.
Yellowness (b*) and chroma (C*) or vividness or color saturation was not
H
significantly (P>0.05) different in LD muscles produced from different diets. The
Chroma (C*) of the LD muscle was numerically increased with the increasing levels
of moringafoliage.
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The values of lightness (L*), redness (a*) and hue angle (H°) of the ST muscles were
significantly (P<0.05) higher in muscle produced by the goat fed a sole
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moringafoliage diet than that was from the goat fed the sole concentrate or moringa-
concentrate mixed diet. The Chroma (C*) of the ST muscle was also significantly
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higher (P<0.05) in goats fed with the 100M diet or the moringa- concentrate mixture
diet than that was produced feeding with the 100C diet. However, there was no
significant difference (P>0.05) in the chroma of the ST muscle of the goat fed the
moringa-concentrate mixture diets. The yellowness (b*) of the ST muscle was
numerically increased with the increased moringa foliage levels in the diet. In
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general, it was observed that the feeding of moringa foliage tended (P<0.05) to
improve the meat color characteristics of both the LD and the ST muscles.
C
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72
PM
Table 5.14 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliageon physico-chemical characteristics of goats longissimus dorsi and
semitendinosus muscles during post-mortem period (Mean±SE; n=4)
Treatments
U
Variables
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
Longissimus dorsi muscle
T
Water holding Capacity
Drip loss (%) 17.32±0.89b 17.48±1.17b 20.22±0.19a 20.37±0.32a 20.62±0.81a
Cooking loss (%) 32.53±1.64 34.82±2.21 34.28±0.77 35.71±1.40 34.53±1.40
H
Shear force (kg) 1.19±0.03a 1.08±0.03b 1.08±0.04b 1.02±0.04b 1.02±0.03a
Color
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L* 46.29±1.25a 43.38±0.06b 42.54±0.28b 42.53±0.85b 40.04±0.68c
a* 12.55±0.34a 11.32±0.24b 11.15±0.29b 10.89±0.46bc 9.93±0.26c
b* 15.70±0.64 15.55±0.36 15.27±0.68 15.34±0.35 14.45±0.47
C* 14.06±0.41 14.22±0.31 13.70±0.13 13.84±0.18 12.89±0.60
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H⁰ 44.89±1.46a 42.04±0.44ab 40.82±0.91b 40.40±0.97b 39.10±1.24b
Semitendinosus muscle
Drip loss (%) 17.32±0.9 19.13±0.79 19.98±0.47 19.75±0.81 19.71±0.27
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Cooking loss (%) 38.98±1.07b 40.85±0.86ab 41.61±2.29ab 45.59±1.66a 45.38±2.15a
Shear force (kg) 1.72±0.03a 1.62±0.05a 1.61±0.11a 1.44±0.02b 1.37±0.04b
Color
L* 42.95±1.56a 39.80±0.50b 39.52±0.57b 38.90±1.28b 36.56±0.82b
13.37±0.54a 11.92±0.16b 11.17±0.27b 11.89±0.24b
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a* 10.99±0.30b
b* 14.48±0.83 13.14±0.38 13.32±1.18 13.83±0.20 12.03±0.68
C* 14.62±0.15a 12.34±0.41b 12.55±0.66b 12.67±0.32b 10.65±0.27c
44.39±1.04a 40.92±0.92b 40.47±0.97b 39.93±1.07b 38.13±1.00b
C
H⁰
a,b,c
Means within a raw with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05 ;L*= Measure of darkness
to lightness*= Greater value indicates more yellow color; C*=Chroma or saturation index (C*=√a2b2);Hue,
Hue angle= tan–1(b/a)*180/π.
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73
5.3.9. Muscle fatty acid profile
The fatty acid composition of the LD and the ST muscles of goat fed different levels
of moringa foliage replacing conventional concentrate supplementation of a paddy
straw based diet is presented in Tables 5.15 and 5.16. 19 fatty acids were identified
from the LD and the ST muscles of the goats (Appendix; Table, B.1 and B.2). They
are six saturated (C12:0, C14:0, C15:0, C16:0, C17:0 and C18:0), four mono-
unsaturated (C16:1, C17:1, C18:1n9 and C18:1t-11) and nine poly-unsaturated
(C18:2n-6, C18:3n-6, C20:4n-6, C18:3n-3, C20:5n-3, C22:5n-3, C22:6n-3, CLA
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C9T-11 and CLA C12 T-10) fatty acids. The major fatty acids in the lipid of the LD
and the ST muscle of the goat fed 100M, 75M:25C, 50M:50C, 25M:75C and 100C
diet were oleic acid (C18:1n9), palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0) and
linoleic acid (C18:2n-6), respectively.
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The different combination of moringa-concentrate diets did not significantly
(P>0.05) affect lauric acid (C12:0), myristic acid (C14:0), pantadecanoic acid
(C15:0), margaric acid (C17:0) or stearic acid (C18:0) of both the LD and the ST
T
muscles of goats (Appendix B; Table B.3 and B.4). However, palmitic acid (C16:0)
was significantly (P<0.05) higher in both the LD and the ST muscles of goats fed
H
100C diet than that of the goat fed the rest of the diets. No significant difference
(P>0.05) was found among the diet of 100M, 75M:25C, 50M:50C or
25M:75Cexcept in the diet 25M:75C in LD muscle.However, the total saturated fatty
IG
acids (SFA) were significantly (P<0.05) higher in both the LD and ST muscles in
goats fed with 100C diet than that fed with 25M:75C, 50M:50C, 75M:25C or 100M
diet and no significant difference were found among the latter diets (Table 5.15 and
5.16).The SFA concentration of total fatty acids ranged from 39.78% to 47.66% and
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39.31% to 45.83%, respectively in the LD and the ST muscle.

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C
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74
Table 5.15 Fatty acid composition of longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles of Bengal
goats under different dietary treatments.1 (Mean ± SE; n=4)
Fatty acid Treatments
profile
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
SFA2 39.78±1.0b 41.14±1.52b 40.29 ±1.90b 44.78±0.74b 47.66±0.45 a

MUFA3 45.00±1.58 44.66±2.17 48.01±1.9 44.22±1.4 45.51±1.8
PUFA n-64 9.44±0.31a 8.91±0.23a 7.26±0.28a 6.48±1.13ab 4.64±1.12b
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PUFA n-35 3.87±0.4a 3.42±0.38a 3.12±0.33a 3.12±0.32a 1.10±0.33b
Total trans 3.01±0.45 2.97±0.66 2.90±0.12 2.50±0.15 2.34±0.0.31
FA6
Total CLA7 1.91±0.15a 1.91±0.24a 1.36±0.11ab 1.39±0.08ab 1.27±0.22b
Total PUFA 13.31±0.58a 12.33±0.60a 10.38±0.45a 9.60±1.26a 5.74±1.42b
n-6 : n-3 ratio8 2.44 ±0.29b 2.60 ±0.21b 2.33±0.26b 2.08 ±0.32b 4.22 ±0.61a
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PUFA: SFA 0.33 ±0.007a 0.30 ±0.02a 0.26±0.02ab 0.21±0.03b 0.12±0.03c
ratio
C= concentrate; M= moringa; FA= Fatty acid.
a,b,c
T
Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05.
1
The data are expressed as the percentage of identified total fatty acid.
2
SFA= sum of C12:0 + C14:0+ C15:0+ C16:0+ C17:0+ C18:0.
H
3
MUFA= sum of C16:1+ C17:1+ C18:1n-94
4
PUFA n-6 = sum of C18:2n-6+ C18:3n-6 +C20:4n-6.
5
PUFA n-3 = sum of C18:3n-3+C20:5n3+ C22:5n-3+C22:6n-3.
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6
Total trans FA= C18:1trans-11
7
Total CLA= sum of cis-9 trans-11 CLA + cis-12 trans-10 CLA.
8
n-6: n-3 fatty acid ratio= (C18:2n-6+ C18:3n-6 +C20:4n-6) ÷ (C18:3n-3+C20:5n3+
C22:5n-3+C22:6n-3)
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The total mono-unsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) content was not significantly
different (P>0.05) among the goat fed different diets. The MUFA concentration of
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both the LD and the ST muscles ranged from 44.66 to 48.01% and 44.01 to 47.81%,
respectively. Oleic acid (C16:1) was the single major contributor to the total MUFA
of the LD and the ST muscle lipids of goats of all treatment groups. The vaccenic
acid (C18:1trans-11) of the LD muscle lipid was increased (P>0.05) with the
increasing level of moringa foliage in the diet, while that of the ST muscle did not
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follow any definite trend. However, the concentration of vaccenic acid was lower
(P>0.05) in the muscle of goat fed with 100C diet than that fed with other diets.
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The total poly-unsaturated fatty acids of the LD and the ST muscle lipids was
significantly (P<0.01) increased with the increasing levels of moringa foliage in the
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diet. Among the identified poly-unsaturated fatty acids of the LD muscle; linoleic
acid (C18:2n-6), α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5n-3),
docosapentaenoic acid (C22:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3) were
significantly (P<0.05 or P<0.05) higher in the muscle of goats fed with 100M or
moringa-concentrate mixed diets than that of the goat fed with 100C diet. The gama-
linolenic acid (C18:3n-6) of the LD muscles did not vary significantly (P>0.05)
while the gama-linolenic acid in the ST muscles was significantly (P<0.05) higher in
goat fed with 75M:25C diets than other dietary treatments. However, the
concentration of arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6) of the ST muscle of the goat fed with
75
75M:25C or 50M:50C diet was significantly higher (P<0.05) than that fed with
100M, 25M:75C or 100C diet. No significant differences were found between the
100M and 25M:75C diet. There was no significant difference (P>0.05) in
arachidonic acid (C20:4n-6) of the LD muscles of goat fed different diets. However,
the arachidonic acid increased (P>0.05) with the increasing level of moringa foliage
supplementation in the diet. The total CLA of the LD muscle was significantly
(P<0.05) higher in the muscle of goat fed with 100M or 75M:25C diet than that of
the goat fed with 50M:C50, 25M:75C or 100C diet. However, the differences in the
total CLA in ST muscle of goat different diets did not vary significantly (P>0.05).
PM
Table 5.16 Fatty acid composition of semitendinosus (ST) muscles ofBengal
goats under different treatments.1 (Mean ± SE; n=4)
Fatty acid
Treatments
profile
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100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
2 b b b
SFA 39.31±1.68 39.80±1.03 39.20±0.66 39.53±1.93b 45.83 ±132a
MUFA3 44.67±2.18 43.95±1.37 47.50±1.37 47.81±2.13 44.01±1.84
4 a a a
PUFA n-6 10.36±0.52 10.63±0.81 9.26±1.34 8.64±0.31ab 6.87±0.23b
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PUFA n-35 4.02±0.34a 3.99±0.36a 2.61±0.05b 2.50±0.51b 1.81±0.18c
Total trans 2.78±0.20 3.41±0.13
H 2.67±0.15 3.32 ± 0.38 2.44±0.57
6
FA
Total CLA7 1.64±0.14 1.63±0.08 1.48±0.14 1.52± 0.10 1.51±0.33
ab a bc
11.14± 0.62c 8.68±0.42d
IG
Total PUFA 14.38±0.41 14.62±0.73 11.87±1.39
n-6 : n-3 2.58±0.33 2.66±0.36 3.55±0.42 3.46±0.66 3.79±0.74
8
ratio
PUFA:SFA 0.37±0.01a 0.37±0.20ab 0.30±0.04ab 0.28±0.20bc 0.19c±0.01
R
ratio
C= concentrate; M= moringa foliage.
a,b,c
Means within a row with different superscripts are significantly different at P<0.05.
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1
The data are expressed as the percentage of identified fatty acid.
2
SFA= sum of C12:0 + C14:0+ C15:0+ C16:0+ C17:0+ C18:0.
3
MUFA= sum of C16:1+ C17:1+ C18:1n9.
4
PUFA n-6 = sum of C18:2n-6+ C18:3n-6 +C20:4n-6.
5
PUFA n-3 = sum of C18:3n3+C20:5n3+ C22:5n3+C22:6n3.
6
Total trans FA= C18:1trans
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7
Total CLA= sum of cis-9 trans-11 CLA + cis-12 trans-10 CLA.
8
n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio= (C18:2n-6+ C18:3n-6 +C20:4n-6) ÷ (C18:3n3+C20:5n-3+
C22:5n-3+C22:6n-3)
C
The total n-6 PUFA content of both the LD and the ST muscle was significantly
(P<0.05) increased with the increasing level of moringa foliage in diets. The major
©
contributors of n-6 PUFA to both the muscles of goat fed different diets were linoleic
acid (C18:2n-6) and arachidonic acid (C20:4n6). The total n-3 PUFA of both the LD
and the ST muscles of goat fed moringa foliage or moringa-concentrate diets was
significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of the goat fed 100C diet.
The n-6: n-3 PUFA ratios of the LD muscles of goats were significantly lower
(P<0.05) in moringa or moringa-concentrate diets than that of the muscle of goats fed
with 100C diet. It did not vary significantly (P>0.05) among the goats fed 100M,
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75M: 25C, 50M:50C or 25M:75C diet. However, the n-6: n-3 PUFA ratio of the ST
muscle was increased (P>0.05) with the increasing level of concentrate in diet. The
n-6: n-3 PUFA ratios of the LD and the ST muscles ranged from 2.08 to 4.22% and
2.58 to 3.79 %, respectively.
The PUFA: SFA ratio of the LD and the ST muscles were significantly (P<0.05)
increased with increasing level moringa foliage in the diets. The range in the PUFA:
SFA ratios of the LD and the ST muscles were 0.12 to 0.33 and 0.19 to 0.37,
respectively. The ratio of poly unsaturated fatty acid to saturated fatty acids in both
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the muscles increased significantly (P<0.05) due to the presence of moringa foliage
in the diet.
5.3.10. Lipid peroxidation in LD and ST muscles
U
The effect of supplementation of moringa foliage on the thiobarbituric acid reactive
substance (TBARS) of LD or ST muscle lipids of goat is presented in Figure-5.2.
T
The MDA (mg kg –1muscle) value was significantly higher (P<0.05) in both the LD
and the ST muscles of goat fed with 100C diet than that of the goat fed with 25M:
H
75C, 50M:50C. 75M:25C or 100M diet. The rate of lipid per-oxidation of the LD
muscle or the ST muscle was reduced linearly (r2=85 and r2=95, respectively) with
the increasing level of moringa foliage in diets (Appendix C: Figure, C.4).
IG
R
0.9
LL muscle
0.8
PY
ST muscle
mg MDA kg–1 muscle
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
O
0.3
0.2
C
0.1
0
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
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Treatments
Figure 5.2. Antioxidant activity in LD and ST muscles of goats under different

levels of moringafoliage supplementation (mg MDA kg–1muscle)
77
5.4. Discussion
5.4.1. Chemical composition of experimental diets
The CP content of paddy straw used in the experiment was low (5.52%), and a feed
having CP of this level fails to support the minimum microbial requirement (70–80 g
CP kg–1 DM) for the efficient functioning of the rumen microbial activities. Thus, the
supplementation of protein rich feed to a straw diet was essential at least for
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supporting the maintenance requirements of CP of the experimental goats (Mc
Donald et al., 2002). The CP content of moringafoliage, including leaves, rachis and
soft stems used in this study was comparable to 19.50 % reported by Kakengi et al.
(2005) and 21.35% reported by Sànchez et al. (2006b). But the values were lower
than the values (320.1, 277.0 and 274.0 g kg–1 DM) obtained by Soliva et al. (2005),
U
Murro et al. (2003) and Sarwatt et al. (2004) and they reported 32.0%, 27.7% and
27.4% CP of Moringa oleifera leaves only, respectively.
T
The NDF content of the moringa foliage in the study was similar to the values
reported by Moyo et al. (2012a). The ADF content of moringa foliage of the present
H
study was similar to the findings of Moyo et al. (2012a), Manh et al. (2005) and
Murro et al. (2003). However, both the ADF and NDF contents were higher than the
values reported by Soliva et al. (2005) and Nouala et al. (2006). These variations
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may be due to the differences in the stage of maturity and fraction of plant parts. A
higher crude protein and a lower ADF or NDF content in the moringafoliage (MF)
may have qualified the moringa foliage (MF) as a palatable feed for goats (Zhou et
al., 2014). It was stated that moringa leaves are beneficial for animal health and may
R
increase growth performances (Qwele et al., 2013; Moyo et al., 2012a; Gebregiorgis
et al., 2011 and Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011b). These data suggest that moringa
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foliage could be used as a feed for improving growth performances, carcass

characteristics and meat quality of goats as well as their health status.
5.4.2. Feed intake and growth performance

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All the experimental goats had an adequate amount of total DMI (g d–1 animal–1) and
C
it ranged from 543.25 to 577.10 g d–1 animal–1.The total DM intake as percentage of

live weights ranged from 3.50 to 3.86 (Table 5.6) and a similar level of intake of dry
matter was recommended by NRC, (2007). Expressing DMI on unit metabolic
weight (g /kg0.75) basis showed that it ranged from 70.30 to 75.78 g/ kg0.75 in different
©
diets. These values were higher than those reported by Asaolu et al. (2010 and 2011)
and Moyo et al. (2012a).
Masafu (2006) described that the feed intake is a measure of appreciation, selection
or extent of consumption of a diet by an animal. It is a key indicator determines the
amount of feed intake in a certain period of time, usually expressed in a day
(McDonald et al., 1988). The daily DMI of the experimental goats suggest that the
78
diets used in the present study were well accepted to the animals. The intake of
100M diet was comparatively higher than that of others (Table 5.6).
The different dietery treatments containing a variable level of MF did not

significantly (P>0.05) affect on average daily live weight gain of goat. The
experimental diets containing 30% paddy straw as a basal feed and 70%
supplementary feed of 100% MF and 0% mixed concentrate (100M), 75% MF and
25% mixed concentrate (75M:25C), 50% MF and 50% mixed concentrate
(50M:50C), 25% MF and 75% mixed concentrate (25M:75C) or 100% mixed
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concentrate (100C) resulted in a non-significant variation in daily live weight gain
(67.83g, 79.33g, 74.33g, 71.33g and 67.33g, respectively). It may be stated that
moringa foliage may replace a mixed conventional concentrate feed without
affecting daily live gain or FCR of the Bengal goat fed a paddy straw diet. The goats
fed MF or moringa-concentrate diets had apparently no health problems. Similar
U
growth response on feeding moringa leaves to goats was reported by Moyo et al.
(2012a), Aregheore (2002) and Asaolu et al. (2012). However, the extent of an
average daily gain was variable depending on the type of goat and their management.
T
5.4.3. Nutrient utilization H
The variation in DM, OM, CP or NDF digestibility of the experimental diets having
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a constant level of paddy straw was not significant (P>0.05). This indicates that the
supplementary feed irrespective of their combination of MF or moringa-concentrate
diets had also a similar level of digestibility of the nutrients (DM, OM, CP or NDF).
The digestibility of DM, CP and NDF of 30% paddy straw and 70% MF was 76.8%,
R
78.62% and 76.4%, respectively, and that of 30% paddy straw and 70% conventional
concentrate was 80.2%, 79.74% and 78.7%, respectively. These results suggest that
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digestibility value of moringa foliage diet was similar to that of the conventional
concentrate. However, the ADF digestibility was found to be the highest in the
100M diet and decrease with the increase of conventional concentrate level in the
diet, it differed significantly (P<0.05) with that of the 100C diet. ADF digestibility is
positively correlated with ADF intake in the study. The digestibility of CP in 70%
O
supplementary feed of 100% MF based on 30% paddy straw was lower than the
results of Asaolu et al. (2011and 2009) who observed 89.35 and 83.87% in 100%
sole moringa diet respectively, in West African Dwarf goats. Fadiyimu et al. (2010)
C
obtained 84.96%CP digestibility when fed 100% fresh moringa leaf to growing
sheep. The present values of DM and OM digestibility were comparable with the
ranges of 73 to 74% for DM and 76 to 77% for OM as reported by Mendieta-Araica
et al. (2011b). Moreover, Murro et al. (2003) obtained DM digestibility ranging from
©
70 to 75%, when moringa leaf meal was replaced with cotton seed cake as the
protein source in concentrates for growing sheep.
The diets were iso-nitrogenous, the intake and digestibility of DM; the intake,
digestibility or retention of nitrogen or CP did not vary significantly. A positive
nitrogen retention in the goat of different diets showed that their protein requirements
for maintenance and growth were sufficiently met by the diets. Thus, MF may
79
effectively replace CP of a conventional concentrate supplemented to a straw diet.
Ajayi et al. (2005) reported that high nitrogen retention could be due to the presence
of higher levels of crude protein in the experimental diets. The study showed that the
efficiency of protein utilization of moringafoliage on a paddy straw based diet was
comparable to the conventional concentrate mixture. The nitrogen retention value
(10.27 g animal–1 d–1) in the 100M diet of the study was higher than that was
reported by Asaolu et al.(2011)) who obtained 6.02 g animal–1 d–1in goats fed 100M
diet. The positive nitrogen retention indicates that replacing a conventional
concentrate with moringa foliage may avoid competition for the latter by the
ruminant and the monogastric animals.
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5.4.4. Carcass composition
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A variable level of concentrates and moringa foliage in the diets used in the present
study did not affect the hot or cold carcass weights or dressing percentage. A similar
dressing per cent of goats fed moringa leaf meal was reported by Moyo et al.
(2012a).The increasing level of MF in the diet significantly decreased (P<0.01) the
T
percentage of omental fat, channel fat or the ether extract of different muscle tissues,
and increased lean to fat ratio (P<0.05) of the carcass (Table 5.9, Table 5.11 and
H
Table 5.13). The diets used in the present study were iso-nitrogenous and iso-caloric,
thus their daily DM intake and digestibility were not significant. The carcass fat, on
the other hand, reduced significantly (P<0.01) and linearly (r2=0.69) with the
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increasing level of MF in the diet (Table 5.9 and Appendix; Figure, C.5). The
presence of polyphenols in moringa foliage may have limited fat deposition in the
body. It has been reported that Moringa oleifera leaf extract contain anti-
hyperlipidemic mechanisms by inhibiting cholesterol esterase activity
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(Adisakwattana and Chanathong, 2011). There is a positive correlation between of

phenolic compound, flavonoids, and condensed tannin in the MOL extract and the
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ability to inhibit α-glucosidase and α- amylase activities (Adisakwattana et al., 2009;

Mai et al., 2007 and Lee et al., 2007). Tian et al. (2013) and Bos et al. (2008)
observed that tea polyphenols reduced fat deposition and acted as an anti-lipogenosis
in a high fat diet fed to rats. The proportion of lean and fat of the carcass ranged from
69.05% to 73.72% and 5.11% to 9.62% in the present study, and a similar range of
O
lean and fat of goat carcass was reported by Webb et al. (2005). On the contrary, the
increasing proportion of concentrate or energy intake increased fat deposition
(Haddad, 2005; French et al., 2001 and Geay et al., 2001, Sami et al., 2001, Zhou et
C
al., 2014). In general, goats fed with 100M and 75M:C25 diets produced a higher
proportion of leaner meat compared to the other diets.
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In the present study, chilling losses decreased (P>0.05) with the increase of fat
content in the carcass. Carcass fat acts as an insulator to moisture loss that impacts
the chilling loss of a carcass (Moyo et al., 2012a and Mushi et al., 2009).
A linear increase of ADF intake with the increase of MF level in the diet resulted in
the increase of bulk of the diet. It is supported by a relative higher gut fill content of
the goats fed the 100M diet. However, non-significant variations in the digestibility
80
of DM or cell wall materials (NDF) of the diets did not affect the growth and
dressing percentage of the animals of different groups. Moyo et al. (2012a) found a
similar effect of feeding moringa leaf meal. The gut fill in the present study ranged
from 7.02 to 10.11% which is comparable to the value reported by Mahgoub et al.
(2005).
The percentage of total non-carcass fat (TNCF) in the goats increased with the
increasing level of mixed concentrate. Omental and channel fat, considered to be a
part of waste fat, played the major role. A similar result was found by Mushi et al.
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(2009) and Mahgoub and Lu (1998). Devendra and Owen (1983) reported that goats
have a higher tendency to deposit waste fat in their body. However, breed, age,
maturity stage, carcass weight or birth weight influence the distribution of fat
depositions by the goat (Mahgoub and Lu, 1998).
U
5.4.5. Meat quality
T
5.4.5.1. Muscle pH
H
The pH of warm carcass muscle of the experimental goats did not vary significantly
(P>0.05), and this supports the non-significant variation in the glycogen content of
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the meat at the slaughter, as the latter plays a major role on the pH of meat (Priolo et
al., 2001). The mean pH values of goat meat found in the present experiment were
similar to that was reported by Ebrahimi (2012a) and Cetin et al. (2012). However,
the present values were higher than those reported by Devine et al. (1993) and
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Teixeira et al. (2011).

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5.4.5.2. Water holding capacity
The drip or cooking loss is considered to be an important economic criterion to meat

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processing industry and also to consumers (Offer and Trinick, 1983). Drip loss of the
LD muscle was significantly (P<0.01) vary among the diets and, they were reduced
linearly (r2=0.82) with the increase of MF level in the diet (Table 5.14; Appendix;
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Figure, C.6). Similarly, the drip or cooking loss of the ST muscle linearly (r2=0.62
and 0.91, respectively) decreased with the increase of MF level in the diet
(Appendix; Figure, C.7), and the difference of the latter was found significant
(P<0.05) among the goats fed with different diets. The drip loss percentage ranged
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from 17.32 to 20.62% for the LD muscle and 17.32 to 19.98% for the ST muscle.
The present drip loss values were comparable to the findings of Abdullah et al.
(2007) in black goat kids fed different energy levels, and they were found lower than
that reported by Kadim et al. (2003); who obtained the values from 33.3% to 41.0%
in different muscles of Batina, Dhorfari or Jabal Akhdar breed of Omani goats.
However, the present drip loss values were much higher than that was reported by
Ebrahimi (2012a) and Karami (2010). These variations may be due to breeds,
slaughter weight, age of animals, fat content of meat, location of the different
81
muscles and the technique of measuring the drip loss in different studies. The water
holding capacity refers to the ability of water to be retained in muscle or muscle
products and it impacts the sensory properties of meat such as juiciness, tenure and
flavor (Abdullah et al., 2007). Offer and Knight (1988) described the drip loss of
muscle indicated by a reddish fluid mainly consisting of water and proteins. A high
drip loss is undesirable, because it detracts from the appeal of the meat, as well as
valuable proteins and flavor compounds are lost in the exudates (Lawrie, 1998;
Varnam and Sutherland, 1995).
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The cooking losses from chevon are of interest, as the water that remains in the
cooked product is the major contributor to sensation of juiciness (Webb et al., 2005).
Chevon cooking losses were often close to or over 35% (Babiker et al., 1990;
Dhanda et al., 1999a; Webb et al., 2005). The values of cooking loss percentage of
the LD and the ST muscle in the present study varied from 32.53% to 35.71% and
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38.98% to 45.59%, respectively. The mean cooking loss was higher in the ST muscle
than that of the LD muscle. The cooking loss was significantly influenced by the type
of cuts; and it was higher in the legs, lower in the loins and was intermediate in the
shoulder (Kannan et al., 2001). The values of cooking loss in the present study were
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found to be similar to that was reported by Ebrahimi (2012a). But, they were higher
than that was reported by Abdullah et al. (2007). The cooking losses of the meat are
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possibly exacerbated by its limited fat content (Huff-Lonergan and Lonergan, 2005).
In addition, ageing is a significant factor that influences the cooking loss of the
selected muscles of goats (Kadim et al., 2003). Normal cooking changes the
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composition of fat and increases the energy density in muscle (Webb et al., 2005). In
general, the supplementation of moringa foliage tended to improve the drip and
cooking loss of both the LD and the ST muscles.
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5.4.5.3. Tenderness (shear force values)

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In the present experiment the VSF value of both the LD or ST muscles was observed
to be higher (P<0.05) in the 100M treatment, and decreased linearly (r2=0.83 or 0.95,
respectively) with the increasing levels of mixed concentrate in the diet (Appendix;
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Figure, C.8). The VSF values ranged from 1.03 to 1.19 kg and 1.37 to 1.72 kg of the
LD and the ST muscles, respectively. Field et al. (1971) recommended that the
acceptable ranges of shear force values in both goat or sheep meat was 3.6 or less.
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The mean shear force value of ST muscle was higher than the mean shear force value
in LD muscle in the present study. The higherVSF values in the ST muscle may be
due to the physiological function of the muscle and low fat content. Karami, (2010)
observed that the supplementation with antioxidant did not affect (P>0.05) the
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WBSF value of the ST muscle of goats, but did affect (P<0.05) the fresh LD muscle.
Webb et al. (2005) reported that the shear values also depend on the pre-slaughter
handling of animals, post-mortem methodologies, the technique of sampling of the
muscles and the method of sample preparation However, in the present study, pre-
slaughter handling, post-mortem methodologies, the sampling technique and the
method of sample preparation were similar to all animals. Therefore, shear force
values obtained in the present study of both the LD and the ST muscles of the goats
were changed may be due to supplementation of moringa-concentrate mixture.
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5.4.5.4. Muscle color
Many meat research scientists have recently been putting concerted efforts to use
natural bioactive compounds, such as plant antioxidants, to improve the natural shelf
life of meat (Akarpat et al., 2008; Frankic et al., 2009). The present study showed
that supplementation with moringafoliage of a paddy straw based diet improved the
color of chevon L*, a*, and color saturation or vividness (chroma) of both the LD
and the ST muscles of the goats. The polyphenols of the leaves of Moringa oleifera
produce antioxidant activity (Moyo et al., 2012b; Verma et al., 2009 and Sreelatha
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and Padma, 2009), and thus, the supplementation of moringa foliage improved the
color characteristics of muscles. It has been also reported that flavonols especially
quercetin is responsible to change from metmyoglobin (MetMb) to oxymyoglobin
(MbO2), a bright red protein in meat which increase freshness of meat (Inai et al.,
2014). Karami (2010) observed that supplementation of Andrographis paniculataand
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turmeric in a goat diet improved redness, vividness or tenderness, and reduced the
rate of discoloration of chevon during the post mortem aging period. The pasture-fed
beef animals had improved meat color quality compared to grain-fed beefs
(Tansawat, 2012). However, Luciano et al. (2009) reported that diets based on
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herbage or concentrates did not affect the meat color. Besides, breed (Kadim et al.,
2003), slaughter weight (Beriain et al., 2000), aging (Kannan et al., 2006; Ebrahimi,
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2012a and Karami, 2010) and/or rigor temperature and pH (Geesink et al., 2000)
affect meat color.
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5.4.6. Fatty acid profile of muscles
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The range of fatty acid composition of goat meat of the present study are found to be
within a range reported by Muchenje et al. (2009a and 2009b) and Mushi et al.
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(2010). The proportion of SFA/ PUFA and PUFAn-6/ PUFAn-3 of the LD and the
ST muscles were affected by the supplementation of moringa foliage. The range of
ratio of PUFA/ SFA values of goat meat in the study were found to be similar to
those reported by Qwele et al. (2013), but were lower than those reported by Peňa et
al. (2009) in goat kids.
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The experimental diets was not significantly affect (P>0.05) the content of lauric
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(C12:0), myristic (C14:0), pentadecanoic (C15:0), margaric (C17:0) or stearic (C

18:0) acids of both the LD and the ST muscles of this study. However, palmitic acid
was significantly higher (P<0.05) in 100C diet than that was found in the muscle of
the goats fed moringa foliage supplemented diets. The long chain fatty acid
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composition of the LD and the ST muscles is comprised of oleic acid (C18:1)

followed by palmitic (C16:0) and stearic (C18:0) acids, and their levels are found to
be similar to those reported by Qwele et al. (2013) and Ebrahimi et al. (2012b and
2013). Peňa et al. (2009) suggested that palmitic acid increased the blood
cholesterol; stearic acid had no detrimental effects to human health, but oleic acid
decreased the blood cholesterol. The proportion of desirable fatty acids (DFA) had
no adverse implications on human health (C18:0 and all MUFA+ all PUFA)
(Banskalieva et al., 2000). The ranges of DFA were between 69.97% to 74.72% and
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67.15 to 74.92% in the LD and the ST muscles. These findings are in agreement with
that (74.81 to 76.38%) was reported by Qwele et al. (2013) in goat muscles fed with
moringa leaves (MOL).
The proportion of total SFA was decreased and the total PUFA increased with the
increasing level of moringa foliage replacing conventional concentrate in the diet.
Similar results of replacing concentrate in a diet by oil palm frond were reported by
Ebrahimi et al., (2012b) in goats or by green grass in steers or by Argan tree leaves
in goats (French et al., 2000 and Bas et al., 2005). The total n-3 fatty acid
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concentration of the LD and the ST muscles of this study was significantly higher
(P<0.01) in the diets supplemented with moringa foliage than that of the goat fed
100C diet. The higher percentage of n-3 fatty acids of the LD and the ST muscles of
the moringa foliage supplemented goats could be due to the presence of higher levels
of n-3 fatty acids in the moringa foliage.
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The increasing level of moringa foliage increased the total n-3PUFA and n-6PUFA,
and it is interesting to note that an incomplete or a reduced bio-hydrogenation of
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C18:3n-3 and C18:2n-6 fatty acids might have been occurred in the rumen. The
increasing trend of C18:2n-6 in the muscles of goats fed with the moringa foliage
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also supports this statement. It may be argued that a high inclusion level of moringa
foliage favored increased intake of a series of secondary compounds; such as;
phenols, tannins, flavonoids, terpenoids, and steroids (Sreelatha and Padma, 2009),
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and it may have allowed escaping of bio-hydrogenation of the acid in the rumen
(Jayanegara et al., 2011). It has been reported that a group of plant secondary
compounds, particularly tannins, are able to reduce the degree of ruminal bio-
hydrogenation of PUFA at various steps in the pathway (Jayanegara et al., 2011;
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Cabiddu et al., 2010; Vasta et al., 2010). Consequently, a higher amount of α-

lenolenic acid (C18:3n-3) could have been escaped the rumen and a higher
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concentration of vaccenic acid (C18:1trans-11), the precursor for CLA (C18:2 c-9, t-
11) synthesis, was available in the adipose tissue. These observation are consistent
with the finding of Kălber et al. (2011) who reported a high content of total
extractable phenols (TEP) in fresh buckwheat forage that was associated with an
increased transfer rate of α-linlenic acid (C18:3n-3) from feed to dairy cow. It was
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reported that phenolic compounds could increase conjugated linoleic acid

concentration, and the yield meat of lighter color (Mapiye, et al., 2011, Patra and
Saxena, 2011). However, a different view was narrated by Mushi et al. (2010); Diaz
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et al. (2002) and Lee et al. (2008). They reported that a higher proportion of SFA
was related with a higher intake of forage of the minced goat fed a forage based diet.
Forage feeding enhanced rumen activity, and accordingly increased the level of bio-
hydrogenation of dietary PUFA by rumen microbes (Diaz et al., 2002; Lee, et al.,
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2008).
Thus, a higher level of C18:3n-3 and C18:2n-6 escaped the rumen bio-hydrogenation
and increased the absorption and deposition of the fatty acids in the muscles. The
variation in fat content of muscles may be due to several factors, including the
variation in the relative development of fat deposits according to their anatomical
locations (Kouba and Bonneau, 2009) different function of the deposits in
84
physiological activity (Turk and Smith, 2009) and the type of fiber (Wood et al.,
2004). The goat fed with moringa forage based diets had the highest quantity of n-6
and n-3 fatty acids than those fed on a straw and concentrate diet. This study
recognized the benefits of moringa foliage feeding replacing concentrates for
increasing the amount of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in goat meat.
The recommended level of PUFA/SFA ratios is around 0.45 (Webb et al., 2005). In
the present experiment, the PUFA/SFA ratio ranged from 0.12 to 0.33 and 0.19 to
0.37 in the LD and the ST muscles, respectively. However, the supplementation of
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moringa foliage tended to increase the PUFA/SFA ratio. From a human health
perspective, the decreased SFA in the muscles of goats fed with moringa foliage diet
helped to improve the image of chevon, generally regarded as red meat containing a
higher saturated fat. In addition, the PUFAn-6/PUFA n-3 ratio found in the LD
muscle of goats fed with100C diet was higher (4.22) than the recommended level.
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However, the level in the ST muscles were within the recommended levels (1 and 4;
Simpoulos, 2008). An increasing level of moringa foliage tended to reduce n-6:n-3
PUFA ratios in both the muscles. The n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio was found to be 2 or less
in the ruminants finished on pasture, but, ranged from 6 to 10 in the ruminants
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finished with concentrate based diets (Raes et al., 2004). Thus, feed supplementation
may be used to manipulate the fatty acid composition of muscles through increasing
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the ratio of PUFA to SFA values and reducing the n-6: n-3 PUFA values (Andersen
et al., 2005; Wood and Enser, 1997; Wood et al., 2008)
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5.4.7. Lipid peroxidation in muscles
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Feeding moringa foliage had a significant effect on TBARS values in both the LD
and the ST muscles. The inhibition of lipid peroxidation in the muscles of the goat
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fed with moringa foliage indicated that moringa foliage may have prevented the
formation of excessive free radicals and thus, improved the defense mechanism of
physiology. Lipid peroxidation is a complex process taking place in aerobic cells and
it reacts with molecular oxygen and polyunsaturated fatty acids. This leads to the
oxidation of meat pigments and generation of rancid odors and flavors (Verma et al.,
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2009; Faustman and Cassens, 1990). The different active components of moringa
foliage; such as; the phenolic compounds, flavonoids, carotenoids, vitamins,
minerals, amino acids, sterols, glycosides, and alkaloids are proved to contain
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significant antioxidant potential (Verma et al., 2009). The main molecules

responsible for the antioxidative properties are phenolic substances (flavonoids,
hydrolizable tannins, proanthocianidins, phenolic acids and phenolic terpanes)
(Frankic et al., 2009). Polyphenols may protect meat from lipid peroxidation by
©
acting as a chain-breaking peroxy-radical scavenger (Sreelatha and Padma, 2009).

Malondialdehyde is the major lipid oxidation substrate in the TBARS test (David,
1990). Recent studies by Moyo et al. (2012b) and Qwele et al. (2013) provided more
evidence to support that moringa leaves exert a strong and efficient antioxidant
activity in the liver and in the muscle of goats, respectively. Karami et al. (2011)
observed that lipid oxidation was reduced in goat muscle at different aging periods
using natural antioxidants from Andrographis paniculata and tumeric. These results
are in agreement with that reported by Zhong et al. (2009), who noted that dietary tea
85
catechin supplementation in goats significantly (P<0.05) decreased lipid oxidation in
the longissimus dorsi and gluteus medius muscles of goats.
5.5. Conclusion
Replacement of conventional concentrate with moringa foliage containing 19.95%

CP, 19.0% ADF and 32.4% NDF to Bengal goats did not affect the growth
performances, nutrient utilization and dressing percentage of the animals fed on
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moringa foliage supplement up to 100%.
The results of the present study show that substitution of conventional concentrate
with moringa foliage produce more desirable leaner carcass at 75 and 100% moringa
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supplemented diet with higher proportion of meat and lower weight of fat which
improve carcass characteristics.
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Increasing moringa foliagein the diets also tended to improve water holding capacity,
lightness, redness and color saturation of chevon, however, tenderness of chevon was
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improved with increasing level of concentrate. Moreover, moringa foliage
supplementation in the diet tended to increase polyunsaturated fatty acids in both the
LL and ST muscles than complete concentrate diet.Conversely, increasing level of
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moringa supplementation in a diet decreased the MDA values in both LD and ST
muscles which is one indicator of improving the shelf life of chevon.
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86
CHAPTER 6
GENERAL DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Development of feeding strategies for ruminant animals using local feed resources
may increase feed availability to farmers minimizing annual supply and demand
disparity in the developing countries of the humid and sub-humid tropics. Moreover,
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utilization of low quality roughages that includes major part of the ruminant diets of
these countries may be improved through supplementation with better quality feeds
available in the local condition and increase production and productivity. Plants and
shrubs both of leguminous and non-leguminous origins grow throughout the year are
potential protein resources (Ben Salem et al., 2004) that could be incorporated in the
feeding system (Atta-Krah, 1990; Lefroy et al., 1992; Otsyina and Dzowela, 1995).
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Moringa oleifera, one of the tropical plant having production potentials of high
biomass containing high level of protein, vitamin, minerals and other bioactive
compounds may be used as a ruminant feed (Sanchez et al., 2006b; Newton et al.,
2006; Mendieta-Araica et al., 2011b; Fadiyimu et al., 2011; Nouman, et al., 2013).
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Keeping this objective in view three experiments were conducted on Moringa
oleifera; the first attempt was made to determine the effect of cutting interval on
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nutrient composition of different plant fractions of Moringa oleifera, followed by the
evaluation of anti-nutritional compounds, antioxidant capacity and fatty acid profile
of moringa foliage at different cutting intervals, and finally the effect of substitution
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of conventional concentrate with moringa foliage on feed utilization, growth rate,
carcass and meat quality of growing goats fed a paddy straw based diet was
determined.
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There were no significant (P>0.05) differences in the CP content of total foliage, leaf
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or stem fractions among the cutting intervals.The range of average CP contents of

total foliage, leaf and stems ranged from 214.80 to 216.20, 256.65 to 261.33 and
81.30 to 88.43 g kg –1 DM, respectively. Similar results were reported by Manh et al.
(2005); Sánchez et al. (2006b); Mendieta-Araica et al. (2013). This makes it an ideal
protein source for livestock (Sarwatt et al., 2004; Asaolu et al., 2009, 2010 and 2011;
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Moyo et al., 2012a). The fiber content of total foliage increased significantly (P<
0.05) with the increase of cutting intervals, and its impact on cell wall materials of
stem was higher than that of the other components while the leaves had no impact.
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Thus, moringa foliage may be an effective source of protein source for livestock
(Sarwatt et al., 2004; Asaolu et al., 2009, 2010 and 2011; Moyo et al., 2012a) and
most importantly quality protein (Foidle et al., 2001).
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The nutritive value of moringa foliage in terms of IVDMD, IVOMD, ADF, NDF and
ADL harvested at 4 week cutting interval is higher than 6 and 8 week. The IVDMD
and IVOMD of moringa foliage ranging from 772.0 to 802.0 and 761.0 to 798.0 g
kg–1 DM, respectively may indicate the availability of nutrients in moringa foliage to
ruminant animals. Moreover, CP value of moringa foliage, leaf and stem was not
changed over the cutting period. Thus, moringa foliage may be harvested up to 8
week of cutting interval and used as a feed for the ruminant livestock. In addition, its
87
protein quality and anti-oxidative property may make it more quality feed for helping
in increased productivity and quality of the products. Total phenols (mg tannic acid
equivalent g–1 dry weight) and flavonoid (mg rutin equivalent g–1 dry weight) varied
from 29.00 to 51.86 and 67.06 to 75.28, respectively, and they decreased with
increasing the maturity up to 8 weeks. Similarly, the antioxidant activity of moringa
foliage was decreased with increasing the cutting interval. It indicates that
polyphenol (phenol and flavonoid) is positively associated with the antioxidant
activity and showed higher antioxidant activity at 4 week cutting interval than 6 and
8 week cutting intervals. This may help better growth of the animals (Chiang et al.,
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2003, Moyo et al., 2011; Ogbe and Affiku, 2011; Yang et al., 2006) and also support
a health defense system and immune stimulating properties (Fahey, 2005).
Additionally, it may improve product quality (Landrault et al., 2001, Siddhuraju and
Becker, 2003) retarding lipid peroxidation of meat or meat products during the
storage period (Jung et al., 2010). Likewise, moringa foliage possesses more PUFA
compared to SFA. Thus, moringa foliage could be used as potential forage feed
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having the presence of higher antioxidant activity and PUFA for good quality goat
meat production as well as to improve health and growth performance.
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Moringa foliage substituted conventional concentrate with moringa foliage on a
paddy straw based diet of goats without affecting feed intake and digestibility,
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nutrient utilization, growth and dressing percentage and other carcass characteristics.
A higher proportions of moringa foliage in the diet significantly (P<0.05) increased
lean and lean: fat and reduced (P<0.05) carcass fat.
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The polyphenols of moringa foliage could have been effective in reducing the fat
content of the carcass. Tian et al. (2013) observed that tea polyphenols reduced fat
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deposits and acted as an anti-lipogenic agent in high fat fed rats. In addition, it has
been reported that a higher proportion of fat was deposited in the carcass of goats
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received a higher proportion of concentrate (Haddad, 2005).
The feeding of moringa foliage significantly reduced water holding capacity and
improved color characteristics of both LD muscles and ST muscles of goat meat
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(P<0.05).The antioxidant properties of moringa foliage helped to have higher color

of goat meat and its vividness or color saturation (Akarpat et al., 2008; Frankic et al.,
2009, Moyo et al., 2012b; Verma et al., 2009 and Sreelatha and Padma, 2009).
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The proportion of total SFA in both LD and ST was decreased and total PUFA was
increased with the increasing level of moringa foliage in the diet. The total n-3 fatty
©
acid in the LD and the ST muscles was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the goat
muscles fed moringa foliage supplemented diets compared to that fed the 100C diet.
The higher percentage of n-3 fatty acids in the LD and the ST muscles of the
moringa foliage supplemented goats were due to the higher levels of n-3 fatty acid
present in moringa foliage of the diet. These results suggest that an incomplete or a
reduced bio-hydrogenation of C18:3n-3 and C18:2n-6 fatty acids might have been
occurred in the rumen. The trend of increased C18:2n-6 in the muscles of goats fed
moringa foliage also supports it.
88
It was recommended that PUFA/SFA ratios should be around 0.45 (Webb et al.,
2005). In the present experiment, the PUFA/SFA ratio ranged from 0.12 to 0.33 and
0.19 to 0.37 in the LD and the ST muscles, respectively. However, the
supplementation of moringa foliage increased the PUFA/SFA ratio. In addition,
PUFAn-6/PUFAn-3 ratio in both LD and ST muscles obtained were within the range
of recommended values of 4 or less (Raes et al., 2004). The decreased SFA in the
muscles of goat fed moringa foliage would attract consumer’s preference to red meat
alleviating the negative impacts of saturated fat, particularly in chevon. Additionally,
the supplementation of moringa foliage to a paddy straw based on diet decreased
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lipid peroxidation in both the LD and the ST muscles resulted in increasing of shelf
life of chevon meat. Thus, moringa foliage could be used as substitution of
conventional concentrate with moringa foliage to goat on paddy straw based diet.
Conclusion
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The nutritive value of whole foliage in terms of IVDMD and IVOMD was reduced
with increasing cutting intervals. Conversely, fiber content in moringa foliage was
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increased with increasing cutting interval while fiber content of leaf was similar for
all cutting intervals. Moreover, CP content of total foliage, leaf and stem was not
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changed over the cutting intervals. The present findings suggest that moringa foliage
harvested at early maturity stage produced better quality forage than later.
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Total phenol, tannin and condense tannin of moringa foliage in the study were tended
to reduce with increasing cutting interval. Similarly, antioxidant activity of moringa
foliage was also reduced with plant maturity. An appreciable quantity of total phenol
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tannin and flavonoid compounds may be attributed to its antioxidant activity of

moringa foliage, and that exhibited a high free radical scavenging activity. Moringa
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foliage at different cutting intervals had a more PUFA compared to SFA. It could be
used as potential tree forage containing a higher antioxidant activity and PUFA. This
may help a better growth of animal and production of good quality meat.
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Moringa foliage may be replaced with conventional concentrate feed upto 100 %
without affecting nutrient utilization, growth performances and dressing percentag of
Bengal goats. Substitution of conventional concentrate with moringa foliage at 75
C
and 100% level produce more desirable leaner carcass and lower content of fat which
improve carcass characteristics. Increasing moringa foliage in the diets also tended to
improve water holding capacity, lightness, redness and color saturation of chevon.
Substitution of concentrate feed with moringa foliage increased the UFA and PUFA
©
in both the LD and ST muscles and reduced the MDA values in both LD and ST
muscles.
Moringa foliage has high levlel of crude protein, appreciable amount of

antinutritional compounds, rich in PUFA, a potential source of antioxidants,
increased PUFA in meat samples and significant antioxidant potential on meat
samples. Hence, supplementation of moringa foliage in goat diets may help in
increasing n-3PUFA and improve the shelf life of chevon.Thus, moringa foliage
89
could be used as substitute of conventional concentrate feed on paddy straw based
diet for goat production.
Recommendations
Moringa may be grown as a fodder crop and its foliages may be harvested even up to
an interval of 8 weeks, and may be fed to Bengal goats as a replacer of conventional
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concentrate in goat diets for the production of leaner carcasses having a higher level
of UFA and PUFA. Further research is required to develop agronomical practices for
cost effective year round production of moringa tree fodder in different agro-climatic
conditions.
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Therefore, future research in the area should be conducted on a year round basis to
determine the effect of optimum cutting interval or cutting height of moringa trees on
anti-nutritional compounds, antioxidant activity and fatty acid profiles due to
seasonal variation. More research should be undertaken to determine the effect of
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different agro-climatic locations on nutritional characteristics of moringa foliage.
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A cost benefit analysis was done from the findings of the study (Appendix-B. Table
B.5 and B.6 ). If 100 breeding goats were reared with 100% moringa foliage
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suppliment instead of concentrate feed, requires 2.5 hactor lands for the moringa
cultivation and the cost will be RM 1,548.0 ha-1 (BDT 38,700.0 ha-1). However, it is
shown that 100% moringa supplemented diet showed higher benefit than other
combinations (Appendix- Table B. 6).
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Further research should be undertaken processing of moringa foliage is needed in

order to preserve the quality of the leaf for off season. Additionally, future
investigations would be carried out long-term trials on the effect of moringa foliage
on improving chevon quality in terms of PUFA, color characteristics, water holding
capacity and shelf life in relation to healthy human diets.
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90
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APPENDICES
Appendix-A
A.1 Preparation of solution for in vitro gas production
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(Source: Menke and Steingass, 1988 and Makkar et al., 1995)
Solution for the medium consisted of:
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(i) Salt (as main element) solution
NaHPO4 5.7 g
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KHPO4 6.2 g
MgSO4. 7H2O
H 0.6 g
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Made up to 1l with distilled water
(ii) Trace element solution

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CaCl2. 2H2O 13.2 g

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MnCl2. 4H2O 10.0 g
CoCl2. 6H2O 1.0 g
FeCl2. 6H2O 0.8 g

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Made up to 100 ml with distilled water

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(iii) Buffer solution pH 7

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NaHCO3 35 g
(NH4) HCO3 4g
made up to 1 l with distilled water
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(iv) Resazurin solution (100 mg Resazurin make up to 100 ml with
distilled water)
(v) Reduction solution
1 M NaOH 2 ml
Na2S. 7H2O 285 mg
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solution must be freshly prepared each time before the collection of
rumen fluid.
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Appendix B
Table B.1 Proximate composition and metabolizable energy of feed ingredient

of concentrate mixture
Nutrients composition Broken Soybean
-1 Kheshari bran Wheat bran
(g kg DM) maize meal
DM (g kg-1) 895.0 900.0 895.0 895.0
CP 103.0 460.0 125.0 163.0
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EE 31.5 212.0 11.5 41.0
Ash 71.0 48.0 78.0 58.0
ADF 79.0 104.0 486.0 132.5
NDF 153.0 155.0 494.0 435.5
ME (MJkg-1DM) 13.0 9.9 10.0 10.5
Sources: Animal Nutrition laboratory, BLRI.
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Table B.2 Fatty acid composition of soybean meal
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Fatty acid composition (% w/w)
C10:0 (Capric acid) H 0.17
C14:0 (Myristic acid) 0.04
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) 3.07
C18:0 (Stearic acid) 2.41
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C18:1 (Palmitolic acid ) 20.90
C18:2ω-6 (Linoleic acid) 67.08
C18:3 ω-3 (linolenic acid) 5.78
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C20:0 (Arachidic acid) 0.20

C20:1 (Paullinic acid) 0.18
C22:0 ( Behenic acid) 0.17
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SFA 6.06
MUFA 21.08
PUFA 72.86
MUFA/SFA 3.48
PUFA/SFA 12.02
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∑ ω -6 67.08
∑ ω -3 5.78
ω-6/ ω -3 11.61
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Source: Ivanov et al. (2011)

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Table B.3 Fatty acid composition in longissimus lumborum (LD)muscles of goats under different treatments1
Treatments
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Fatty acid profile
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
C12:0 (Lauric) 0.29±0.05 0.49±0.11 0.07±0.01 0.50±0.22 0.48±0.40
C14:0 (Myristic acid) 1.57±0.20 1.50±0.19 1.68±0.19 1.51±0.22 1.80±0.11
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C15:0 ((Pentadecanoic) 1.16±0.11 1.50±0.25 0.64±0.06 1.09±0.26 0.74±0.21
c c c
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) 20.26±0.40 20.18±0.14 20.16±0.56 21.11±0.54b 25.18±0.35a
C17:0 (heptadecanoic) 1.18±0.14 1.44±0.33 1.40±0.11 1.36±0.20 0.75 ±0.18
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C18:0 (Stearic acid) 15.35±0.71 16.03±0.91 16.34±1.24 19.21±1.6 18.71±0.20
C16:1 (Palmitoleic acid) 2.76 ±0.32 2.42±0.25 2.72±0.13 2.05±0.10 2.74±0.17
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C17:1(Margaric acid) 1.15±0.11 1.26±0.3 1.09±0.09 1.29±0.20 1.00±0.13
C18:1n9 (Oleic acid) 38.68±1.3 38.01±1.36 41.30±2.13 38.37±1.40 39.43±2.06
C18:1t-11(Vaccenic acid) 3.01±0.45 2.97±0.66 2.90±0.12 2.50±0.15 2.34±0.0.31
C18:2n6 (linoleic) 6.03±0.19 a 5.70±0.13ab 4.61±0.41bc 3.84±0.6 dc 2.69±0.50 d
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C20:4n6 (Arachidonic acid) 2.60±0.30 2.63±0.28 1.91±0.42 2.04±0.4 1.28±0.33
C22:5n3 (Docosapentaenoic) 0.88±0.09 a 0.83±0.13 a 0.69±0.07 a 0.94±0.07 a 0.24±0.09 b
C18:3n3 (α-linolenic) a a a
0.63±0.13ab 0.27±0.09b
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0.78±0.77 0.74±0.96 0.80±0.20
C18:3n6 (γ-linoleic) 0.81±0.12 0.58±0.10 0.74±0.20 0.60±0.22 0.67±0.31
a a ab
C20:5n3(Eicosapentaenoic) 0.81±0.23 0.89±0.09 0.68±0.05 0.70±0.11ab 0.29±0.09b
a ab ab
C22:6n3(Docosahexaenoic) 1.40±0.40 0.96±0.17 0.95±0.2 0.85±0.07ab 0.30±0.08b
CLA c9T11 1.05±0.08 1.20±0.20 0.92±0.09 0.89±0.07 0.85±0.19
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a a b
CLAc12T10 0.86±0.12 0.71±0.04 0.44±0.01 0.50±0.02b 0.42±0.07b
C= concentrate; M= Moringa .
1
The data are expressed as the percentage of total identified fatty acid
C
©
122
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Table B.4 Fatty acid composition in semitendinosus (ST)muscles of goats under different treatments1
Treatments
Fatty acid profile
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
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C12:0 (Laruic) 0.13±0.02 0.52±0.14 0.25±0.05 0.52±0.28 0.69±0.23
C14:0 (Myristic acid) 1.97±0.37 1.88±0.24 1.24±0.09 1.73±0.22 2.30±0.34
C15:0 (Pentadecanoic) 1.40±0.05 2.06±0.16 1.70±0.29 1.51±0.15 1.30±0.23
T
b b b
C16:0 (Palmitic acid) 19.94±0.85 19.12±0.73 18.77±0.47 20.0±1.29b 25.86±0.19a
C17:0 (Margaric acid) 1.54±0.10 2.14±0.40 1.69±0.16 1.55±0.19 1.22±0.08
C18:0 (Stearic acid) 14.33±0.92 14.08±0.61 15.55±0.55 14.06±0.54 14.46±0.80
H
a b b
C16:1 (Palmitoleic) 3.99±0.39 2.85±0.09 2.36±0.23 2.51±0.03b 2.30±0.26b
C17:1 (Margaroleic) 1.38±0.19 1.48±0.06 1.32±0.13 1.27±0.03 1.41±0.19
IG
C18:1n9 (Oleic acid) 36.52±1.94 36.22±1.3 41.16±1.28 40.71±2.5 37.86±1.39
C18:1t-11 (Vaccenic ) 2.78±0.20 3.41±0.13 2.67±0.15 3.32 ± 0.38 2.44±0.57
a ab ab
C18:2n6 (linoleic) 7.14±0.71 6.22±0.9 5.59±0.78 5.29±0.29ab 4.27±0.10b
C22:5n3(Docosapentaenoic) 1.04±0.15a 1.07±0.10a 0.63±0.05b 0.49±0.16b 0.42±0.11b
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ab
C20:4n6 (Arachidonic acid) 2.78±0.23 3.61±0.28a 3.12±0.56a 2.59±0.22ab 1.95±0.18b
C18:3n3 (α-linolenic) 0.87 ±0.07 a
0.90±0.07 a
0.68±0.01 b
0.75±0.1abc 0.60±0.02c
C18:3n6(γ-linoleic) 0.44±0.08c 0.80±0.06a 0.55±0.03c 0.76±0.08ab 0.65±0.11abc
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a a b
C20:5n3 (Eicosapentaenoic) 1.11±0.36 0.95±0.16 0.61±0.06 0.55±0.17b 0.34±0.08b
C22:6n3 (Docosahexaenoic) 1.00±0.02a 1.07±0.12a 0.69±0.10b 0.71±0.09b 0.45±0.06b
CLA c9T11 1.04±0.13 1.02±0.08 0.94±0.07 0.92±0.10 0.93±0.20
CLAc12T10 0.60±0.08 0.61±0.06 0.55±0.07 0.60±0.009 0.58±0.13
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C= concentrate; M= Maringa.
1
The data are expressed as the percentage of total identified fatty acid.
C
©
123
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Table B.5 List of price of feed ingredient and cost (kg-1) of feed in the present experimental diet
Concentrate Moringa Straw Unite Cost of con. Cost of Cost of paddy
mixture foliage mixture price (Tk./ mixture Moringa straw mixture
U
Ingredients
mixture kg) foliage
muxture
Broken maize 36 - - 16.00 576.00 - -
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Soybean meal 42 - - 55.00 2310.00 - -
Khesheri bran 8 - - 26.00 208.00 - -
Wheat bran 7 - - 25.00 175.00 - -
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Soybean oil 4.5 4.5 - 110.0 495.00 495.00 -
Vitamin mineral premix 0.5 0.5 - 250.00 20.00 20.00 -
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Dicalcium phosphate (DCP) 1.0 1.0 - 40.00 250.00 250.00 -
Salt 1.0 1.0 - 50.00 50.00 50.00 -
Moringa foliage - 93.0 - 18.00 - 1674.00 -
Paddy straw - - 97.5 5.00 - - 487.5
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Molasses - - 2.5 10.00 - - 25
Total 100 kg feed cost (BDT) - - - - 4084.00 2489.00 512.5
Feed cost (BDT kg-1) - - - - 40.84 24.89 5.125
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Feed cost (RM kg-1) - - - - 1.63 0.996 0.21
Feed cost d-1goat-1
*RM1.00 = BDT 25.00
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124
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Table B.6 Economic implication of moringa foliage fed to goat at different experimental diet
Ingredients (BDT goat-1day-1) 100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25C:75M 100C
Straw 0.81 0.78 0.72 0.73 0.71
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Moringa 10.42 7.97 5.33 2.51 -
Concentrate mixture - 4.19 8.76 12.93 16.55
Total cost (BDT goat-1day-1) 11.23 12.94 14.81 16.17 17.25
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Total cost (RM goat-1day-1) 0.45 0.52 0.59 0.65 0.69
Cost of feed (kg-1weight gain) (BDT) 165.56 163.12 199.25 226.70 256.20
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Cost of meat from 1 kg gain (1 kg meat=BDT450) 234.60 236.79 231.40 234.54 233.64
Benefit from 1 kg weight gain (BDT) 69.04 73.67 32.15 7.84 -22.56
Benefit from 1 kg weight gain (RM) 2.76 2.95 1.29 0.30 -0.90
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Moringa foliage need for 100 breeding goats (t y-1) 15.33 11.68 7.85 3.65 -
*RM1.00=BDT 25.00
Calculation of quantity of moringa foliage for 100 breeding goats for 1 year
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According to findings of experiment-1,
We have got 2.15 t ha-1cut-1 at 8 week intervals. If we give 3 cut in wet season, we can get 6.45 t ha-1cut-1
According to findings of experiment-5
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One goat intake average 420 g (dry form) day-1 (if provided sole moringa foliage with 30% straw).
100 breeding goats need (420×100×365) = 15.33 ton
Getting 15.33 dry moringa foliage need 2.5 ha land
If dry moringa foliage is 18.00 BDT kg-1 (RM 0.72 kg-1), production cost ha-1 will be RM1548.0 (BDT 38,700)
Thus, production cost for 2.5 ha will be = RM 3,870.0 (BDT 96750.00)
O
C
©
125
Appendix C
60
Total phenol (mg/g DW)

50
40
R² = 0.912
30
PM
20
10
U
52 54 56 58 60 62
DPPH inhibition level (%)
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Figure C.1 Relationship between total phenol and DPPH inhibition
H
IG
R
PY
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Figure C.2 Relationship between flavonoid and DPPH inhibition

©
126
0.8
n-6: n-3 ratio or PUFA:SFA

R² = 0.9995
0.7
0.6 n-6 : n-3 ratio
0.5 PUFA:SFA
0.4
0.3
0.2 R² = 0.9998
PM
0.1
0
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
Treatments
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Figure C.3 Relationship of n: 6:n:3 ratio and PUFA:SFA among different level of
moringa foliage in diet
T
0.8
H
IG
0.7
LD muscle ST muscle
mg MDA/kg meat
0.6
R² = 0.953
0.5
R
0.4
0.3
PY
R² = 0.8455
0.2
0.1
0
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100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C

Treatments
C
Figure C.4 Relationship of MDA production (mg kg–1meat ) of LD and ST muscle at

different level of moringa foliage in diet
©
127
12
10 R² = 0.6905
Carcass fat (%) 8
PM
2
0
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
U
Ttreatments
Figure C.5 Relationship between carcass fat (%) and at different level of moringa
foliage in diet
T
Cooking loss (%)
H Drip loss (%)
36 25
R² = 0.4414
IG
35
Cooking Loss ( %)
20
Drip Loss ( %)
34
15
R
33 R² = 0.8248
10
32
PY
31 5
30 0
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
O
Treatments
C
Figure C.6 Drip or cooking loss of LD muscle in response to moringa foliage in diets
©
128
Drip loss (%) Cooking loss (%)
20.5 48
R² = 0.6194
20
46
19.5
Cooking loss (%)

19 44
Drip loss, ( %)
18.5 R² = 0.9117 42
18
PM
17.5 40
17 38
16.5
36
16
15.5 34
U
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
Treatments
T
Figure C.7 Drip or cooking loss of ST muscle in response to moringa foliage in diets
H
IG
2 LL shear force ST shear force
1.8
R² = 0.9458
Shear force (Kg)
1.6
1.4
R
1.2
1
0.8 R² = 0.8299
PY
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
100M 75M:25C 50M:50C 25M:75C 100C
O
Treatments
C
Figure C.8 Shear force of LD and ST muscles in response to moringa foliage in diets
©
129
Appendix -D
PM
U
T
H
IG
Plates-D.1 Plants were cut uniformly at a height of 0.76 meter
above the ground
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PY
O
C
©
130
PM
U
T
H
Plates D.2After re-growthofexperimentalplot
IG
R
PY
O
C
©
131
PM
U
T
H
IG
Remove
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Plates D.3 Moringa foliage

PY
O
C
©
132
PM
U
T
Plates D.4 Bengal goat in Bangladesh
H
Longissimus dorsi (LD)
IG
R
PY
O
Semitendinosus
C
(ST)
©
Plates D.5 Muscle samples were collected
133
BIODATA OF STUDENT
The student Nasrin Sultana was born in Jhenaidah, Bangladesh on 16th November
1970. She completed her secondary school and higher secondary school education
from Moheshpur Girl’s High School and Jessore Women’s College, respectively.
She continued her studies at Bangladesh Agricultural University, and obtained first
degree, B. Sc. in Animal Husbandry, 1992. Thereafter, she obtained her M.Sc. in
Animal Nutrition from the same University in 1998. Her professional career started
as a scientific officer at Bangladesh Livestock Research Institute in 1997. Later, she
PM
had got promotion as a senior scientific officer in 2006. She had carried out more
than 8 research project and published 20 articles in national and international
journals.
U
The student started her PhD programme in the Department of Animal Science,
Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia in July of 2010. Her research
interests focus in this area of tree forage and its’ yields, nutrient composition, anti-
nutritional factors, antioxidant activity and fatty acid profile and its’ impact on
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performances in small ruminants.
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IG
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134
LIST OF PUBLICATIONS
N. Sultana, A.R. Alimon, K.S Huque, A.Q. Sazili, H.Yaakuband

S.M.J.Hossain.(2014)Growth Performance and Carcass Characteristics of
Goats Fed Graded Level of Moringa Foliage on Paddy Straw Based Diet. The
16th AAAP Animal Science Congress, November 10-14, Yogyakarta,
Indonesia.( Abstract accepted)
N. Sultana, A.R. Alimon, H.Yaakub, A.Q.Saziliand K.S. Huque. (2014). Moringa
foliage (MORINGA OLEIFERA L.): A potential source of omega-3 fatty acid
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and antioxidants. In the proceedings of the 1st ASEAN regional conference on
animal production and 35th annual conference of Malaysian Society of
Animal Production (MSAP), 4th-6th June, Kuching, Sarawak, pp.75-76.
N. Sultana, A.R. Alimon, K.S Huque, A.Q. Sazili, H.Yaakuband S.M.J.
U
Hossain.(2014). The effect of cutting interval on yield and nutrient
composition of different plant fractions of Moringa oleifera tree. Journal of
Food, Agriculture and Environment.Vol. 12 (2): 599-604.
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Hossain.(2014).The feeding value of Moringa (Moringa oleifera)foliage as
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replacement to conventional concentrate diet in Bengal goats. Advances in
Animal and Veterinary Sciences (Accepted).
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Hossain.(2013).The feeding value ofMoringa oleifera forage as replacement
to conventional concentrate diet in growing Black Bengal goats.In the
proceedings of 34th annual conference of Malaysian Society of Animal
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Production (MSAP), 3rd-5th June, Kuantan, Pahang, pp.57-58.

PY

Hossain.(2012).Utilization of Moringa oleifera foliage as a feed for growing
goats.International Agriculture Congress, 4th-6th September, Marriot
Putrajaya, Malaysia.
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N. Sultana, K.S Huque and A.R. Alimon. (2012). Effect of Sapindus mukorossi as
herbal feed additive for ruminants.In the proceedings of 33th annual
conference of Malaysian Society of Animal Production (MSAP), 4th-7th June,
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Langkawi, Malaysia, pp.74-75.

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CONTOH PHD Nutritional Evaluation Moringa As Substitute Concentrate For Goat 2014

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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF Moringa oleifera LAM. AS A

Thesis submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF Moringa oleifera LAM. AS A

Chairman: Professor Abdul Razak Bin Alimon, PhD

In the second experiment, moringa foliage samples were taken according to

consisted of varying proportion of moringa foliage (MF) and concentrate (C), T1

(73.72%) and 100M (72.18%) diet compare to 50M:50C (69.60%), 25M:75C

foliage has the significant antioxidant potential, therefore, supplemented of moringa

PENILAIAN DALAM PEMAKANAN Moringa oleifera LAM. SEBAGAI

Percubaan ketiga, sejumlah 30 ekor kambing Black Bengal telah diperuntukkan

percubaan pertumbuhan adalah 105 hari. Selepas menamatkan ujian pemberian,

Lemak intramuskular telah juga meningkat dengan peningkatan tahap makanan

chevon memberi faedah dalam meningkatkan kesihatan dan kesejahteraan dan

I express my eternal gratitude to Almighty Allah, who granted me the strength,

Ebrahimi of Physiology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, and Miss

My deep gratitude is extended to my husband, S.M. Jahangir Hossain for his

Abdul Razak Bin Alimon, PhD

Animal Production Research Division

Professor and Dean

2.7. Chemical composition of Moringa 6

2.7.2. Mineral composition of Moringa 7

2.9. Moringa use as a ruminant feed 11

2.11. Effect of feeding Moringa foliage on animal performance 12

2.14.1. pH and the quality of meat 14

4.2. Materials and Methods 38

4.2.2. Determination of total phenol, non tannin phenol, tannins and

4.2.6. Determination of fatty acid composition 42

4.3.1. Anti-nutritional compounds 43

4.4.1. Anti-nutritional compounds 45

5.3.8. Meat quality 71

5.3.10. Lipid peroxidation in LD and ST muscles 77

5.4.4. Carcass composition 80

5.4.7. Lipid peroxidation in muscle 85

6. GENERAL DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND

3.1 Monthly rainfall temperature and humidity in 2011 21

3.2 Experimental layout of the treatments 22

3.3 Harvesting schedule for the experiment at different cutting intervals 22

3.5 Chemical composition, calcium and phosphorus content of the 31

4.1 Total phenols, tannins, non-tannin phenols, condensed tannins, total 44

5.2 Chemical composition of five experimental diet mixtures (% in DM) 54

and concentrate mixture

5.4 Fatty acid profiles (% of total fatty acid) of experimental diets of 61

5.5 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on growth performances 62

5.6 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on intake of Bengal goats 63

5.7 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on digestibility (%) of 64

Bengal goats fed paddy straw based diet

5.8 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on nitrogen utilization (g 65

5.9 Carcass characteristics of Bengal goats fed different dietary 66

5.11 Effect of dietary treatments on non-carcass fats (%) of slaughter 68

5.13 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on proximate 70

5.14 Effect of dietary levels of moringa foliage on physico-chemical 73

5.15 Fatty acid composition of longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles of 75

3.1 Effect of cutting intervals on IVDMD and IVOMD of moringa 33

4.1 DPPH radical scavenging activity of moringa foliage at 44

5.2 Antioxidant activity in LD and ST muscles of goats under different 77

A.1 Preparation of solution for in vitro gas production 119

B.1 Proximate composition and metabolizable energy of feed 121

B.3 Fatty acid composition in longissimus lumborum (LD) muscles 122

C.2 Relationship between flavonoid and DPPH inhibition 126

C.3 Relationship of n: 6: n:3 ratio and PUFA:SFA among different 127

levels of moringa foliage in diet

C.4 Relationship of MDA production (mg kg–1 meat) of LD and ST 127