Best-Fit Topology Last

NEFAS SILK TVET COLLÈGE
HARD
WARE
ANET
WORK
ING
LEVEL
III
LEARNING GUIDE # 05
MODULE TITLE: Determining Best-Fit
Topology
MODULE CODE: ICT HNS3 02 1110
Nefas Silk INFORMATION UNIT Hardware & Networking Level III
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MODULE Determining Best-Fit Topology
SYMBOLS
These symbols are located at the left margin of the module. These illustrate the actions that should be
taken or resource to be used at a particular stage in the module.
LO Learning
Outcome Self-Check
Answer Key
Resources
Reading Assessment
Activity
Remember/Tips
Use Computer
Practice Task Safety
Best-Fit Topology version 1.0 Year 2012 prepared By: Mezgebe M. Page 10
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LO
 Identify key information sources
 Determine user needs
 Develop best topology
Chapter one
Introduction to Computer Networking

What is Networking?
Stand-alone personal computers, first introduced in 1970s, gave users the ability to
create documents, spreadsheets, and other types of data and save them for future
use. For a small business user or home computer, this was great. For large
companies and organizations, however, it was not enough. The larger the
company, the greater the need to share information between offices.
The stand-alone computer was not enough for the following reasons:
 Their small hard drive capacities were inefficient.

 To print, each computer required a printer attached locally.
 Sharing documents was cumbersome/burdensome. People grew tired of
having to save a diskette, then taking that diskette to the recipient.
 There was no e-mail. Instead, there was interoffice mail, which was not
reliable and frequently was not delivered in a timely manner.
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To address the above problems, Computer networking was born.
A computer network is a connection of two or more computers and other devices

that communicate to share data, hardware, and software.
Copying files onto floppy disks and giving them to others to copy onto their
computers was sometimes referred to as the "sneakernet” as illustrated in the figure
below. This early form of computer networking is one that many of us have used
and perhaps still use today.
Benefits (Advantages) of Network Computing

Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs. Computer networks achieve these
goals in the following primary ways:
1. Sharing Information (Or Data)-- like, Company Data Base
2. Sharing Hardware(Peripheral Devices) Printers, Faxes,
FDD,HDD,CD-ROM-DRIVE etc
3. Sharing Internet Connection /communication
e-mail, voice and video conferencing.
4. Sharing Programs/Software
Expensive Professional Software
5. Centralizing Administration And Support
i. Centralized Software Update: like Antivirus

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ii. Centralized Storage and Backup
iii. Centralized Processing and management of data, such as
Airline reservation.
The following figure illustrates the benefit of computer networking
Sharing Programs/Software
Application (software) sharing occurs when several users at different locations run
application programs that are installed centrally in one location (application
server). Software (applications) that are installed centrally can be managed and
upgraded centrally. Such systems are mostly common in financial system where
the main application is stored centrally and users in different sections of the
finance department are able to run the system from the network.
It is effective for several reasons
 Less disk storage space is required because the program is stored only once on the
server, instead of being stored on the hard disk s of multiple stand alone computers
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 When a new version of the software is released, it is easier to update on copy of the
program on the server than to update many copies stored on stand –alone
computer.
 Purchasing a software license for a network can be less expensive than purchasing
a single- user license for every workstation on the network
In short sharing programs on a network
 Saves disk space
 Reduces maintenance cost
 Reduce licensing cost
Sharing Hardware (Peripheral devices)
Computer networks enable us to share expensive hardware resource among several

computers. A typical example of shared resource is printer. For example, a
company may prefer to acquire one expensive printer and connect it to the network
to provide high quality printing to users. This avoids the need to have separate
printer for each computer in the office.
Central Disk storage – Network system provide the possibility of using a

dedicated file server to store all the company data in one location. Users will be
able to access their data over the network from their workstations. Using central
disk storage system facilitates data backup operations from a central location
guarantying complete data recovery in case of system failures.
Sharing Information/data
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 Sharing data – users in a certain network environment have the liberty of sharing
data and information across the network. Data sharing enables different users to
work on a certain file concurrently. Few examples of data sharing are:
o Database: - databases are often managed centrally and several users
can have access to the database at same time. For example, in a
networked banking system, different bank branches can have access to
the central account database. This enables bank clients to carry their
transactions on any branch bank office.
o Email: email communication can be achieved over the network
enabling networked users in the company to communicate messages
across the network using email.
Centralizing Administration And Support
The login (gain access to) Process:
Even if your computer is physically connected to a network, you cannot typically

use network resources until you log into the network. When you log in , you
formally identify yourself to the network by providing your ID and password.
Your user ID and password are the basis for your user account. A user account
provides access to network resources and accumulates information about your
network use by tracking when you log in and log out.
A network administrator/supervisor is the person who is responsible for setting up

user accounts and maintain a network. The network administrator provides each
new user with a user ID and starter password. In this way centralized
administration and support can be achieved.
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Note:Network administration tasks include:
 Managing users and security.

 Making resources available.
 Maintaining applications and data.
 Installing and upgrading application and operating system software.
Disadvantages of installing computer network
Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save money
over time, the initial costs of installation can be prohibitive. Cables,
network cards, and software are expensive, and the installation may
require the services of a technician.
Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network

requires considerable time and expertise. Many schools have
installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for the
necessary administrative support.
File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible

to failure than any other computer, when the files server "goes
down," the entire network may come to a halt. When this happens,
the entire organization may lose access to necessary programs and
files.
Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information

about the various configurations of cables. Some of the
configurations are designed to minimize the inconvenience of a
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broken cable; with other configurations, one broken cable can stop
the entire network.
Terminologies
 Stand-Alone Computer : A computer that is not connected to a network
• Peers are computers which use and provide network resources.
• Clients are computers that uses but do not provide network resources
• Serversare powerful computers that provide network resources

Note: The server has:-
• Powerful processors
• Large size memory (RAM)
• Hard disk with High storage capacity (RAID)
• More powerful network adapter/network interface card (NIC)
• Enhanced operating system
• Media—the communication channel (bounded or unbounded) that make the
physical connections.
• Network Resourcesany service or device, such as files, printers, or other
items, made available for use by members of the network.
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• Example: Shared data, Shared printers and other peripherals, &

shared applications
• Node: each device in the network
Network Types
Network can be grouped in two major categories depending on the geographical
scope they cover.
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN refers to networks that have small geographical coverage usually within a
building or a campus.
LANs are found in most organizations, businesses, government offices,
educational institutions, and in home computing environment.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Wide area networks are networks that cover very large geographical area such as a
country or the whole world. Typical WANs are the telephone networks operated
by most long distance telephone companies. Large companies having offices
scattered around the world use WAN to connect their computers. WAN usually
use combination of several types of communication media such as cables,
satellites, Microwaves, fiber-optics.
Because a WAN has no geographical limitations, it can connect computers and
other devices in separate cities or on opposite sides of the world. A multinational
corporation with linked computers in different countries is using a WAN. Probably
the ultimate WAN is the Internet.
Examples of WAN:
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 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): a network that transmits data and

information over citywide distance and at a greater speed than LAN.
 Internet It is a global collection of networks, both big and small. It is a

giant network.
 Intranet: Intranets are similar to World Wide Web (WWW) where

centrally stored hypertext documents can be accessed using the web. Unlike
the WWW, intranets are available only to user with in the company network
system. Intranet is a very common service in large networked
organizations.
 Extranet: Although similar to intranet, extranet provides selected users from
outside the organization to access data from the internal network. Extranets
are commonly used by suppliers to provide data to company clients.
Network Hardware Components
Cabling system and Connectors
COPPER MEDIA
Twisted-Pair Cable
In its simplest form, twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper
wire twisted around each other.
There are two type of twisted pair cable:
 Unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP cables)
 shielded twisted-pair cables (STP cables)
A number of twisted-pair wires are often grouped together and enclosed in a
protective sheath to form a cable. The total number of pairs in a cable varies.
The twisting cancels out electrical noise from adjacent pairs and from other
external sources such as motors, relays, and transformers.
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Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

UTP, using the 10BaseT specification, is the most popular type of twisted-pair
cable and is fast becoming the most popular LAN cabling. The maximum cable
length segment is 100 meters, about 328 feet.
Traditional UTP cable consists of two insulated copper wires. UTP specifications
govern how many twists are permitted per foot of cable; the number of twists
allowed depends on the purpose to which the cable will be put.
UTP cable
There are 7 standards categories of UTP:

• Category 1
• Consists of two twisted pairs of copper wire

• Voice-grade cable
• Traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry voice but not data transmissions
• Category 2
• Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire with three twists per foot .
• Certifies UTP for data transmissions
• Bandwidth = 4 MBPS
• Category 3
• Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.

• Certifies UTP cable for data transmissions
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• Category 4

• Category 5

• Category 5e
• Improved version of category 5

• Category 6
• Similar to CAT 5e.

• Contains a physical separator between the 4 pairs to reduce electromagnetic interference
One potential problem with all types of cabling is crosstalk. The figure below
shows crosstalk between two UTP cables. Crosstalk is defined the situation in
which, signals from one line interfering with signals from another line. UTP is
particularly susceptible to crosstalk, but the greater the number of twists per foot of
cable, the more effective the protection against crosstalk.
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Crosstalk occurs when signals from one line bleed into another line
Twisted-Pair Cabling Components

While we have defined twisted-pair cabling by the number of twists and its ability
to transmit data, additional components are necessary to complete an installation.
As it is with telephone cabling, a twisted-pair cable network requires connectors
and other hardware to ensure proper installation.
Connection hardware Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone connectors to
connect to a computer. These are similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors. An RJ-45
connector is shown in the figure below. Although RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors
look alike at first glance, there are crucial differences between them.
The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger and will not fit into the RJ-11 telephone
jack. The RJ-45 connector houses eight cable connections, while the RJ-11 houses
only four.
RJ-45 connector and jack
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Several components are available to help organize large UTP installations and
make them easier to work with. The figure below shows various twisted-pair
cabling components.
Distribution racks and rack shelves Distribution racks and rack shelves can
create more room for cables where there isn't much floor space. Using them is
a good way to organize a network that has a lot of connections.
Expandable patch panelsThese come in various versions that support up to 96
ports and transmission speeds of up to 100 Mbps.
RJ-45 jackssingle or double connector snap into patch panels and wall plates
Wall plates these support two or more RJ-45 jack
Various twisted-pair cabling components

Twisted-Pair advantages/disadvantages
Pros/Advantage
o It has a large installed base and is a familiar technology. (i.e.
most buildings are already wired with UTP)à hence it is
available in the market
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o It is relatively inexpensive and easy to install.

o It does not require grounding/bonding (process of binding
things together)à no ground fault
Cons/Disadvantage
 High-quality UTP systems require specialized installation
procedures.
 More susceptible to EMI, RFI, crosstalk and attenuation than other
media (i.e. Data transmission length is limited to 100m max.
 Not recommended for LAN that requires a high level of security
because it can be tapped
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable
STP cable uses a woven/wounded copper/aluminum-braid jacket that is more
protective and of a higher quality than the jacket used by UTP. STP also uses a
foil (very thin sheet of metal) wrap around each of the wire pairs. This gives STP
excellent shielding to protect the transmitted data from outside interference, which
in turn allows it to support higher transmission rates over longer distances than
UTP.
Pros/Advantage
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 Provides better performance than UTP in environments with high noise levels
of unwanted electrical signals.
 Provides higher transmission rate than UTP
Cons/Disadvantage
 It is more labor-intensive than UTP to install.
 More expensive than UTP
 Susceptible to ground faults through the shield.
Coaxial Cable
In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by
insulation, a braided metal shielding, and an outer cover. The term shielding refers
to the woven or stranded metal mesh (or other material) that surrounds some
types of cabling. Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray electronic
signals, called noise, so that they do not get onto the cable and distort the data.
Cable that contains one layer of foil insulation and one layer of braided metal
shielding is referred to as dual shielded. For environments that are subject to
higher interference, quad shielding is available. Quad shielding consists of two
layers of foil insulation and two layers of braided metal shielding.
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Coaxial cable showing various layers

The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data.
This wire core can be either solid or stranded. If the core is solid, it is usually
copper.
Surrounding the core is a dielectric insulating layer that separates it from the wire
mesh. The braided wire mesh acts as a ground and protects the core from
electrical noise and crosstalk.
The conducting core and the wire mesh must always be kept separate from each
other. If they touch, the cable will experience a short, and noise or stray signals on
the mesh will flow onto the copper wire. An electrical short occurs when any two
conducting wires or a conducting wire and a ground come into contact with each
other. This contact causes a direct flow of current (or data) in an unintended path.
In the case of household electrical wiring, a short will cause sparking and the
blowing of a fuse or circuit breaker. With electronic devices that use low voltages,
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the result is not as dramatic and is often undetectable. These low-voltage shorts
generally cause the failure of a device; and the short, in turn, destroys the data.
A nonconducting outer shield—usually made of rubber, Teflon, or plastic—
surrounds the entire cable.
Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted-pair
cabling. Notice that attenuation is the loss of signal strength that begins to occur
as the signal travels farther along a copper cable.
The stranded, protective sleeve absorbs stray electronic signals so that they do not
affect data being sent over the inner copper cable. For this reason, coaxial cabling
is a good choice for longer distances and for reliably supporting higher data rates
with less sophisticated equipment.
Types of Coaxial Cable

There are two types of coaxial cable:
 Thin (thinnet) cable
 Thick (thicknet) cable
Which type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of your particular
network.
Thinnet CableThinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters
(0.25 inches) thick. Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work
with, it can be used in almost any type of network installation.
Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately 185
meters (about 607 feet) before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation.
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Thicknet CableThicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27

centimeters (0.5 inches) in diameter. The figure below shows the difference
between thinnet and thicknet cable. Thicknet cable is sometimes referred to as
Standard Ethernet because it was the first type of cable used with the popular
network architecture Ethernet. Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a
thinnet cable core.
Thicknet cable has a thicker core than thinnet cable
The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means that
thicknet can carry signals farther than thinnet cable. Thicknet cable can carry a
signal for 500 meters (about 1640 feet). Therefore, because of thicknet's ability to
support data transfer over longer distances, it is sometimes used as a backbone to
connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.
Thinnet vs. Thicknet Cable As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more
difficult it is to work with. Thin cable is flexible, easy to install, and relatively
inexpensive. Thick cable does not bend easily and is, therefore, harder to install.
This is a consideration when an installation calls for pulling cable through tight
spaces such as conduits and troughs. Thick cable is more expensive than thin cable,
but will carry a signal farther.
Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware
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Both thinnet and thicknet cable use a connection component, known as a BNC
connector, to make the connections between the cable and the computers. There
are several important components in the BNC family, including the following:
 The BNC cable connector: The Figure below shows a BNC cable
connector. The BNC cable connector is either soldered or crimped to the end of a
cable.
BNC cable connector
 The BNCT connectorthe figure below shows a BNCT connector. This connector
joins the network interface card (NIC) in the computer to the network cable.
BNCT connector
 The BNC barrel connector .The figure below shows a BNC barrel
connector. This connector is used to join two lengths of thinnet cable to make one
longer length.
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BNC barrel connector
 The BNC terminator: TheFigure below shows a BNC terminator.
A BNC terminator closes each end of the bus cable to absorb stray
signals. Otherwise, the signal will bounce and all network activity will
stop.
BNC terminator
NOTE
The origin of the acronym "BNC" is unclear, and there have been many names
ascribed to these letters, from "British Naval Connector" to "Bayonet Neill-
Councelman." Because there is no consensus on the proper name and because the
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technology industry universally refers to these simply as BNC-type connectors, in
this text we will refer to this family of hardware simply as BNC.
Coax advantages
• It is less susceptible to interference than UTP (has noise-rejection
characteristics )
• Better bandwidth
• Transmit data for greater distances
• Relatively inexpensive
• Transmit voice, video, and data
Coax disadvantages
• Due to its high metallic content, coax cable is usually more expensive
than UTP
• Coaxial cable is more expensive to install than UTP
• requires grounding/bonding (i.e. poor shield connection creates big
problem)
Optical Media
Fiber-Optic Cable
 Optical fiber cable contains glass (or in some cases, plastic) fibers rather than
copper wire.
 Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form of light pulses rather
than electrical pulses.
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 Optical fiber strands are thin filaments of glass consisting of an inner core and
an outer cladding.
 Both the core and the cladding are glass (plastic), and each has a different
refractive index (light passing capability) less dense medium has more
refractive index than more dense medium
 When these light pulses strike the cladding (dense medium) they are reflected
back into the core because the cladding has a lower refractive index than the
core. This keeps the transmitted signal within the core as it travels down the
fiber.
The diameter of the core varies with the type of optical fiber. Single-mode optical
fiber has a core diameter of approximately 8.5 µm while the most commonly used
type of multimode optical fiber has a core diameter of 62.5 µm. The cladding
diameter for both is 125 µm.
The symbol µm represents a unit of length known as a micron or micrometer. It is

equal to one-millionth of a meter (0.000001 meter).
The potential bandwidth, or information-transmission capacity, of optical fiber is
greater than that of twisted-pair or coax cable. For this and other reasons, the
use of optical fiber has continued to grow in LAN implementations.
Optical fiber advantages
 Optical signals through glass encounter less loss than electrical signals
through copper. This translates into lower attenuation and higher bandwidth
than copper, allowing transmission to occur over longer distances and/or at
greater speeds.
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 High level of immunity to EMI/RFI since signals are sent as light and not as
electricity.
 Smaller size & weight

Optical fiber disadvantage
 Due to the required conversions between light and electricity, more
expensive electronics are required than with copper-based systems.
 Requires specialized installation procedures.

 Expensive
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Fiber optic cable (outdoor)
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Fiber optic cable (Indoor)
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Single-mode versus multimode fiber
Fiber Optic Cable Connectors

Fiber optic cables are most susceptible to signal dispersion at its connectors. Fiber
optic cable uses different types of connectors. The most popular fiber optic connector
currently in use are:-
Straight Tip (ST) connector:- It is a connector that uses a mechanism similar to
the BNC connectors used by thinnet. The most popular
Subscriber connector (SC):-are square shaped and have release mechanisms to
prevent the cable from accidentally being unplugged
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Note: we use Fusion Splicer shown in the figure below to connect fiber optic
cable to the network hardware
Selecting Cabling
To determine which cabling is the best for a particular site you need to answer the
following questions:
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 How heavy will the network traffic be?
 What level of security does the network require?
 What distances must the cable cover?
 What are the cable options?
 What is the budget for cabling?
The better the cable protects against internal and external electrical noise, the
farther and faster the cable will carry a clear signal. However, the better the speed,
clarity, and security of the cable, the higher the cabling cost.
Cabling Considerations
As with most network components, there are trade-offs with the type of cable you
purchase. If you work for a large organization and choose the least expensive
cable, the accountants might initially be pleased, but you might soon notice that the
LAN is inadequate in both transmission speed and data security.
Which cabling you select will depend on the needs of a particular site. The cabling
you purchase to set up a LAN for a small business has different requirements from
those of a larger organization, such as a major banking institution.
Installation Logistics
How easy is the cable to install and work with? In a small installation where
distances are short and security isn't a major issue, it does not make sense to
choose thick, cumbersome, and expensive cable.
Shielding
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The level of shielding required will affect cable cost. Almost every network uses
some form of shielded cable. The noisier the area in which the cable is run, the
more shielding will be required.
Crosstalk
Crosstalk and noise can cause serious problems in large networks where data
integrity is crucial. Inexpensive cabling has low resistance to outside electrical
fields generated by power lines, motors, relays, and radio transmitters. This makes
it susceptible to both noise and crosstalk.
Transmission Rates
Transmission rates are measured in megabits per second. A standard reference
point for current LAN transmission over copper cable is 100 Mbps. Fiber-optic
cable transmits at more than 1 Gbps.
Cost
Higher grades of cables can carry data securely over long distances, but they are
relatively expensive; lower-grade cables, which provide less data security over
shorter distances, are relatively inexpensive.
Signal Attenuation
Different cable types have different rates of attenuation; therefore, cable
specifications recommend specific length limits for the different types. If a signal
suffers too much attenuation, the receiving computer will be unable to interpret it.
Most networks have error-checking systems that will generate a retransmission if
the signal is too weak to be understood. However, retransmission takes time and
slows down the network.
Table Cable Comparison Summary
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Characteristi Thinnet Thicknet Twisted-pair Fiber-optic
cs coaxial coaxial (10BaseT) Cable
(10Base2) (10Base5) Cable1
Cable Cable
Cable cost More than UTP More than UTP: Least More than
thinnet expensive thinnet, but
STP: More less than
than thinnet thicknet
Usable cable 185 meters 500 meters UTP and STP: 2 kilometers
length2 (about 607 (about 1640 100 meters (6562 feet)
feet) feet) (about 328
feet)
Transmission 4-100 Mbps 4-100 Mbps UTP: 4-100 100 Mbps or
rates Mbps more ( > 1Gbps)
STP: 16-500
Mbps
Flexibility Fairly flexible Less flexible UTP: Most Less flexible
than thinnet flexible than thicknet
STP: Less
flexible than
UTP
Ease of Easy to install Moderately UTP: Very Difficult to
installation easy to install easy; often install
preinstalled
STP:
Moderately
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easy
Susceptibility Good Good UTP: Very Not
to resistance to resistance to susceptible susceptible to
interference interference interference STP: Good interference
resistance
Special Electronic Electronic UTP: Same as Supports
features support support telephone voice, data,
components components wire; often and video
are less are less preinstalled in
expensive than expensive than buildings
twisted-pair twisted-pair STP: Supports
cable cable higher
transmission
rates than
UTP
Preferred Medium to Linking thinnet UTP: smaller Any size
uses large sites networks sites on installation
with high budget. STP: requiring
security needs Token Ring in speed and high
any size data security
and integrity
Characteristi Thinnet Thicknet Twisted-pair Fiber-optic
cs coaxial coaxial (10BaseT) Cable
(10Base2) (10Base5) Cable1
Cable Cable
1
This column provides information for both unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) and
twisted-pair (STP) cable.
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2
Usable cable length can vary with specific network installations. As technology
improves, usable cable length also increases.
Media converters
Media converters interconnect different cable types—twisted pair,
fiber, and Thin or thick coax—within an existing network.
Some examples of media converters
Fiber to UTP conversion
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Co-ax cable to AUI/transceiver cable & UTP cable to
AUI/transceiver cable
The physical appearance of the above devices is given below
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Fundamentals of Communication Signals

The information carrying signals are divided into two broad classes;
1. Analog
2. Digital
Analog Signals
Analog signals are continuous electrical signals that vary in time as
shown in figure below.
Digital Signals
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Digital signals are non-continuous, they change in individual steps. They
consist of pulses or digits with discrete levels or values. Digital signals
can be modeled/represented by binary number system.
1. Analog signal
Analog signal is a continuous time signal and they are characterized by
their wave length, amplitude and frequency.
Amplitude: the maximum value
Wavelength: the distance between two consecutive peak values

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Frequency is the number of times per second that the wave cycle repeats or
oscillates. Shorter wave length produce higher frequencies b/c the waves are
closer together
The unit used to measure the frequency is Hertz which means cycles/second. The
unit can be expanded by adding prefixes as follows.
• Kilo (K) = 103 = 1 Thousand
• Mega (M) = 106 =1 Million
• Giga (G) = 109 = 1 Billion
• Tera (T) = 1012 = 1 Trillion
• Peta (P) = 1015 = 1 Quadrillion
• Exa (p) = 1018 = 1 Quintillion
1 kilohertz = 1000 Cycles/second
1 Megahertz = 1000,000 Cycles/second
1Gigahertz = 1000,000,000 Cycles/second
1 Terahertz = 1000,000,000,000 Cycles/second etc.
In analog communication, Bandwidth is the width of the range (or band)
of frequencies that an electronic signal uses on a given transmission
medium. In this usage, bandwidth is expressed in terms of the
difference between the highest-frequency signal component and the
lowest-frequency signal component. Since the frequency of a signal is
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measured in hertz , a given bandwidth is the difference in hertz between
the highest frequency the signal uses and the lowest frequency it uses.
Note. The bandwidth of analog COMCHA is measured in Hertz.
The channel that carries/transmit analog signal is called Analog COMCHA
2. Digital signal
A signal which is discrete with respect to time is called digital signal. Such signal
can be modeled using binary number system as shown in the figure below.
In digital communication, bandwidth is often used as a synonym for
data transfer rate - the amount of data that can be carried from one
point to another in a given time period (usually a second). This kind of
bandwidth is usually expressed in bits (of data) per second (bps).
Occasionally, it's expressed as bytes per second (Bps).
Note: The bandwidth of digital signals is usually measured in bits per second (BPS).
The unit can be expanded by adding prefixes as follows.
1 Kilo = 1000 approximately
1 Kilo= 1024= 210 Exactly
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1kiloBPS = 1 KBPS =1000 BPS
1 MegaBPS = 1 MBPS=1000,000 BPS
1GigaBPS = 1 GBPS=1000,000,000 BPS
1 TeraBPS= 1TBPS=1000,000,000,000 BPS etc
The channel that carries/transmit digital signal is called Digital COMCHA
Bit and Baud rate
A character is represented by 8 bits. When a character is sent to the
communication channel by the transmitter, additional bits are added to
it like start and stop bits as shown in the figure below.
Baud rate total number of bits per second, regardless of the
information content of the signal.
Bit rate is the number of information bits per second.
Sometimes the channel efficiency = bit rate/baud rate
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you can calculate the maximum transmission rate, in characters per
second, for a given communication setting. This rate is just the baud
rate divided by the bits per frame. In the case above, we have a total
of eleven bits per character frame. If the transmission rate is set at
9600 baud, then we get 9600/11 = 872 characters per second.
If you want to squeeze more characters per second into your
transmission, then get rid of the parity bit and reduce the stop bits to
one. The character frame then has (assuming seven data bits) a total
of only nine bits. If you are still transmitting at 9600 baud, then you
will be able to send 9600/9 = 1066 characters per second.
Fundamentals of Signal/data transmission

Data signals can be sent over a network cable in one of two ways:
broadband or baseband
In general, broadband (or wideband) refers to telecommunication
in which a wide band of frequencies is available to transmit
information. Because a wide band of frequencies is available,
information can be sent on many different frequencies or
channels within the band concurrently (at the same time),
allowing more information to be transmitted in a given amount of
time. Whereas, baseband signaling only sends a single signal over the
cable
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BASE BAND TRANSMISSION
• Signal travels over short distances

• This technique allocates the entire bandwidth to a single channel.
• It is best suited for LAN.
• Only supports digital signaling but can do so at very high speeds.
BROADBAND TRANSMISSION
• It divides the available bandwidth into multiple channels.
• Since there are many channels available for transmission, more than one
device can transmit at a time; therefore, simultaneous transmissions can
occur without collisions.
• Broadband transmission can transfer large quantities of
information at a time.
• It is not limited to handling only digital transmission but also can
support analog traffic, making it capable of handling traditional
voice and video signals simultaneously with data.
• Broadband transmission was designed for signaling over long
distances, with channel lengths measured in kilometers or miles
hence it is best suited for WAN
A network using this technology can cover a much larger geographic

area than one using baseband LAN technology.
Standard Ethernet Wiring Scheme

1. CRIMPING (Terminating Twisted Pair Cables)
Types of CRIMPING
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There are two types of crimping:-

1. Straight-through cables(||)
2. Crossover cables (X)
3. Rolled Cable (P)
1. Crimping for creating Straight-through cables (||)
Use straight-through cables for the following
To connect:-
 Router to hub
 Router to switch
 Switch to PC or server
 Hub to PC or server
 Network printer to hub or switch
Crimping Standards
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Example: T568B
Steps
You must strip the jacket 3 to 5 cm using striper
• There are orange, green, blue, and brown pairs. Each pair has one wire
with solid-color insulation and one wire that is white with bands of the
pair’s color
• Arrange the wires in their correct order, as per the standard given
above
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• Cut the wires straight across so that no more than 1.25 cm (a half inch)
of wires are exposed from the jacket. This controls terminal cross-talk
interference
• Be sure to cut straight across or the wires will not all reach the pins
when you push them into the connector
• Hold the RJ-45 connector away from you (with the hole in the back
toward you) and the spring clip down
• Insert your wires into the connector, white-orange on left
• Push the wires all the way to the end
Side view of RJ-45 connector

• Press down to make a good connection. If you press too lightly, the
connection will not work
• Crimping forces the pins on the front of the RJ-45 connector though the
insulation, into each wire. This is called Insulation displacement
connection (IDC)
• This also crimps the cord at the back end of the connector for strain
relief to keep the cord from pulling out if the cord is pulled.
• After you have connected both ends, test your cord. Misconnection is
very common, so every cord must be checked using network cable
tester.
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Network cable tester

Note
• Pin 1 & Pin 2 are transmit
• Pin 3 & Pin 6 are receive
2. crimping for creating Crossover cables (X)
Use crossover cable for the following

• Switch to switch
• Switch to hub
• Hub to hub
• Router to router
• PC to PC
• Router to PC
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Or
Example: T568B
3. Crimping for creating Rolled Cable (P)

Although rolled cable isn’t used to connect any Ethernet connections together,
you can use a rolled Ethernet cable to connect a computer to a router for
configuration.
Instruments required for crimping are the following

1. RJ-45/11 Crimpier
2. Punch Down Tool
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Punch Down Tool is used for Connecting on RJ-45 Jack using one of the two
standards
Important!! (Avoid bad crimping)
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2. Cable ducting/ trunking

• Cable Trunk/duct/Raceway is used for wire/cable enclosure applications in
commercial, industrial and residential LAN environments. Cable
ducts/raceways includes a full complement of accessories, such as pre-applied
adhesive backing, fittings, and joints, so your wire management systems can be
100% customized.
• Standard products
3.5. 3 TERMINATING CO-AX CABLE

The BNC cable connector is either soldered or crimped to the end of a cable.
Basic tools required for terminating coaxial cable.
1. Crimp tool
2. Sheath striper
3. Pair of snips
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Step 1 Remove the sheath/outer insulator
Step 2 Remove the inner insulator
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Step 3 Slide the female connector on to the cable
Step 4 Crimp the connector
Note:
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Network Interface Card (NIC)
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Network interface cards (NICs) provide the interface between cables, and
computers.
The cards are installed in an expansion slot in each computer and server on the
network.
After the NIC has been installed, the network cable is attached to the card's port
to make the actual physical connection between the computer and the rest of the
network.
A sample NIC
The role of the NIC is to:
 Prepare data from the computer for the network cable.
 Send the data to another computer.
 Control the flow of data between the computer and the cabling system.
 Receive incoming data from the cable and translate it into bytes that can be
understood by the computer's central processing unit (CPU).
Stated at a more technical level, the NIC contains the hardware and firmware
(software routines stored in read-only memory, ROM) programming that
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implements the Logical Link Control and Media Access Control functions in
the data-link layer of the OSI reference model(OSI reference model will be
discussed in chapter 5).
Preparing the Data
Before data can be sent over the network, the NIC must change it from a form the
computer can understand to a form that can travel over a network cable.
Data moves through a computer along paths called buses. These are actually
several data paths placed side by side. Because the paths are side by side
(parallel), data can move along them in lateral groups instead of in a single (serial)
data stream.
On the network cable, however, data must travel in a single stream of bits. When
data travels on a network cable it is said to be traveling as a serial transmission
because one bit follows another. In other words, the cable is a one-lane highway,
and the data always travels in one direction. The computer is either sending or
receiving data, but never both at the same time.
The NIC takes data that is traveling in parallel as a group and restructures it so
that it will flow through the 1-bit-serial path of the network cable. Figure 2 shows
a server converting parallel data to serial data on the network. This is
accomplished through the translation of the computer's digital signals into
electrical or optical signals that can travel on the network's cables. The component
responsible for this is the transceiver (transmitter/receiver).
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Parallel data stream converted to a serial data stream
Network Address
In addition to transforming data, the NIC also has to advertise its own location, or
address, to the rest of the network to distinguish it from all the other cards on
the network.
A committee of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
assigns blocks of addresses to each NIC manufacturer. The manufacturers
hardwire these addresses into chips on the card by a process known as "burning"
the address into the card. With this process, each NIC—and therefore each
computer—has a unique address on a network.
The NIC also participates in several other functions in sequence as it takes data
from the computer and gets it ready for the network cable:
The computer and NIC must communicate in order to move data from the computer
to the card.
The NIC signals the computer, requesting the computer's data.
The computer's bus moves the data from the computer's memory to the NIC.
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Because data can often move faster on the bus or the cable than the NIC can
handle, the data is sent to the card's buffer, a reserved portion of RAM. Here it
is held temporarily during both the transmission and reception of data.
Network Cabling and Connectors
The network interface card performs three important functions in coordinating
activities between the computer and the cabling:
 It makes the physical connection to the cable.
 Generates the electrical signals that travel over the cable.
 Controls access to the cable by following specific rules.
To select the appropriate NIC for your network, you first need to determine the
type of cabling and cabling connectors it will have.
As discussed in the previous lesson, each type of cable has different physical
characteristics that the NIC must accommodate. Each card is built to accept at
least one type of cable. Coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic are the most common
cable types.
Some NICs have more than one interface connector. For example, it is not
uncommon for a NIC to have a thinnet, thicknet, and twisted-pair connector.
A thicknet network connection uses a 15-pin attachment unit interface (AUI) cable
to connect the 15-pin (DB-15 ,DB stands for data bus) connector on the back of
the NIC to an external transceiver. As discussed earlier in Lesson 1, the external
transceiver uses a vampire tap to connect to the thicknet cable. Figure 3 shows a
15-pin AUI connection. A thicknet network connection uses a 15-pin attachment
unit interface (AUI) cable to connect the 15-pin (DB-15) connector on the back of
the NIC to an external transceiver
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Thicknet network connection for a 15-pin AUI

Specialized NICs
So far, this lesson has focused on standard network interface cards. In the
majority of situations, you will be using one of these cards to connect each
computer to the physical network. In reality, some situations will require the use of
specialized network connections and therefore require specialized network cards.
The remainder of this lesson introduces you to three varieties of these specialized
cards.
Wireless NICs
Some environments require an alternative to cabled computer networking.

Wireless NICs are available that support the major network operating systems.
Wireless NICs often come with many features. These include:
 Indoor omnidirectional antenna and antenna cable.
 Network software to make the NIC work with a particular
network.
 Diagnostic software for troubleshooting.
 Installation software.
These NICs can be used to create an all-wireless LAN or to add wireless stations to
a cabled LAN.
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Usually, these NICs are used to communicate with a component called a wireless
concentrator that acts as a transceiver to send and receive signals.
External USB wireless NIC
Fiber-Optic NICs
"Fiber to the desktop" has become a catch phrase for the computing industry. As
transmission speeds increase to accommodate the bandwidth-hungry applications
and multimedia data streams that are common on today's intranets, fiber-optic
network cards allow direct connections to high-speed fiber-optic networks. These
cards have recently become cost-competitive, and it's expected that their use will
someday be commonplace.
Remote-Boot PROMs
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In some environments, security is such an important consideration that
workstations do not have individual floppy-disk drives. Without these, users are
not able to copy information to floppy or hard disks and, therefore, cannot take
any data from the worksite.
However, because computers normally start from either a floppy or a hard disk,
there has to be another source for the software that initially starts (boots) the
computer and connects it to a network. In these environments, the NIC can be
equipped with a special chip called a remote-boot PROM (programmable read-only
memory) that contains the hardwired code that starts the computer from the
server and connects the user to the network.
With remote-boot PROMs, diskless workstations can join the network when
they start.
PCMCIANIC
PC Memory card international Association (PCMCIA) is a nonprofit association
formed in 1989, with more than 320 members in the computer and electronic
industries , that developed a standard for credit card-sized plug-in adapters
designed for portable computers as shown in the following figure.
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Server
Servers are usually very powerful computers both in processing power and in their
storage capacity. Different dedicated servers can be configured depending on the
need of the organizations, such as:
Types of server
 File servers – servers that provide centralized data storage which will be shared
among the LAN users.
 Print server – servers that control one or more printers and provide print
service to LAN users.
 Database server – servers that centrally store database and provide data to
client application in the LAN.
 Web server – servers that store web pages that will be viewed using browsers
in the network.
 Email server – servers that are used to manage and control email
communications across the network.
Workstation
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A workstation is a high-end microcomputer designed for technical or scientific applications.

Intended primarily to be used by one person at a time, they are commonly connected to a local
area network and run multi-user operating systems. The term workstation has also been used to
refer to a mainframe computer terminal or a PC connected to a network.
Network Software Component
Network Operating System (NOS)
The core of a network is the network operating system. Just as a

computer cannot operate without an operating system, a network
of computers cannot operate without a network operating
system. Every network operating system provides basic services
to the computers on its network. These services include:
 Coordinating the activities of the various devices on the

network to ensure that communication takes place as and
when required.
 Providing clients with access to network resources, including

files and such peripheral devices as printers and fax
machines.
 Ensuring the security of data and devices on the network

through centralized administration tools.
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A network operating system must support mechanisms that

enable applications to communicate with one another: for
example, applications that enable multiple computers to work
jointly on a single task, such as a mathematical calculation. A
network operating system must also support multiple processors,
clusters of disk drives, and data security features. Finally, a
network operating system must be reliable and be able to recover
quickly from errors.
Depending upon the network operating system's manufacturer, a desktop computer's

networking software can be added either to the computer's own operating system or be
integrated with it. Network operating system software is integrated into a number of
popular operating systems, including Microsoft Windows
In short the NOS loaded on server has the following functions?

 NOS manages network resources
 Controls the flow of data
 Maintain security
 Tracks user accounts
 NOS enables clients to access remote drives as if they were on the clients
own machine
 Allow servers to process requests from clients and decide whether that client
can use a particular resource
Examples of NOS:-
 Novel Netware,
 Windows NT server
 Windows 2000/2k server
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 Windows 2000/2k advanced server

 UNIX
Note: Part of the NOS must run from the client, and part of it must run from the
server
 IN peer-to-peer NOS each client can act as both the server and client
 All NOSs can exist within a network and they can operate with one another
this feature is called Interoperability
Interoperability makes it easier for corporations/business/company with different
client and server to create a network even though the client and the servers all use
different operating systems.
Desktop operating system listed below include the software necessary to establish
communication with a network server. The network software thatis built into your
computer operating system handles the communication between your workstation
and the network server
 Windows 95
 Windows 98/ first edition / second edition
 Windows NT workstation
 Windows Millennium (me)
 Windows 2000 professional
 Windows XP professional
 Windows XP Home
NOS has two components
 Network server software
 Network client software
In most cases, software must be installed on the server and client for
interoperability.
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Network server software
 Installed on a file server

 Controls file access from the server hard disk
 Manages the print queue
 Tracks user id and password
Network client software

 Installed on the local hard disk of each workstation
 Gathers your login information
 Handles drive mapping
 And directs printout to the network printer
the server and client software components do not necessarily have to match
the network client software that is provided as part of windows 95, 98, NT
workstation, and 2000 professional allows you to access servers running a variety
of software including Linux, UNIX and NOvel Netware , windows NT server and
windows 2000 server.
Note: many desktop operating systems have some server capabilities. You could
for example set up a small network by installing windows 98 on server and
Windows 95, 98, NT workstation, or 2000 professional on the workstations
It is important to remember that, your windows desktop operating system provides
you with client software that is compatible with most of the popular network server
software.
Network Access Method (Media Access)
LAN Architecture
1. What is LAN architecture?
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2. Access methods
– CSMA/CD
– CSMA/CA
– TOKEN PASSING
– DEMAND PRIORITY
3 Transmission technique
7.1. What is network architecture?
If asked to define the word architecture, one may answer that it is the design and related
information needed to construct something. Just as the architecture of a building determines its
appearance and function, LAN architecture defines the appearance and influences the function of
the LAN.
The appearance of the LAN is primarily determined by its transmission channel infrastructure—
normally, this is its cabling system. The function of a LAN is influenced by the manner in which
the devices on the LAN communicate with each other.
The word architecture groups together the fundamental technical ingredients that, combined
together, make a LAN.
Five components are used to define the architecture of a LAN. They are as follows:
 Transmission medium
This defines what is used to connect the devices on the LAN.
 Topology
This defines how the transmission medium is used to connect the devices on the LAN.
 Access method
This is the way in which a station on the LAN obtains the opportunity to send or receive signals
over the transmission medium.
 Transmission technique
This is the manner by which the signals or messages sent by a station travel through the
transmission medium.
 Transmission speed
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This is the rate at which the signals or messages are able to travel through the transmission
medium.
Note: In this CHAPTER access method and transmission technique will be discussed. The others
are already discussed in CHAPTER 1 and 2.
Ethernet
The original Ethernet standard was developed in 1983 and had a maximum speed of 10 Mbps
(phenomenal at the time) over coaxial cable. The Ethernet protocol allows for bus, star, or tree
topologies, depending on the type of cables used and other factors. This heavy coaxial cabling
was expensive to purchase, install, and maintain, and very difficult to retrofit into existing
facilities.
The current standards are now built around the use of twisted pair wire. Common twisted pair
standards are 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT. The number (10, 100, 1000) ands for the
speed of transmission (10/100/1000 megabits per second); the "Base" stands for "baseband"
meaning it has full control of the wire on a single frequency; and the "T" stands for "twisted
pair" cable. Fiber cable can also be used at this level in 10BaseFL.
Fast Ethernet
The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet requires the use
of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network interface cards. In
addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet standards
include:
100BaseT - 100 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.
100BaseFX - 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
100BaseSX -100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
100BaseBX - 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
Gigabit Ethernet
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Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). It
can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. (see the Cabling section for more
information).
1000BaseT - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.
1000BaseTX - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 6 or better UTP cable.
1000BaseFX - 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
1000BaseSX -1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
1000BaseBX - 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.
The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) and 100
Gigabit Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),
Ethernet Protocol Summary
Protocol Cable Speed
Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 1000 Mbps
7.2 Access Methods

The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network cable and takes data
from the cable is called an access method. Once data is moving on the network, access methods
help to regulate the flow of network traffic.
Traffic Control on the Cable
To understand traffic on a computer network, it helps to use an analogy. A network is in some
ways like a railroad track, along which several trains run. When a train is on the track, all other
trains must abide by a procedure that governs how and when they enter the flow of traffic.
Without such a procedure, entering trains would collide with the one already on the track.
Multiple computers must share access to the cable that connects them. However, if two
computers were to put data onto the cable at the same time, the data packets from one computer
would collide with the packets from the other computer, and both sets of data packets would be
destroyed. Figure 1 show what happens when two computers try to access the network at the
same time.
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Figure 1Collision occurs if two computers put data on the cable at the same time
If data is to be sent over the network from one user to another, or accessed from a server, there
must be some way for the data to access the cable without running into other data. And the
receiving computer must have reasonable assurance that the data has not been destroyed in a data
collision during transmission.
Access methods need to be consistent in the way they handle data. If different computers were to
use different access methods, the network would fail because some methods would dominate the
cable.
Access methods prevent computers from gaining simultaneous access to the cable. By making
sure that only one computer at a time can put data on the network cable, access methods ensure
that the sending and receiving of network data is an orderly process.
The four Major Access Methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the network media
include:
 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access Methods (With Collision Detection) –CSMA/CD
 Carrier-Sense Multiple Access Methods ( With Collision Avoidance)-CSMA/CA
 Token-Passing Methods That Allow Only a Single OpportunityTo Send Data.
 Demand-Priority Methods.
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Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision

Detection (CSMA/CD) Access method
Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision
detection(CSMA/CD), each computer on the network, including clients and servers,
checks the cable for network traffic. Figure 2 illustrates when a computer can and
cannot transmit data.
Figure 2Computers can transmit data only if the cable is free
Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can
it send data. Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can transmit
data until the original data has reached its destination and the cable is free again. Remember, if
two or more computers happen to send data at exactly the same time, there will be a data
collision. When that happens, the two computers involved stop transmitting for a random period
of time and then attempt to retransmit. Each computer determines its own waiting period; this
reduces the chance that the computers will once again transmit simultaneously.
With these points in mind, the name of the access method—carrier-sense multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD)—makes sense. Computers listen to or "sense" the cable (carrier-
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sense). Commonly, many computers on the network attempt to transmit data (multiple access);
each one first listens to detect any possible collisions. If a computer detects a possible collision,
it waits for a random period of time before retransmitting (collision detection).
The collision-detection capability is the parameter that imposes a distance limitation on

CSMA/CD. Due to attenuation—the weakening of a transmitted signal as it travels farther from
its source, the collision detection mechanism is not effective beyond 2500 meters (1.5 miles).
Segments cannot sense signals beyond that distance and, therefore, might not be aware that a
computer at the far end of a large network is transmitting. If more than one computer transmits
data on the network at the same time, a data collision will take place that will corrupt the data.
CSMA/CD is known as a contention method because computers on the network
contend, or compete, for an opportunity to send data.
This might seem like a cumbersome way to put data on the cable, but current
implementations of CSMA/CD are so fast that users are not even aware they are
using a contention access method.
CSMA/CD Considerations
The more computers there are on the network, the more network traffic there will be. With more
traffic, collision avoidance and collisions tend to increase, which slows the network down, so
CSMA/CD can be a slow-access method.
After each collision, both computers will have to try to retransmit their data. If the network is
very busy, there is a chance that the attempts by both computers will result in collisions with
packets from other computers on the network. If this happens, four computers (the two original
computers and the two computers whose transmitted packets collided with the original
computer's retransmitted packets) will have to attempt to retransmit. These proliferating
retransmissions can slow the network to a near standstill.
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The occurrence of this problem depends on the number of users attempting to use the network
and which applications they are using. Database applications tend to put more traffic on the
network than word-processing applications do.
Depending on the hardware components, the cabling, and the networking software, using a
CSMA/CD network with many users running several database applications can be very
frustrating because of heavy network traffic.
The CSMA/CD process /Algorithm/
Step 1
Anode listens to the network activity for a carrier signal (CS) that indicates
the network is in use. At any given time, multiple nodes may be listening. If a
node hears a signal, the node defers (backs off) for a random amount of time.
Step 2
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Hearing no carrier signal (CS), a node sends its packet (s) onto the network
and monitor the channel to make certain there are no collisions. Note that the
transmission moves in both directions along the bus. This is necessary to
ensure that all nodes get the message at the same time, so that each node hears
the same network.
Step 3
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Because of the multiple access (MA) property, another node may have done
the same thing, so that the two messages are moving along the bus at the same
time.
Step 4
In such a case, a collision occurs. The packets are garbled/distorted. The node
closest to the collision detects it and sends out a Jamming signal, notifying all
nodes that a collision has taken place. A node involved in a collision backs off
for a randomly determined amount of time before trying again to access the
network. On a busy network, such an attempt may be repeated many times
before the transmission is successful. If collisions are still detected after many
attempts, the user may be informed that the network is too busy to transmit.
Note:
• It is a contention method
• With more traffic, collision avoidance and collisions tend to increase, which slows the
network down, so CSMA/CD can be a slow-access method.
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• Using a CSMA/CD network with many users running several database applications can
be very frustrating because of heavy network traffic.
• CSMA/CD works best when most network activity is light.
• To use this access method, a node must be able to detect network activity (carrier sense
(CS) and to detect collisions (Collision detection (CD). Both of these capabilities are
implemented in hardware on board of the NIC.
• Used by Ethernet networks
• It is a probabilistic access method
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision

Avoidance (CSMA/CA) Access Method
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least popular of the
three major access methods. In CSMA/CA, each computer signals its intent to transmit before it
actually transmits data. In this way, computers sense when a collision might occur; this allows
them to avoid transmission collisions. Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit data
increases the amount of traffic on the cable and slows down network performance.
The CSMA/CA process
Step 1
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Anode listens to the network activity for a carrier signal (CS) that indicates the network is in use.
At any given time, multiple nodes may be listening. If a node hears a signal, the node defers
(backs off) for a random amount of time.
Step 2
Hearing no CS, a node sends a request to send (RTS) signal onto the network. The signal is
broadcast in both directions.
Step 3
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If it is sending to a particular node (directed transmission), the sender waits for a clear to send
(CTS) reply. If no reply is received within a predefined time, the node assumes there is a
collision and backs off for a random amount of time.
Step 4
If a CTS is received, of if the message is intended as a broadcast transmission, the node begins
sending its packet(s). In the case of a broadcast transmission, the node doesn’t wait for CTS
Note:
• Broadcasting the intent (i.e. RTS) to transmit data increases the amount of traffic on the
cable and slows down network performance.
• This method is used by Apple’s LocalTalk networks
• It is a probabilistic access method
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Token-Passing Access Method

In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet, called a token, circulates
around a cable ring from computer to computer. When any computer on the ring needs to send
data across the network, it must wait for a free token. When a free token is detected, the
computer will take control of it if the computer has data to send.
The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and additional information,
such as addressing, is attached to the frame in the form of headers and trailers, discussed later in
this module.
While the token is in use by one computer, other computers cannot transmit data. Because only
one computer at a time can use the token, no contention and no collision take place, and no time
is spent waiting for computers to resend tokens due to network traffic on the cable.
Token passing is a deterministic media access method in which a token is passed from node to
node according to a predefined sequence. A token is a special packet , or frame which is created
by the first computer turned on. At any given time, the token can be available or in use. When
an available token reaches a node that node can access the network.
A deterministic access method guarantees that every node will get access to the network within a
given length of time , usually on the order of few hundred microseconds or milliseconds which is
called token holding time (THT).
Because each node gets its turn within a fixed period, deterministic access methods are more
efficient on networks that have heavy traffic.
Network architecture that supports token passing as an access method include ARCnet, FDDI,
and IBM’s Token Ring.
Note:
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Networks that use token passing generally have some provision for setting the priority with
which a node gets the token. Higher-level protocols can specify that a message is important and
should receive higher priority.
The TOKEN-PASSING process
 A network device with a message to send captures the token as it passes by on

the channel.
 The message is attached to the token.
 The message-bearing token continues to circulate on the channel.
 As the token stops at a device, it is checked to see if the message is for that
device. If the message is not for that device, the message-bearing token is put
back onto the transmission channel to be sent to the next device. When the
message reaches the destination device, that device will recognize its address
and will read the message.
 The destination device then attaches an acknowledgment of receipt to the token
which continues to circulate.
 When the sending device receives the acknowledgment of receipt, it clears the
token so it may be used by another device. The token-passing scheme is most
commonly used in ring- or star-wired ring topologies.
NOTE:
• The first computer that is turned on creates the token.
• The token-passing scheme is most commonly used in ring- or star-wired
ring topologies.
• Network architecture that supports token passing as an access method
include ARCnet, FDDI, and IBM’s Token Ring.
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Demand Priority Access Method

First developed by Hewlett-Packard, this standard combines the concepts of
Ethernet and ATM. It uses “intelligent “hub that allocates more bandwidth to
frames that have been assigned a higher priority by the sending computer. The hub
scans its ports and then allocates bandwidth according each frames priority. This
is extremely valuable for real-time audio and video transmission.
Demand priority is an access method used in 100Base VG (VG stands for Voice
grad) or 100VG-AnyLAN networks. It is 10 times faster than the original Ethernet
speeds. This technology is quickly outdated because of its overhead due to port
scanning. The original Ethernet is updated to fast Ethernet (100mbps) to replace
100VG-AnyLAN.
Demand priority shifts network access control from the workstation to the hub.
This access method works with star topology.
Demand priority is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-Mbps
Ethernet standard known as 100VG-AnyLAN. It has been sanctioned and
standardized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) in its
802.12 specification, which is discussed later in the coming chapters.
This access method is based on the fact that repeaters and end nodes are the two
components that make up all 100VG-AnyLAN networks. Figure 4 shows a
demand-priority network. The repeaters manage network access by doing round-
robin searches for requests to send from all nodes on the network. The repeater, or
hub, is responsible for noting all addresses, links, and end nodes and verifying that
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they are all functioning. According to the 100VG-AnyLAN definition, an end node
can be a computer, bridge, router, or switch.
Figure 4Star-bus network access method for 100VG-AnyLAN is demand priority

Demand-Priority Contention
As in CSMA/CD, two computers using the demand-priority access method can
cause contention by transmitting at exactly the same time. However, with demand
priority, it is possible to implement a scheme in which certain types of data will be
given priority if there is contention. If the hub or repeater receives two requests at
the same time, the highest priority request is serviced first. If the two requests are
of the same priority, both requests are serviced by alternating between the two.
In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at the same time
because of the cabling scheme defined for this access method. In this method, four
pairs of wires are used, which enables quartet signaling, transmitting 25 MHz
signals on each of the pairs of wire in the cable.
Demand-Priority Considerations
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In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the sending computer, the
hub, and the destination computer. This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts
transmissions to the entire network. In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end
nodes and repeaters directly connected to it, whereas in a CSMA/CD environment, each hub
knows the address of every node in the network.
Demand priority offers several advantages over CSMA/CD including:
 The use of four pairs of wires.
By using four pairs of wires, computers can transmit and receive at the same time.
 Transmissions through the hub.
Transmissions are not broadcast to all the other computers on the network. The computers do not
contend on their own for access to the cable, but operate under the centralized control of the hub.
The DEMAND-PRIORITY process

 A station needing to transmit sends a request to the hub.
 The station is given permission to transmit by the hub.
 The hub switches the incoming transmission to the destination device.
Transmissions are between sender and receiver only, and are not broadcast.
 When multiple requests for transmission arrive at the hub at the same time, the
highest priority is serviced first—two priorities are possible, high and normal.
 If two requests having the same priority arrive at the same time, the hub’s port
sequence number acts as the tie breaker.
 Stations can receive at the same time they transmit.
 An advantage of demand priority is the ability to designate priority service to
time-sensitive traffic such as real-time video.
Note:
The channel access method of demand priority is similar to raising a hand and
waiting to be called on. If a computer wants to send a message, it first transmits a
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demand signal to a central device. Once the central device receives the demand
signal, it sends an acknowledgment signal back to the computer; the computer can
then begin sending its message.
Access Methods Summary
The following table summarizes the major features of each access method.
Introduction to communication Network

1. What is data communications?
2. Fundamentals of Communication channel (COMCHA)
3. Fundamentals of communication signal
4. Fundamentals of signal/data transmission
What is Data Communication?
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Data must be distinguished from information, and this distinction is
clear and important. Data are words, numbers, sound, graphics, and
video that describe people, events, things, ideas etc. Data are raw
facts that are not currently being used in a decision process and
usually take the form of historical records that are recorded and filed
without immediate intent to retrieve for decision making.
Data are the basic raw materials in the process of generation of
information. Data may be collected from internal sources as well as
external sources.
Information is words, numbers, sound, graphics, and video used as the
basis for human action, decisions or forecasting.
Information is knowledge that one derives from facts placed in the
right context with the purpose of reducing uncertainty. From the
manager's point of view, information serves the purpose of reducing
uncertainty regarding the alternative course of action, in the process
of decision making. Availability of information regarding the
alternatives improves the odds in favor of making a correct decision.
Note: Data Processing:- the process of extracting information from
data using different means as depicted in the following figure.
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Data communications is the process of transmitting

and receiving data in an orderly way so that data
arriving at its destination is an accurate duplication
of the data that was sent. When the data travels a
short distance, the communication is referred to as
local communications. When the data travels a long
distance, the communication is referred to as
telecommunications.
• Communication
– is the process of sharing ideas, information,
and message with others in particular time and
place.
– is the process of exchanging information
between two parties in effective manner
• FormsofCommunicationinclude:
– Verbal communication: Writing and taking
– Non-verbal communications: Facial expressions,
body language
– Visual communication: The use of images or
pictures, such as painting, photography, video,
or films
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– Electronic communications: such as telephone

calls, e-mail, cable TV, or satellite broadcast
• Telecommunication:
The term Telecommunication is composed of two words:
“tele” and “communication”. The prefix “tele” is
derived from Greek word that means “far”
– Tele means distance
– Hence Telecommunication means communicating at
a distance
– The term Telecommunication is used to describe
a number of computing and communication
technologies developed for the purpose of
exchanging information, data , message and
ideas with others across long distance in
effective way
• is the transmission of signals over a distance for
the purpose of communication
• In modern times, this process almost always
involves the sending of electromagnetic waves by
electronic transmitters but in earlier years it may
have involved the use of smoke signals, drums, or
semaphore.
• devices that assist the process, include the
television, radio, and telephone,
• Telegraphy
– Samuel F. B. Morse in USA demonstrated the 1st
telegraph system in New York in 1837.
– The 1st truly electronic medium was the
Telegraph, which sent and received electrical
signals over long-distance wire.
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– The telegraph made it possible for many

companies to conduct their business globally
for the first time.
• Radio
– The Italian engineer G. Marconi was the 1st
person to invent a true wireless radio, a
system for sending electrical signals through
the air via electromagnetic waves, in 1895.
– On charismas eve and New Year's Eve in 1900,
the American physicist R. Fessenden produced
the 1st radio broadcast.
• Telephone
– In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell was the 1st to
patent and produce a telephone: a device that
transmitted voice over wires.
– Currently, the telephone networks have also
provided the electronic networks for new
computer-based systems like the Internet.
– Computers can be linked together and data
transmitted over telephone line, even
internationally via satellite, by connecting
computers to the telephone network.
Communication model
 The essential elements of communication systems
are:
– Source system: source and transmitter
– Transmission facility: Transmission media
– Destination system: Receiver and destination
 Based on these essential elements of communication
systems, we can have a communication model as shown
next
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 The model shown above is used to describe the

processes involved and devices required in different
types of Electronic communications, such as
 telephone calls
 e-mail
 cable TV
 Satellite broadcast, etc.
 Based on the “communication model ” discussed
above, the role of elements involved in the data
communication can be described as follows:
 Source: sender of data: client computer l
 Transmitter: component that encode data into
appropriate signals for transmission:
 Transmission media:
 Wired or guided transmission media, such
as copper wire (coaxial cable or twisted
pair cable) or fiber optic cable.
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 Unguided transmission media, such as

Radio, Infrared, Microwave, and laser
 Public telephone networks and the Internet
 Receiver: component that decode signals into
data
transmission:
 Destination: the recipient of the transmitted
data- destination computer
Communication channel is a physical path or frequency

for a signal transmission. Some channels such as
telephone cables provide a physical path for analog
audio signals. Other channels might be a frequency or
range of frequency, rather than a physical cable. For
example, a television channel such as channel 12, is a
specific frequency used to broad cast audio-visual data
for television program broadcasting station.
Fundamentals of Communication Channel (COMCHA)

A communications channel is a pathway over which information can be
conveyed. It may be defined by a physical wire that connects
communicating devices, or wireless media like air, water or vacuum.
Information sent through a communications channel has a source from
which the information originates, and a destination to which the
information is delivered. Although information originates from a single
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source, there may be more than one destination, depending upon how
many receive stations are linked to the channel.
Note: Communication channel can be classified into two broad
Classifications:-
1. Guided/bounded media:- the data (waves) are guided along a solid
medium, such as copper or fiber optic media
2. Unguided/unbounded media:- the atmosphere and outer space are
examples of which provides a means of transmitting
electromagnetic signals but do not guide them (wireless
transmission). e.g. air, water, vacuum
Note: The computers on a network may be linked through cables,
telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams, that
we will see in the coming chapters
Types of Communication channel (COMCHA)/Mode of
Transmission
Any communications channel has a direction associated with it. Based on this
direction of communication, we can categorize COMCHA into three.
I. Simplex channel
II. Half-duplex channel
III. Full-duplex channel
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Simplex channel
The message source is the transmitter, and the destination is the
receiver. A channel whose direction of transmission is unchanging is
referred to as a simplex channel. For example, the channel that exists
between the radio program broadcasting station and home radio
system is simplex channel because it always transmits the signal to its
listeners and never allows them to transmit back.
Half-duplex channel
A half-duplex channel is a single physical channel in which the direction
may be reversed. Messages may flow in two directions, but never at
the same time, in a half-duplex system. In police radio, one party
speaks while the other listens. After a pause, the other party speaks
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and the first party listens. Speaking simultaneously results in garbled
sound that cannot be understood.
Full-duplex channel
A full-duplex channel allows simultaneous message exchange in both
directions. It really consists of two simplex channels, a forward
channel and a reverse channel, linking the same points. Example:
Modern telephone system
Note:
Unicast: Sending for one receiver only
Multicast: Sending for group of receiver
Broadcast: Sending for all receiver
Mode of Data Communication
Basic switching concepts

There are two major switching techniques:
• Circuit switching:
• Packet switching:
Circuit Switching & Packet Switching
WAN has been implemented using one of the two technologies:
circuit switching and packet switching and other technologies.
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Circuit switching: a dedicated path is established between two stations
through the nodes of the network. The path is a connected sequence of
physical link between nodes. On each link a logical channel is dedicated
to the connection.
– The method of providing communication service through a switching
facility, either from local users or from other switching facilities.
– A method of transmitting messages through a communications network
in which a path from the sender to the receiver of fixed bandwidth or
speed is set up for the entire duration of a communication or call.
– Use switches as a means of switching
Packet switching: in this case it is not necessary to have a dedicated
path though the network, rather data are sent out in a sequence of
small chunks called packets.
 Each packet is passed through the network from node to node
along some path leading from source to destination.
 A method of data transmission in which small blocks of data
are transmitted rapidly over a channel dedicated to the
connection only for the duration of the packet's transmission.
 Normally use routers as a means of switching.
Network Topologies
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A network topology is the arrangement of computers, cables, and

other components on a network. It is a map of the physical
network. In short it is a Physical layout of network devices or the
geometric configuration of computers, cables, and other
components on a network.
Topology is both physical and logical:

 Physical topology describes how the physical components on a
network are connected [geometric configuration ]
 Logical topology describes the way network data flows

through the physical components. Or the way in which the
data access the medium and transmits packets.
The most common types of standard physical topologies, which

we are going to analyze, are: Bus, Hub/Star, Ring and mesh
 Bus. Computers are connected to a common, shared cable.
 Star/Hub. Computers are connected to cable segments that
branch out from a central location, or hub.
 Ring. Computers are connected to a cable that forms a loop
around a central location.
 Mesh. Computers on the network are connected to every
other computer by cable.
Note:
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You must choose the appropriate physical topology as per the

application required. Each type differs by its cost, ease of
installation, fault tolerance (how the topology handles problems
like cable breaks), and ease of reconfigurations (like adding a
new workstation to the existing network), and type of cable that
you can get (example: with UTP cable you can use star topology,
with coaxial cable you can use bus topology)
In short you must consider the following factors while you choose
topology for your network
 Office layout
 Troubleshooting techniques (i.e. Ease of fault finding and
maintenance)
 Cost of installation
 Type of cable used
 Scalability
 Bandwidth Capacity
Your choice of Logical Topology will affect the Physical Topology –

and vice versa
Note:
 The best topology involves matching with the environment it

is to be used in.
 The physical arrangements of computers do not dictate the
necessary topology.
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THE PHYSICAL BUS TOPOLOGY
Bus topology is fairly old news and you probably won't be seeing
much of these around in any modern office or home.
With the Bus topology, all workstations are connected directly to
the main backbone that carries the data. Traffic generated by any
computer will travel across the backbone and be received by all
workstations. This works well in a small network of 2-5
computers, but as the number of computers increases, so will the
network traffic and this can greatly decrease the performance and
available bandwidth of your network. Bus topology is illustrated
in the figures below.
Practically the computers may not be arranged linearly as

illustrated in the figure below.
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Practically the computers are connected using thinnet/thicknet

coaxial cable that we will see in the coming chapters
Note:
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• Bus topology is a multipoint topology.
• The bus/backbone cable has one starting and one ending point.
• Data Packets stop at each device on the network.
• Only one device at a time can send data

Advantages of Bus Topology
 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology (i.e. Use of cable
is economical).
 Failure of one computer does not affect the rest of the network.
 Media is inexpensive and easy to Work with.
 Bus is easy to extend.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable
and these will add additional point of failure.
 Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
 Problems are difficult to isolate. If the cable is damaged
anywhere along its length or either end of the cable loses its
termination, the entire network fail.
 Limited number of devices can be attached
 Sharing same cable slows communication speed
THE PHYSICAL STAR/HUB TOPOLOGY
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A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations,
and peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub or
concentrator.
The Star or Hub topology is one of the most common network
topologies found in most offices and home networks (it is
Predominant type of topology).
Advantages of a Star Topology
 Centralized monitoring and management are possible.

Because the Hub provides centralized management
 Failure of one computer/cable does not affect the rest of the
network.
 Faults are easier to locate and isolate (i.e. Easy to find device
and cable problems)
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 Easy to add devices as the network expands

 Can be upgraded to faster speeds
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
 Requires more cable length than a bus or ring topology.

 If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
Hence,It has a single point of failure.
 Costs are higher (installation and equipment) than for most bus
networks
THE PHYSICAL RING TOPOLOGY

In the ring topology, computers are connected on a single circle
of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there are no terminated ends.
The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass
through each computer.
Note: All computers contains NIC Repeaters specially designed

for physical ring topology.
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Advantage of ring topology
• There is no reliance on a central hub. All messages pass

through all nodesà between the sender and recipient
• Data is quickly transferred without a ‘bottle neck’.
Disadvantage of ring topology
 Failure of one computer can impact the rest of the network,

because each computer acts as a repeater to boost the signal
and send it to the next computer.
 Problems are hard to isolate.
 Message must pass through every computer between the
sender and recipient àTherefore this makes it slower.
 Because all stations are wired together, to add a node you
must shut down the network temporarily
 In order for all computers to communicate with each other, all
computers must be turn0ed on
 Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
 A broken ring will stop all transmissions
THE PHYSICAL MESH TOPOLOGY [POINT-TO-POINT
TOPOLOGY]
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other
computer by a separate cable. This configuration provides
redundant paths through the network, so if one computer blows
up, you don't lose the network. On a large scale, you can
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connect multiple LANs using mesh topology with leased telephone

lines, Thicknet coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.
Again, the big advantage of this topology is its backup capabilities

by providing multiple paths through the network. Mesh topology
is expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling.
Note:
 Each node is connected to every other node

 It is “Fault Tolerant”
 It is only found in wide area networks.
 Not common on LANs
 Most often used in WANs to interconnect LANS
 Allows communication to continue in the event of a break in
any one connection
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n ( n−1 )
Note: if a mesh network has n nodes, there will be 2
cables
Advantages
 Improves Fault Tolerance
Disadvantages
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 Expensive
 Difficult to install
 Difficult to manage
 Difficult to troubleshoot
The Physical Hybrid Topology

With the hybrid topology, two or more standard topologies are
combined to form a complete network. For example, a hybrid
topology could be the combination of a star and bus topology.
These are also the most common in use. Some examples are
given below
Physical Star-Bus
Physical Star-ring (Star-wired Ring) Topology

Star-Ring uses a MAU (Multistation Access Unit
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Hybrid-tree physical topology
Logical topology
As mentioned before,logical topology describes the way network data flows through the
physical components. Some common examples are given below.
1. PHYSICALLY STAR LOGICALLY RING TOPOLOGY
Example: 1
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The MAU (Multistation Access Unit) looks like an ordinary Hub, but data is passed internally
using a logical ring as described below pictorially.
Inside the MAU, data flows in ring manner as illustrated in the figure below.
Example-2
Token ring LAN
PHYSICALLY STAR LOGICALLY RING TOPOLOGY
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2. PHYSICALLY STAR LOGICALLY BUS TOPOLOGY
Modern Ethernet networks are Star Topologies (physically)
The Hub is at the centre, and defines a Star Topology. The Hub itself
uses a Logical Bus Topology internally, to transmit data to all segments
as illustrated in the figure below. Hence, the topology is physically
star logically bus.
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Key Factors in Assessing Network Topologies
In addition to the purchase cost of network hardware and software, consider these three key
factors when determining which network topology would be most cost-
effective:
Performance—highest network availability; lowest level of latency; most

appropriate connectivity for users, servers, routers, and so on
Scalability—the ability to expand the network at both end points and
increase aggregate bandwidth without negatively affecting existing users
Cost of administration—the inherent ease of moves, adds, and
changes plus the capability to efficiently diagnose, remedy, or prevent
network outages
Availability-
Network Architecture
Network Configuration
Types of LAN
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The three broad classification of LAN, based on how the computers in a network
are configured and how they access information, or simply based on the roles of
the computer found in the network are:-
1. Peer-to-peer LAN/peer-based LAN/workgroups LAN
2. Client-server LAN/ server-based LAN
3. Hybrid LAN
Note: Computers are categorized into three based on their role in LAN. These are
client, server and peer.
PEER-TO-PEER LAN
In such network configuration, all the connected systems (computers and printers)
can communicate directly with each other without relying on other intermediary
server. Implementation of Peer-to-Peer network is relatively simple, cheap and can
connect up to 10 computers. Although appropriate for small networks, it lacks the
ability to implement centralized management of users, files, and security features
and tends to slow down performance as the number of connected computers
increase.
Although a peer-to-peer network might meet the needs of small organizations, it is
not appropriate for all environments. In a typical peer-to-peer network, no network
manager oversees administration for the entire network. Instead, individual users
administer their own computers.
All users can share any of their resources in any manner they choose. These
resources include data in shared folder, printers, fax cards, and so on.
On a computer network, security (making computers and data stored on them safe
from harm or unauthorized access) consists of setting a password on a resource,
such as a folder, that is shared on the network. All peer-to-peer network users set
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their own security, and shared resources can exist on any computer rather than on a
centralized server only; consequently, centralized control is very difficult to
maintain. This lack of control has a big impact on network security because some
users may not implement any security measures at all. If security is an issue, a
server-based network might be a better choice.
Advantages and disadvantages of Peer-to-peer
/workgroups LAN
Advantage:
Users can control resource sharing
No reliance on other computers for their operation
Computers in the network are connected by a simple, easily
visible cabling system.
Low initial cost-(no need of server and network operating
system (NOS) software )
Easy to setup-(use client/desktop operating system like
windows 95, 98,me….)
Disadvantage
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It lacks the ability centralized management of users & files
Lacks security features
Hard to locate network resources
Tends to slow down performance as the number of connected
computers increase.
Additional load on computers because of resource sharing
Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate?

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer.
 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers
exist.
 Security is not an issue.
 The organization and the network will experience only limited growth
within the foreseeable future.
CLIENT-SERVER LAN:
Client/Server architecture consists of client computers (workstations) that require
a network service and servers that provide the network service. Servers are usually
very powerful computers both in processing power and in their storage capacity.
Different dedicated servers can be configured depending on the need of the
organizations, such as:
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 File servers – servers that provide centralized data storage which will be shared
among the LAN users.
 Print server – servers that control one or more printers and provide print
service to LAN users.
 Database server – servers that centrally store database and provide data to
client application in the LAN.
 Web server – servers that store web pages that will be viewed using browsers
in the network.
 Email server – servers that are used to manage and control email
communications across the network.
Note:
A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a client
or workstation. Servers are described as "dedicated" because they are not
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themselves clients, and because they are optimized to service requests from
network clients quickly and to ensure the security of files and folder. Server-based
networks have become the standard models for networking.
Advantages and disadvantages of Client-Server Network

Advantage
Strong central Security
Has central file storage, which allows all users to work from
the same set of data and provides easy backup of critical
data
Ability of servers to pool available hardware and software,
lowering overall costs
Ability to share expensive equipment, such as laser printers
and mass storage
Easy manageability of a large number of users (can support
thousand of users
Freeing of users from the task of managing the sharing of
resources
Optimized dedicated servers, which are faster than peers at
sharing network resources
Disadvantage
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• Expense – Requires high initial investment in dedicated server and
expensive Network operating system software and client license
• Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff (a dedicated
network administrator) to ensure efficient operation.
• Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease
across the network.
• Complex to install, configure and manage
Note:
The security advantage of peer-to-peer LAN is that each user controls access to
their own resources. The security disadvantage of peer-to-peer LAN is that you
cannot differentiate among LAN users when you allow access to a resource. The
security advantage of server-base LAN is that each user is allowed access to only
those resources that the user has the privilege to access. A disadvantage is that
someone must centrally administer the security on your LAN.
HYBRID LAN
Hybrid networks have all three types of computers (peer, client and server)
operating on them. This means that while most shared resources are located on
servers, network users still have access to any resources being shared by peers in
your workgroup.
Hence hybrid network is a client-server network that also has peers sharing
resources. Most networks are actually hybrid networks.
Advantages and disadvantages of Hybrid network
Advantages:
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• The advantage of client-server LAN
• Many of the advantage of the peer-based LAN
Disadvantage:
• Shares the disadvantage of server-based LAN
Note:
The type of LAN you choose to implement will depend on factors such as the:
 Size of the organization.

 Level of security required.
 Type of business.
 Level of administrative support available.
 Amount of network traffic.
 Needs of the network users.
 Network budget.
Chapter two
The OSI Reference Models
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Networking layers, Protocols and Standards
What is communication Protocols?
Communication Protocol: -define the manner in which peer processes communicate b/n
computer hardware devices. The protocols give the rule for such things as the passing of
messages, the exact formats of the message and how to handle error conditions.
If two computers are communicating and they both follow the protocol(s) properly, the exchange
is successful, regardless of what types of the machines they are and what operating systems are
running on the machines. As long as the machines have software that can manage the protocol,
communication is possible.
Essentially, therefore, a communication protocol is a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of
information.
What is Host?
A host is typically refers to a computer that provide information or communication service.
What are a Gateway, a Router and Routing?
A gateway or Router: - is a computer that interconnects two or more networks and passes
packets from one to another.
The process by which the paths that packets travel across the network or inter-network are
chosen is known as routing.
Protocol Layering
A wide range of problems may arise in packet-based data communication. These include the
following:
 Host failure: A host or gateway may fail due to a hardware or software crash.
 Link failure: A transmission link may be damaged or disconnected.
 Networkcongestion: networks have a finite capacity which cannot be exceeded.
 Packetdelayorloss: Packets are sometimes lost during transmission or may experience
excessive delay.
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 Datacorruption: Transmission error may corrupt the data being transmitted.

 Dataduplicationorpacketsout-of-sequence: Where more than one router exists in
network connection, it is possible for transmitted packets to arrive out of sequence.
Layer Services
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

 In connection oriented service the sender of the data first establishes a logical connection
with the receiver of the data, use the connection (send the data) and then terminate the
connection. During the establishment of the connection, a fixed route that all packets will
take is defined, and information necessary to match packets to their session and defined
rout is stored in the memory tables in the gateways.
Connection-oriented protocols provide in-sequence delivery; that is, the service user
receives packets in the order.
 In connection-less (Datagram) service there is no initial end-to-end setup for a session;
each packet is independently routed to its destination. When a packet is ready, the host
computer sends it in to the gateway. The gateway examines the destination address of the
packet and passes the packet along to another gateway, chosen by the route-find
algorithm.
Reliable and Unreliable Services

Services can also be classified according to the ‘Quality of Service’ that they provide to the layer
above. There are two types of service quality: Reliable and Unreliable
 A Reliable Service: - is one that endeavors never to lose data during a transfer and
provide error-free data to the service user.
o In such a scheme the receiver is required to acknowledge the receipt of each item
of data, to ensure that no data is lost in transmission.
o In addition to this, the receiver checks each data item received for errors,
informing the source if an error is detected and that another copy of the affected
data should be sent.
 The acknowledgement process required for reliable service introduces delay and
overhead. There are some cases when it is more important for the service to be free of
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delays than for it to be one hundred percent reliable. In such situations an unreliable
service is implemented by omitting the requirement for acknowledgements for the data
received. Error checking may be done by the receiver on each block of data, and when
one is detected (even when it is only single unknown) the complete data block discarded.
o When unreliable service is implemented in a given layer, reliability is typically
implemented on some higher layer
OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL
The Needs of Standard in Network Communication

As we have seen in the previous sections, many software and hardware manufacturers supply
products for linking computers in a network. Networking is fundamentally a form of
communication, so the need for manufacturers to take steps to ensure that their products could
interact became apparent early in the development of networking technology. As networks and
suppliers of networking products have spread across the world, the need for standardization
has only increased. To address the issues surrounding standardization, several independent
organizations have created standard design specifications for computer-networking products.
When these standards are adhered to, communication is possible between hardware and software
products produced by a variety of vendors.
Network Communications
Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another. This complex process can
be broken into discrete, sequential tasks. The sending computer must:
1. Recognize the data.
2. Divide the data into manageable chunks.
3. Add information to each chunk of data to determine the location
of the data and to identify the receiver.
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4. Add timing and error-checking information.
5. Put the data on the network and send it on its way.
Network client software operates at many different levels within the sending and
receiving computers. Each of these levels, or tasks, is governed by one or more
protocols. These protocols, or rules of behavior, are standard specifications for
formatting and moving the data. When the sending and receiving computers follow
the same protocols, communication is assured. Because of this layered structure,
this is often referred to as the protocol stack.
With the rapid growth of networking hardware and software, a need arose for
standard protocols that could allow hardware and software from different vendors
to communicate. In response, two primary sets of standards were developed: the
OSI reference model and a modification of that standard called Project 802.
Acquiring a clear understanding of these models is an important first step in

understanding the technical aspects of how a network functions. Throughout this
lesson we refer to various protocols.
The OSI Reference Model

In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released a set of
specifications that described network architecture for connecting dissimilar
devices. The original document applied to systems that were open to each other
because they could all use the same protocols and standards to exchange
information.
The OSI reference model is the best-known and most widely used guide for
visualizing networking environments. Manufacturers adhere to the OSI reference
model when they design network products. It provides a description of how
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network hardware and software work together in a layered fashion to make

communications possible. The model also helps to troubleshoot problems by
providing a frame of reference that describes how components are supposed to
function.
A Layered Architecture
The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication into seven
layers. Each layer covers different network activities, equipment, or protocols.
Layering specifies different functions and services as data moves from one
computer through the network cabling to another computer. The OSI reference
model defines how each layer communicates and works with the layers
immediately above and below it. For example, the session layer communicates and
works with the presentation and transport layers.
Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for delivery over
the network to another computer. The lowest layers define the network's physical
media and related tasks, such as putting data bits onto the network interface cards
(NICs) and cable. The highest layers define how applications access
communication services. The higher the layer, the more complex its task.
The layers are separated from each other by boundaries called interfaces. All
requests are passed from one layer, through the interface, to the next layer. Each
layer builds upon the standards and activities of the layer below it.
Relationships among OSI Reference Model Layers

Each layer provides services to the next-higher layer and shields the upper layer
from the details of how the services below it are actually implemented. At the same
time, each layer appears to be in direct communication with its associated layer on
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the other computer. This provides a logical, or virtual, communication between

peer layers, as shown in Figure 1.8.1 In reality, actual communication between
adjacent layers takes place on one computer only. At each layer, software
implements network functions according to a set of protocols.
Figure Relationships among OSI layers

Before data is passed from one layer to another, it is broken down into packets, or
units of information, which are transmitted as a whole from one device to another
on a network. The network passes a packet from one software layer to another in
the same order as that of the layers. At each layer, the software adds additional
formatting or addressing to the packet, which is needed for the packet to be
successfully transmitted across the network.
At the receiving end, the packet passes through the layers in reverse order. A
software utility at each layer reads the information on the packet, strips it away,
and passes the packet up to the next layer. When the packet is finally passed up
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to the application layer, the addressing information has been stripped away and the
packet is in its original form, which is readable by the receiver.
With the exception of the lowest layer in the OSI networking model, no layer can
pass information directly to its counterpart on another computer. Instead,
information on the sending computer must be passed down through each
successive layer until it reaches the physical layer. The information then moves
across the networking cable to the receiving computer and up that computer's
networking layers until it arrives at the corresponding layer. For example, when the
network layer sends information from computer A, the information moves down
through the data-link and physical layers on the sending side, over the cable, and
up the physical and data-link layers on the receiving side to its final destination at
the network layer on computer B.
In a client/server environment, an example of the kind of information sent from the

network layer on computer A to the network layer on computer B would be a
network address, with perhaps some error-checking information added to the
packet.
Interaction between adjacent layers occurs through an interface. The interface

defines the services offered by the lower networking layer to the upper one and
further defines how those services will be accessed. In addition, each layer on one
computer appears to be communicating directly with the same layer on another
computer.
The following sections describe the purpose of each of the seven layers of the OSI
reference model, and identify the services that each provides to adjacent layers.
Beginning at the top of the stack (layer 7, the application layer), we work down to
the bottom (layer 1, the physical layer).
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Application Layer
Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the application layer.
This layer relates to the services that directly support user applications, such as
software for file transfers, database access, and e-mail. In other words, it serves as
a window through which application processes can access network services. A
message to be sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point
and exits the OSI reference model's application layer on the receiving computer.
Application-layer protocols can be programs in themselves, such as File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), or they can be used by other programs, such as Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP), used by most e-mail programs, to redirect data to the
network. The lower layers support the tasks that are performed at the application
layer. These tasks include general network access, flow control, and error recovery.
Presentation Layer
Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange data among
networked computers. Think of it as the network's translator. When computers
from dissimilar systems—such as IBM, Apple, and Sun—need to communicate, a
certain amount of translation and byte reordering must be done. Within the sending
computer, the presentation layer translates data from the format sent down from the
application layer into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At the
receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary format into a format that
can be useful to that computer's application layer. The presentation layer is
responsible for converting protocols, translating the data, encrypting the data,
changing or converting the character set, and expanding graphics commands. The
presentation layer also manages data compression to reduce the number of bits that
need to be transmitted.
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The redirector, which redirects input/output (I/O) operations to resources on a

server, operates at this layer.
Session Layer
Layer 5, the session layer, allows two applications on different computers to open,
use, and close a connection called a session. (A session is a highly structured
dialog between two workstations.) The session layer is responsible for managing
this dialog. It performs name-recognition and other functions, such as security, that
are needed to allow two applications to communicate over the network.
The session layer synchronizes user tasks by placing checkpoints in the data
stream. The checkpoints break the data into smaller groups for error detection. This
way, if the network fails, only the data after the last checkpoint has to be
retransmitted. This layer also implements dialog control between communicating
processes, such as regulating which side transmits, when, and for how long.
Transport Layer
Layer 4, the transport layer, provides an additional connection level beneath the
session layer. The transport layer ensures that packets are delivered error free, in
sequence, and without losses or duplications. At the sending computer, this layer
repackages messages, dividing long messages into several packets and collecting
small packets together in one package. This process ensures that packets are
transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving computer, the transport
layer opens the packets, reassembles the original messages, and, typically, sends an
acknowledgment that the message was received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this
layer will recognize the duplicate and discard it.
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The transport layer provides flow control and error handling, and participates
in solving problems concerned with the transmission and reception of packets.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX)
are examples of transport-layer protocols.
Network Layer
Layer 3, the network layer, is responsible for addressing messages and translating
logical addresses and names into physical addresses. This layer also determines the
route from the source to the destination computer. It determines which path the
data should take based on network conditions, priority of service, and other factors.
It also manages traffic problems on the network, such as switching and routing of
packets and controlling the congestion of data.
If the network adapter on the router cannot transmit a data chunk as large as the
source computer sends, the network layer on the router compensates by breaking
the data into smaller units. At the destination end, the network layer reassembles
the data. Internet Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are
examples of network-layer protocols.
Data-Link Layer
Layer 2, the data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer to the
physical layer. It controls the electrical impulses that enter and leave the network
cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer packages raw bits from the physical
layer into data frames. (A data frame is an organized, logical structure in which
data can be placed). The electrical representation of the data (bit patterns, encoding
methods, and tokens) is known to this layer only.
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Figure 1.8.2 shows a simple data frame. In this example, the sender ID represents
the address of the computer that is sending the information; the destination ID
represents the address of the computer to which the information is being sent. The
control information is used for frame type, routing, and segmentation information.
The data is the information itself. The cyclical redundancy check (CRC) provides
error correction and verification information to ensure that the data frame is
received correctly.
Figure 1.8.2A simple data frame
The data-link layer is responsible for providing error-free transfer of these frames
from one computer to another through the physical layer. This allows the network
layer to anticipate virtually error-free transmission over the network connection.
Usually, when the data-link layer sends a frame, it waits for an acknowledgment
from the recipient. The recipient data-link layer detects any problems with the
frame that might have occurred during transmission. Frames that were damaged
during transmission or were not acknowledged are then re-sent.
Physical Layer
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Layer 1, the bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical layer. This
layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a physical medium (such as
the network cable). The physical layer is totally hardware-oriented and deals with
all aspects of establishing and maintaining a physical link between communicating
computers. The physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated
by each of the higher layers.
This layer defines how the cable is attached to the NIC. For example, it defines
how many pins the connector has and the function of each. It also defines which
transmission technique will be used to send data over the network cable.
This layer provides data encoding and bit synchronization. The physical layer is
responsible for transmitting bits (zeros and ones) from one computer to another,
ensuring that when a transmitting host sends a 1 bit, it is received as a 1 bit, not a 0
bit. Because different types of media physically transmit bits (light or electrical
signals) differently, the physical layer also defines the duration of each impulse
and how each bit is translated into the appropriate electrical or optical impulse for
the network cable.
This layer is often referred to as the "hardware layer." Although the rest of the
layers can be implemented as firmware (chip-level functions on the NIC), rather
than actual software, the other layers are software in relation to this first layer.
Memorizing the OSI Reference Model

Memorizing the layers of the OSI reference model and their order is very
important. Table below provides two ways to help you recall the seven layers of
the OSI reference model.
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Table OSI Reference Model Layers
OSI Layer Down the Stack Up the Stack
Application All Away
Presentation People Pizza
Session Seem Sausage
Transport To Throw
Network Need Not
Data Link Data Do
Physical Processing Please
Transport Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is an industry-standard
suite of protocols that provide communications in a heterogeneous (made up of
dissimilar elements) environment. In addition, TCP/IP provides a routable,
enterprise networking protocol and access to the Internet and its resources.
Because of its popularity, TCP/IP has become the de facto standard for what's
known as internetworking, the intercommunication in a network that's composed of
smaller networks. This lesson examines the TCP/IP protocol and its relationship to
the OSI reference model.
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TCP/IP has become the standard protocol used for interoperability
among many different types of computers. This interoperability is a
primary advantage of TCP/IP. Most networks support TCP/IP as a
protocol. TCP/IP also supports routing and is commonly used as an
internetworking protocol.
Other protocols written specifically for the TCP/IP suite include:
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): E-mail.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): For exchanging files among
computers running TCP/IP.
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol): For network
management.
Designed to be routable, robust, and functionally efficient, TCP/IP was
developed by the United States Department of Defense as a set of
wide area network (WAN) protocols. Its purpose was to maintain
communication links between sites in the event of nuclear war. The
responsibility for TCP/IP development now resides with the Internet
community as a whole. TCP/IP requires significant knowledge and
experience on the user's part to install and configure. Using TCP/IP
offers several advantages; it:
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 Is an industry standard: As an industry standard, it is an open
protocol. This means it is not controlled by a single company, and
is less subject to compatibility issues. It is the de facto/ genuine
protocol of the Internet.
 Contains a set of utilities for connecting dissimilar operating
systems: Connectivity from one computer to another does not
depend on the network operating system used on either computer.
 Uses scalable, cross-platform client-server architecture:
TCP/IP can expand (or shrink) to meet future needs and
circumstances. It uses sockets to make the computer operating
systems transparent to one another.
TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that provides the foundation for
Windows networks and the Internet. The TCP/IP protocol stack is
based on a four-layer reference model, including the network
interface, internet, transport, and application layers.
The core of TCP/IP services exists at the internet and transport
layers. In particular, Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), IP, TCP, User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), and Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP) are used in all TCP/IP installations.
Exploring the Layers of the TCP/IP Model End-to-end communication
through TCP/IP is based on four conceptual steps, or layers.
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Figure 4-1 Four-layer TCP/IP model and protocol stack
TCP/IP and OSI

The TCP/IP protocol does not exactly match the OSI reference model. Instead of
seven layers, it uses only four. Commonly referred to as the Internet Protocol
Suite, TCP/IP is broken into the following four layers:
 Network interface layer
 Internet layer
 Transport layer
 Application layer
Each of these layers corresponds to one or more layers of the OSI reference model.
Network Interface Layer

The network interface layer, corresponding to the physical and data-link layers of
the OSI reference model, communicates directly with the network. It provides the
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interface between the network architecture (such as token ring, Ethernet) and the
Internet layer.
Internet Layer
The Internet layer, corresponding to the network layer of the OSI reference model,
uses several protocols for routing and delivering packets. Routers are protocol
dependent. They function at this layer of the model and are used to forward packets
from one network or segment to another. Several protocols work within the
Internet layer.
A) Internet Protocol (IP)

Internet Protocol (IP) is a packet-switched protocol that performs addressing and
route selection. As a packet is transmitted, this protocol appends a header to the
packet so that it can be routed through the network using dynamic routing tables.
IP is a connectionless protocol and sends packets without expecting the receiving
host to acknowledge receipt. In addition, IP is responsible for packet assembly and
disassembly as required by the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference
model. Each IP packet is made up of a source and a destination address, protocol
identifier, checksum (a calculated value), and a TTL (which stands for "time to
live"). The TTL tells each router on the network between the source and the
destination how long the packet has to remain on the network. It works like a
countdown counter or clock. As the packet passes through the router, the router
deducts the larger of one unit (one second) or the time that the packet was queued
for delivery. For example, if a packet has a TTL of 128, it can stay on the network
for 128 seconds or 128 hops (each stop, or router, along the way), or any
combination of the two. The purpose of the TTL is to prevent lost or damaged data
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packets (such as missing e-mail messages) from endlessly wandering the network.
When the TTL counts down to zero, the packet is eliminated from the network.
Another method used by the IP to increase the speed of transmission is known as

"ANDing." The purpose of ANDing is to determine whether the address is a local
or a remote site. If the address is local, IP will ask the Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP), discussed in the next section, for the hardware address of the destination
machine. If the address is remote, the IP checks its local routing table for a route to
the destination. If a route exists, the packet is sent on its way. If no route exists, the
packet is sent to the local default gateway and then on its way. [An AND is a
logical operation that combines the values of two bits (0, 1) or two Boolean values
(false, true) that returns a value of 1 (true) if both input values are 1 (true) and
returns a 0 (false) otherwise].
B) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Before an IP packet can be forwarded to another host, the hardware address of the
receiving machine must be known. The ARP determines hardware address (MAC
addresses) that corresponds to an IP address. If ARP does not contain the address
in its own cache, it broadcasts a request for the address. All hosts on the network
process the request and, if they contain a map to that address, pass the address back
to the requestor. The packet is then sent on its way, and the new information
address is stored in the router's cache.
C) Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
A RARP server maintains a database of machine numbers in the form of an ARP

table (or cache) which is created by the system administrator. In contrast to ARP,
the RARP protocol provides an IP number to a requesting hardware address. When
the RARP server receives a request for an IP number from a node on the network,
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it responds by checking its routing table for the machine number of the requesting
node and sending the appropriate IP number back to the requesting node.
D) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
The ICMP is used by IP and higher-level protocols to send and receive status
reports about information being transmitted. Routers commonly use ICMP to
control the flow, or speed, of data between themselves. If the flow of data is too
fast for a router, it requests that other routers slow down.
The two basic categories of ICMP messages are reporting errors and sending
queries.
Transport Layer
The transport layer, corresponding to the transport layer of the OSI reference
model, is responsible for establishing and maintaining end-to-end communication
between two hosts. The transport layer provides acknowledgment of receipt, flow
control, and sequencing of packets. It also handles retransmissions of packets. The
transport layer can use either TCP or User Datagram Protocol (UDP) protocols
depending on the requirements of the transmission.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

The TCP is responsible for the reliable transmission of data from one node to
another. It is a connection-based protocol and establishes a connection (also known
as a session, virtual circuit, or link), between two machines before any data is
transferred. To establish a reliable connection, TCP uses what is known as a
"three-way handshake." This establishes the port number and beginning sequence
numbers from both sides of the transmission. The handshake contains three steps:
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1. The requestor sends a packet specifying the port number it plans
to use and its initial sequence number (ISN) to the server.
2. The server acknowledges with its ISN, which consists of the
requestor's ISN, plus 1.
3. The requestor acknowledges the acknowledgement with the
server's ISN, plus 1.
In order to maintain a reliable connection, each packet must contain:
 A source and destination TCP port number.
 A sequence number for messages that must be broken into
smaller pieces.
 A checksum to ensure that information is sent without error.
 An acknowledgement number that tells the sending machine which
pieces of the message have arrived.
 TCP Sliding Windows.
Ports, Sockets, and Sliding Windows

Protocol port numbers are used to reference the location of a particular application
or process on each machine (in the application layer). Just as an IP address
identifies the address of a host on the network, the port address identifies the
application to the transport layer, thus providing a complete connection for one
application on one host to an application on another host. Applications and services
(such as file and print services or telnet) can configure up to 65,536 ports. TCP/IP
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applications and services typically use the first 1023 ports. The Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA) has assigned these as standard, or default, ports. Any
client applications dynamically assign port numbers as needed. A port and a node
address together make up a socket.
Services and applications use sockets to establish connections with another host. If
applications need to guarantee the delivery of data, the socket chooses the
connection-oriented service (TCP). If the applications do not need to guarantee
data delivery, the socket chooses the connectionless service (UDP).
A sliding window is used by TCP for transferring data between hosts. It regulates
how much information can be passed over a TCP connection before the receiving
host must send an acknowledgement. Each computer has both a send and a receive
window that it utilizes to buffer data and make the communication process more
efficient. A sliding window allows the sending computer to transmit data in a
stream without having to wait for each packet to be acknowledged. This allows the
receiving machine to receive packets out of order and reorganize them while it
waits for more packets. The sending window keeps track of data that has been sent,
and if an acknowledgement is not received within a given amount of time, the
packets are re-sent.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

A connectionless protocol, the UDP, is responsible for end-to-end transmission of
data. Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not establish a connection. It attempts to
send the data and to verify that the destination host actually receives the data. UDP
is best used to send small amounts of data for which guaranteed delivery is not
required. While UDP uses ports, they are different from TCP ports; therefore, they
can use the same numbers without interference.
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Application Layer
Corresponding to the session, presentation, and application layers of the OSI
reference model, the application layer connects applications to the network. Two
application programming interfaces (APIs) provide access to the TCP/IP transport
protocols—Windows Sockets and NetBIOS.
Windows Sockets Interface
Windows Sockets (WinSock) is a networking API designed to facilitate
communication among different TCP/IP applications and protocol
stacks. It was established so that applications using TCP/IP could write
to a standard interface. WinSock is derived from the original sockets
that API created for the BSD Unix operating system. WinSock
provides a common interface for the applications and protocols that
exist near the top of the TCP/IP reference model. Any program or
application written using the WinSock API can communicate with any
TCP/IP protocol and vice versa
NETWORK PROTOCOLS
Introduction to Protocols
The Function of Protocols

Protocols are rules and procedures for communicating. The term "protocol" is used
in a variety of contexts. For example, diplomats from one country adhere to rules
of protocol designed to help them interact smoothly with diplomats from other
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countries. Rules of protocol apply in the same way in the computer environment.
When several computers are networked, the rules and technical procedures
governing their communication and interaction are called protocols.
Keep three points in mind when you think about protocols in a network
environment:
 There are many protocols. While each protocol facilitates basic
communications, each has different purposes and accomplishes
different tasks. Each protocol has its own advantages and restrictions.
 Some protocols work only at particular OSI layers. The layer at
which a protocol works describes its function. For example, a protocol
that works at the physical layer ensures that the data packet passes
through the network interface card (NIC) and out onto the network
cable.
 Protocols can also work together in a protocol stack, or suite.
Just as a network incorporates functions at every layer of the OSI
reference model, different protocols also work together at different
levels in a single protocol stack. The levels in the protocol stack "map,"
or correspond, to the layers of the OSI reference model. For instance,
the TCP/IP protocol's application layer maps to the OSI reference
model's presentation layer. Taken together, the protocols describe the
entire stack's functions and capabilities.
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How Protocols Work

The entire technical operation by which data is transmitted over the network has to
be broken down into discrete, systematic steps. At each step, certain actions take
place that cannot take place at any other step. Each step includes its own rules and
procedures, or protocol.
The protocol steps must be carried out in a consistent order that is the same
on every computer in the network. In the sending computer, these steps must
be executed from the top down. In the receiving computer, these steps must be
carried out from the bottom up.
The Sending Computer
Protocols at the sending computer:
1. Break the data into smaller sections, called packets, which the
protocol can handle.
2. Add addressing information to the packets so that the
destination computer on the network can determine that the data
belongs to it.
3. Prepare the data for transmission through the NIC and out onto
the network cable.
The Receiving Computer
Protocols at the receiving computer carry out the same series of steps in reverse
order. They:
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1. Take the data packets off the cable.
2. Bring the data packets into the computer through the NIC.
3. Strip the data packets of all the transmitting information that
was added by the sending computer.
4. Copy the data from the packets to a buffer for reassembly.
5. Pass the reassembled data to the application in a usable form.
Both sending and receiving computers need to perform each step in the same way
so that the data will have the same structure when it is received as it did when it
was sent.
For example, two different protocols might each break data into
packets and add on various sequencing, timing, and error-checking
information, but each will do it differently. Therefore, a computer
using one of these protocols will not be able to communicate
successfully with a computer that is using the other protocol.
Network Connectivity Devices
Repeaters
As signals travel along a cable, they degrade and become distorted in a process
called "attenuation." If a cable is long enough, attenuation will finally make a
signal unrecognizable. Installing a repeater enables signals to travel farther.
How Repeaters Work
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A repeater works at the physical layer of the OSI Reference Model to regenerate
the network's signals and resend them out on other segments. Figure below shows
how repeaters regenerate weak signals.
Figure Repeaters regenerate weakened signals
The repeater takes a weak signal from one segment, regenerates it, and passes it to
the next segment. To pass data through the repeater from one segment to the next,
the packets and the Logical Link Control (LLC) protocols must be identical on
each segment. A repeater will not enable communication, for example, between an
802.3 LAN (Ethernet) and an 802.5 LAN (Token Ring).
Repeaters do not translate or filter signals. For a repeater to work, both segments
that the repeater joins must use the same access method. The two most common
access methods are carrier-sense multiple-access with collision detection
(CSMA/CD) and token passing. A repeater cannot connect a segment using
CSMA/CD to a segment using the token-passing access method. That is, a repeater
cannot translate an Ethernet packet into a Token Ring packet.
As shown in Figure below, repeaters can move packets from one kind of physical
media to another. They can take an Ethernet packet coming from a thinnet coaxial-
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cable segment and pass it on to a fiber-optic segment, provided the repeater is

capable of accepting the physical connections.
Figure Repeaters can connect different types of media
Repeater Considerations
Repeaters afford the least expensive way to expand a network. When the need
arises to extend the physical network beyond its distance or node limitations,
consider using a repeater to link segments if neither segment is generating much
traffic or limiting costs is a major consideration.
No Isolation or Filtering: Repeaters send every bit of data from one cable
segment to another, even if the data consists of malformed packets or packets not
destined for use on the network. This means that a problem with one segment can
disrupt every other segment. Repeaters do not act as filters to restrict the flow of
problem traffic.
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Repeaters will also pass a broadcast storm along from one segment to the next,
back and forth along the network. A broadcast storm occurs when so many
broadcast messages are on the network that the number is approaching the network
bandwidth limit. If a device is responding to a packet that is continuously
circulating on the network, or a packet is continuously attempting to contact a
system that never replies, network performance will be degraded.
Implementing a repeater: This section summarizes what you need to consider

when deciding whether to implement repeaters in your network.
Use a repeater to:
 Connect two segments of similar or dissimilar media.

 Regenerate the signal to increase the distance transmitted.
 Pass all traffic in both directions.
 Connect two segments in the most cost-effective manner.
Do not use a repeater when:
 There is heavy network traffic.

 Segments are using different access methods.
 Data filtering is needed.
HUB/CONCENTRATOR
One network component that has become standard equipment in networks is

the hub.
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Active Hubs
Most hubs are active; that is, they regenerate and retransmit signals in the same
way as a repeater does. Because hubs usually have eight to twelve ports for
network computers to connect to, they are sometimes called multi-port repeaters.
Active hubs require electrical power to run.
Passive Hubs
Some types of hubs are passive; examples include wiring panels or punch-down
blocks. They act as connection points and do not amplify or regenerate the signal;
the signal passes through the hub. Passive hubs do not require electrical power
to run.
Hybrid Hubs
Advanced hubs that will accommodate several different types of cables are called
hybrid hubs. The following figure shows a main hub (the hybrid) with three sub-
hubs.
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Figure Hybrid hub
Hub Considerations
Hub-based systems are versatile and offer several advantages over systems that do
not use hubs.
Hub-based topologies include the following benefits:
 Wiring systems can be changed or expanded as needed.
 Different ports can be used to accommodate a variety of cabling
types.
 Monitoring of network activity and traffic can be centralized
A hub can be used as the central hardware component in a star topology. Hubs can
also be used to expand the size of a LAN. Although using hubs won't convert a
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LAN into a WAN, connecting or adding hubs to a LAN can effectively increase
the number of workstations. This method of growing a LAN is popular, but does
come with many design limitations. Figure 3.4.1 shows how several 10BaseT hubs
can be connected to expand a network.
Figure 3.4.2Ethernet hubs connected in a series
Figure 3.4.2 shows how several token-ring hubs can be connected to

expand a network.
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Figure 3.4.3Token-ring hubs connected into one large ring

In a Token Ring network, the hub is known by several names that all mean the
same thing. These include:
 MAU (Multistation Access Unit).
 MSAU (Multistation Access Unit).
 SMAU (stands for Smart Multistation Access Unit).
Cables attach the individual clients and servers to the MSAU, which
works like other passive hubs. Figure below shows a hub in which the
internal wiring circulates the token in a clockwise direction. The
internal ring automatically converts to an external ring at each
connection point when a computer is connected.
Figure Hub showing the internal ring and clockwise token path
Hub Capacity
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An IBM MSAU has 10 connection ports. It can connect up to eight computers.

However, a Token Ring network is not limited to one ring (hub). Each ring can
have up to 33 hubs.
Each MSAU-based network can support as many as 72 computers that use

unshielded wire or up to 260 computers that use shielded wire.
Other vendors offer hubs with more capacity; the capacity depends on the vendor
and the hub model.
When one Token Ring is full—that is, when every port on an MSAU has a
computer connected to it—adding another ring (MSAU) can enlarge the network.
The only rule that must be followed is that each MSAU must be connected in such
a way so that it becomes part of the ring. Figure 3.4.5 shows 1, 2, and 3 MSAU
connected and maintaining a logical ring. An MSAU's ring-in and ring-out
connection points make use of patch cables to connect many MSAUs on top of
each other while still forming a continuous ring inside the MSAUs.
Figure 3.4.5Adding hubs while maintaining the logical ring
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BRIDGE
Like a repeater, a bridge can join segments or workgroup LANs. Figure 2.5.1
shows a bridge connecting two network segments. However, a bridge can also
divide a network to isolate traffic or problems. For example, if the volume of
traffic from one or two computers or a single department is flooding the network
with data and slowing down the entire operation, a bridge could isolate those
computers or that department.
Bridges can be used to:
 Expand the length of a segment.
 Provide for an increased number of computers on the network.
 Reduce traffic bottlenecks resulting from an excessive number
of attached computers.
 Split an overloaded network into two separate networks, reducing
the amount of traffic on each segment and making each network
more efficient.
 Link unlike physical media such as twisted-pair and coaxial
Ethernet.
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Figure 2.5.1A bridge connecting two networks
How Bridges Work
Because bridges work at the data-link layer of the OSI reference model, all
information contained in the higher levels of the OSI reference model is
unavailable to them. Rather than distinguish between one protocol and another,
bridges simply pass all protocols along the network. All protocols pass across
bridges, so it is up to the individual computers to determine which protocols they
can recognize.
The data-link layer has two sublayers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer
and the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer. Bridges work at the MAC
sublayer and are sometimes referred to as MAC-layer bridges.
A MAC-layer bridge:
 Listens to all traffic.

 Checks the source and destination addresses of each packet.
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 Builds a routing table, as information becomes available.

 Forwards packets in the following manner:
o If the destination is not listed in the routing table, the bridge
forwards the packets to all segments.
o If the destination is listed in the routing table, the bridge forwards
the packets to that segment (unless it is the same segment as the
source).
A bridge works on the principle that each network node has its own address.
A bridge forwards packets based on the address of the destination node.
Bridges actually have some degree of intelligence in that they learn where to
forward data. As traffic passes through the bridge, information about the computer
addresses is stored in the bridge's RAM. The bridge uses this RAM to build a
routing table based on source addresses.
Initially, the bridge's routing table is empty. As nodes transmit packets, the source
address is copied to the routing table. With this address information (See Figure
2.5.2); the bridge learns which computers are on which segment of the network.
Figure 2.5.2The routing table keeps track of addresses

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Creating the Routing Table Bridges build their routing tables based on the
addresses of computers that have transmitted data on the network. Specifically,
bridges use source addresses—the address of the device that initiates the
transmission—to create a routing table.
When the bridge receives a packet, the source address is compared to
the routing table. If the source address is not there, it is added to the
table. The bridge then compares the destination address with the
routing-table database.
 If the destination address is in the routing table and is on the
same segment as the source address, the packet is discarded.
This filtering helps to reduce network traffic and isolate
segments of the network.
 If the destination address is in the routing table and not in the
same segment as the source address, the bridge forwards the
packet out of the appropriate port to reach the destination
address.
 If the destination address is not in the routing table, the bridge
forwards the packet to all its ports except the one on which it
originated.
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In summary, if a bridge knows the location of the destination node, it
forwards the packet to it. If it does not know the destination, it
forwards the packet to all segments.
Segmenting Network Traffic A bridge can segment traffic because of
its routing table. As shown in Figure 2.5.3, a computer on segment 1
(the source), sends data to another computer (the destination) also
located in segment 1. If the destination address is in the routing table,
the bridge can determine that the destination computer is also on
segment 1. Because the source and destination computers are both on
segment 1, the packet does not get forwarded across the bridge to
segment 2.
Figure 2.5.3The routing table allows bridges to segment networks
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Therefore, bridges can use routing tables to reduce the traffic on the network by
controlling which packets get forwarded to other segments. This controlling
(or restricting) of the flow of network traffic is known as "segmenting network
traffic."
A large network is not limited to one bridge. Multiple bridges can be used to
combine several small networks into one large network.
Remote Bridges
Because bridges can be such powerful tools in expanding and segmenting

networks, they are often used in large networks that have widely dispersed
segments joined by telephone lines.
Only one bridge is necessary to link two cable segments. However, where two
separate LANs are located at a great distance from each other (See Figure 2.5.4),
they can be joined into a single network. Implementing two remote bridges
connected with synchronous modems to a dedicated, data-grade telephone line can
do this.
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Figure 2.5.4Remote bridges can be used to connect remote segments
Because remote LAN segments can be joined over telephone lines, it is possible
for multiple LANs to be joined by more than one path. In this situation, it is
possible that data might get into a continuous loop. To handle this possibility,
the 802.1 Network Management Committee of the Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has implemented the spanning tree algorithm (STA).
Under STA, software can sense the existence of more than one route, determine
which would be the most efficient, and then configure the bridge to use that one.
Other paths are disconnected using software, although the disconnected routes can
be reactivated if the primary route becomes unavailable.
Differentiating Between Bridges and Repeaters
Bridges work at a higher OSI layer than repeaters. This means that bridges have
more intelligence than repeaters and can take more data features into
account.
While bridges resemble repeaters in that they can regenerate data, bridges do this
at the packet level. This means that bridges can send packets over long distances
using a variety of long-distance media.
Bridge Considerations
Bridges have all of the features of repeaters, but also accommodate more nodes.
They provide better network performance than repeaters. Because bridged
networks have been divided, fewer computers compete for available resources on
each segment.
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To look at it another way, if a large Ethernet network were divided into two
segments connected by a bridge, each new network would carry fewer packets,
have fewer collisions, and operate more efficiently. Although each network would
be separate, the bridge would pass appropriate traffic between them.
Implementing a bridge
A bridge can be either a separate, stand-alone piece of equipment (an external

bridge) or it can be installed in a server. If the network operating system (NOS)
supports it, one or more network interface cards (NICs), making an internal bridge,
can be installed.
Network administrators like to use bridges because they are:
 Simple to install and transparent to users.

 Flexible and adaptable.
 Relatively inexpensive.
Switch
A switch is the next rung up the evolutionary ladder from bridges. In modern star-topology
networking, when you need bridging functionality you often buy a switch. But bridging is not
the only benefit of switch implementation. Switches also provide the benefit of micro-LAN
segmentation, which means that every node connected to a switched port receives its own
dedicated bandwidth.
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Switches are multiport bridges. Sometimes they are called smart hubs or switching hub. They
filter traffic between the ports on the switch by using the MAC address of computers
transmitting through them. Switches can be used when greater performance is needed or when
collisions need to be reduced. The following figure illustrates a switched network.
The following figure illustrates bridging functionality using switch.
Router
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In an environment that consists of several network segments with differing

protocols and architectures, a bridge might be inadequate for ensuring fast
communication among all segments. A network this complex needs a device that
not only knows the address of each segment, but can also determine the best path
for sending data and filtering broadcast traffic to the local segment. Such a device
is called a "router."
Routers work at the network layer of the OSI reference model. This means they
can switch and route packets across multiple networks. They do this by exchanging
protocol-specific information between separate networks. Routers read complex
network addressing information in the packet and, because they function at a
higher layer in the OSI reference model than bridges, they have access to
additional information.
Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge:
 Filtering and isolating traffic
 Connecting network segments
Routers have access to more of the information in packets than bridges have and
use this information to improve packet deliveries. Routers are used in complex
networks because they provide better traffic management. Routers can share status
and routing information with one another and use this information to bypass slow
or malfunctioning connections.
How Routers Work
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Routers maintain their own routing tables, usually consisting of network

addresses; hostaddresses can also be kept if the network architecture calls for it.
To determine the destination address for incoming data,
The routing table includes:
 All known network addresses.
 Instructions for connection to other networks.
 The possible paths between routers.
 The costs of sending data over those paths.
As shown in Figure 2.6.1, a router uses its data-routing table to select the best route
for the data based on costs and available paths.
Note: Remember that routing tables were also discussed in the
context of bridges. The routing table maintained by a bridge contains
MAC-sublayer addresses for each node, whereas the routing table
maintained by a router contains network numbers. Although
manufacturers of both types of equipment have chosen to use the term
"routing table," it has a different meaning for bridges than it does for
routers.
Routers require specific addresses. They understand only the network
numbers that allow them to communicate with other routers and local
NIC addresses. Routers do not talk to remote computers.
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Figure 2.6.1Routers talk to other routers, but not to remote

computers
When routers receive packets destined for a remote network, they send them to the
router that manages the destination network. In some ways this is an advantage
because it means routers can:
 Segment large networks into smaller ones.
 Act as safety barriers between segments.
 Prohibit broadcast storms, because broadcasts are not
forwarded.
Because routers must perform complex functions on each packet,
routers are slower than most bridges. As packets are passed from
router to router, data-link layer source and destination addresses are
stripped off and then re-created. This enables a router to route a
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packet from a TCP/IP Ethernet network to a server on a TCP/IP Token
Ring network.
Because routers read only addressed network packets, they do not
allow corrupted data to get passed onto the network. Because they do
not pass corrupted data or broadcast data storms, routers put little
stress on networks.
Routers do not look at the destination node address; they look only at
the network address. Routers will pass information only if the network
address is known. This ability to control the data passing through the
router reduces the amount of traffic between networks and allows
routers to use these links more efficiently than bridges.
Using the router-addressing scheme, administrators can break one
large network into many separate networks, and because routers do not
pass or even handle every packet, they act as a safety barrier between
network segments. This can greatly reduce the amount of traffic on
the network and the wait time experienced by users.
Routable Protocols Not all protocols are routable. Protocols that are
routable include:
 DECnet.
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 Internet Protocol (IP).
 Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX).
 OSI.
 Xerox Network System (XNS).
 DDP (AppleTalk).
Protocols that are not routable include:
 Local Area Transport Protocol (LAT), a protocol from Digital
Equipment Corporation.
 NetBEUI (NetBIOS Extended User Interface).
Routers are available that can accommodate multiple protocols such as
IP and DECnet in the same network.
Choosing Paths Unlike bridges, routers can accommodate multiple
active paths between LAN segments and choose among redundant
paths. Because routers can link segments that use completely different
data packaging and media-access schemes, there are often several
paths available for the router to use. This means that if one router
does not function, the data can still be passed over alternate routes.
A router can listen to a network and identify which parts are busiest.
It uses this information to determine which path to send data over. If
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one path is very busy, the router identifies an alternative path and
sends data over that one.
A router decides the path the data packet will follow by determining
the number of hops between internetwork segments. Like bridges,
routers build routing tables and use these in routing algorithms such as
the following:
 OSPF ("open shortest path first") is a link-state routing
algorithm. Link-state algorithms control the routing process and
allow routers to respond quickly to changes in the network.
 RIP (Routing Information Protocol) uses distance-vector
algorithms to determine routes. Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and IPX support RIP.
 NetWare Link Services Protocol (NLSP) is a link-state algorithm
to be used with IPX.
Types of Routers
The two major types of routers are:
 Static.
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Static routers require an administrator to manually set up and
configure the routing table and to specify each route.
 Dynamic.
Dynamic routers are designed to discover routes automatically
and therefore require a minimal amount of setup and
configuration. More sophisticated than static routers, they
examine information from other routers and make packet-by-
packet decisions about how to send data across the network.
Table 2.2 compares and contrasts the characteristics of static and

dynamic routers.
Table 2.2Characteristics of the Two Types of Routers
Static routers Dynamic routers
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Manually set up and configure Manually configure the first route.

all routes. Automatically detect additional
networks and routes.
Always use the same route, Can choose a route based on
determined by a routing table factors such as cost and amount of
entry. link traffic.
Use a hard-coded route Can decide to send packets over
(designed to handle only a alternate routes.
specific situation), not
necessarily the shortest
route.
Are considered more secure Can improve security by manually
because the administrator configuring the router to filter out
specifies each route. specific network addresses and
prevent traffic from going there.
Brouter
• A brouter, as the name implies, combines the qualities of both a
bridge and a router. A brouter can act as a router for one
protocol and as a bridge for all the others.
• Can use either MAC addresses or IP addresses to handle data routing.
Gateway
In general, the role of the gateway is to overcome problems associated with
protocol incompatibility. This is a problem, which most often occurs when totally
different systems, usually developed independently, need to be linked.
Note:
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Gateways are available as stand-alone devices or in the form of PCs functioning as

gateway servers
Hence, in short gateway performs protocol translation between two dissimilar
networks (LANS).
E.g. a token ring LAN to Ethernet LAN
Chapter Three
Design Networks
Network Connectivity Design
 Backbone
 Bandwidth
 Redundancy
 Remote connection
Hierarchical Design Model
 One of the best practices when designing an enterprise network is to

develop a layered and hierarchical model
 Composed of three discrete layers – each focusing on specific
functions
1. Core Layer consisting of high-end routers and switches that
are optimized for availability and performance
2. Distribution layer of routers and switches that implement
network policies
3. Access layer that connects users via hubs and switches
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LAN Design Goals:
 Functionality - the network must work with reasonable speed and
reliability.
 Scalability - the network must be able to grow without any major
changes to the overall design.
 Adaptability - the network must be designed with an eye toward
future technologies, and should include no element that would
limit implementation of new technologies as they become
available.
 Manageability - the network would be designed to facilitate
network monitoring and management.
Design Methodology
1. Analyse requirements
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2. Develop LAN structure (topology)
3. Set up addressing (and naming conventions) and routing
Step 1... - Analyze Requirements (of the network and its users)
 Business issues
 Technology issues
 Administrative issues
 Gather Data -
o Corporate Structure
o Business information flow
o Applications in use
o Current topology
o Performance characteristics of current network
o Determine if documented policies are in place
o Mission-critical data
o Mission-critical operations
o Approved protocols and platforms
o Control versus distributed authority
 Business requirements
 Technical requirements
 New applications or business operations
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 Availability requirements -
o Throughput
o Response time
o Access to resources
Design Rule: First and foremost you must understand the customer.
Design Rule: Find out what availability means to your customer.
Step 1... - Analyse Network Load Requirements
 Client/Server applications
 Host/terminal applications
 Routing protocols
 Reqularly scheduled services, such as file backup
 Estimate worst-case traffic load during the busiest times for
users and during regularly scheduled network services
Design Rule: Before developing an internetwork structure and provisioning

hardware, determine the network traffic load.
Design Rule: Evaluate applications that cause traffic problems (congestion).
Step 2... - Develop LAN Topology
 LAN topology that will satisfy Step 1 requirements
 Star Topology
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 Extended Star Topology
Star topology -
1. A LAN topology in which end points on a network are connected to
a common central hub/switch by point-to-point links.
2. A ring topology that is organized as a star, implements a
unidirectional closed-loop star (star wired ring), instead of point-
to-point links.
Step 3... - Layer 3 Addressing
 The router divides subnets and networks
 The router structures an internetwork
 Logical addressing should be mapped to the physical network
 Develop and document the IP addressing scheme to be used in the
network
Step 3... - Setting Up VLAN Implementation
 Group users by department, team, or application
 Provide broadcast containment and security
 Routers provide communiocation between VLANs (and security)
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VLAN (Virtual LAN) - Group of devices on a LAN that are configured
(using management software) so that they can communicate as if they
were attached to the same wire (media), when in fact they are located
on a number of different LAN segments. Because VLANs are based on
logical instead of physical connections, they are extremely flexible.
What problems are you trying to solve?
 Media contention
o too many devices, all with a high demand for the network
segment
 Excessive broadcasts
o client packets looking for services
o too many server packets announcing services
o too many routing table updates
 Need to transport new payloads
o voice and video network services
 Need for more bandwidth
 Overloaded backbone
 Network-layer addressing issues
o running out of IP addresses
o need for physically separate subnets
o other issues dependent on the protocols
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Ethernet Technology
Segmentation - Bridging and switching are both used for segmentation
 Results in multiple collision domains
 Still a single broadcast domain
 Stations can get dedicated bandwidth
Collision domain (bandwidth domain) - In Ethernet, the network area
within which frames that have collided are propagated (everything
associated with one port on a bridge or switch). Repeaters and hubs
propagate collisions; LAN switches, bridges and routers do not.
Broadcast domain - The set of all devices that will receive broadcast
frames originating from any device within the set. Broadcast domains
are typically bounded by routers because routers do not forward
broadcast frames (everything associated with one port on a router).
All broadcasts from any host in the same broadcast domain are visible
to all other hosts in the same broadcast domain. Broadcasts must be
visible to all hosts in the broadcast domain in order to establish
connectivity.
The scalability of the collision domain depends on total traffic, and the
scalability for a broadcast domain depends on total broadcast traffic.
Network Design
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The major pieces of this topology design can be broken into three
unique categories of the OSI model...
 Layer 1 - Physical Layer
Includes wire media type such as CAT5 UTP and fiber-optic cable
along with EIA/TIA 568 Standard for layout and connection of
wiring schemes.
Design Goal: Build this layer of the OSI model with speed and expansion
capabilities.
 Layer 2 - Data Link Layer
Includes selection of Layer 2 devices such as bridges or LAN
switches used to interconnect the Layer 1 media to for a LAN
segment. Devices at this layer will determine the size of the
collision and broadcast domains.
Design Goals:
o Create a concentration point within the MDFs or IDFs
where end host can be grouped at Layer 1 to form a physical
LAN segment.
o Install LAN switching devices that use microsegmentation in
order to reduce the collision domain size.
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o Create a point (at Layer 2) of the topology where users can
be grouped into virtual workgroups (VLANs) and unique
broadcast domains.
 Layer 3 - Network Layer
Includes selection of layer 3 devices such as routers which are
used to create unique LAN segments and allow communication
between segments based on layer 3 addressing such as IP
addressing.
Design Goals:
o Build a path between LAN segments that will filter the flow
of data packets.
o Isolate ARP protocol broadcast
o Isolation of collisions between segments.
o Filtering of Layer 4 services between segments.
Layer 1 Media and Topology
The Physical layer controls the way data is transmitted between source
and destination node.
Physical layer - Layer 1 of the OSI reference model. The physical layer
defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural and functional
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specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical
link between end systems.
Media - Plural of medium. The various physical environments through
which transmission signals pass. Common network media include
twisted-pair, coaxial and fiber-optic cable, and the atmosphere
(through which microwave, laser, and infrared transmission occurs).
Sometimes called physical media.
Topology - Physical arrangement of network nodes and media within an
enterprise networking structure.
Cable Plant types:
 Electrical (copper)
o coaxial
o twisted pair
 Fiber-optic
o multimode
o single-mode
 Wiring configurations
o Star / Extended Star
o Distance limitations
Star Topology using CAT5 (UTP):
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 Specified by EIA/TIA 568 standard
 The MDF is the center of the star
 The MDF is the Point of Presence (POP) for outside services from
the WAN provider
EIA/TIA-568 - Standard that describes the characteristics and
applications for various grades of UTP cabling.
Category 5 (CAT5) cabling - One of five grades of UTP cabling described
in the EIA/TIA-568B standard. Category 5 cabling is used for running
CDDI and can transmit data at speeds up to 100 Mbps.
In a simple star with only one wiring closet, the main distribution facility
(MDF) will include one or more horizontal cross connect (HCC) patch
panels. HCC patch cables will be used to connect the Layer 1 'horizontal
cabling' with the Layer 2 LAN switch ports. The uplink port of the LAN
switch will be connected to the Ethernet port of the Layer 3 router
using 'patch cable' also. At this point the end host will have a complete
physical connection to the router port. The quantity of horizontal cable
run and the size (number of ports) of the HCC patch panels will be
determined by the user's requirements.
Design Hint: Review the user’s requirements to determine what the user expects
for the number of horizontal cable runs to each room that the MDF or IDF will be
servicing in its catchment area.
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Extended Star Topology:
 Specified by EIA/TIA standards
 Creates multiple catchment areas interconnected with vertical
cabling
 All vertical cabling is connected to the MDF to create a single
LAN segment
Vertical cabling - (Backbone cabling) Cabling that provides
interconnections between wiring closets, wiring closets and the POP,
and between buildings that are part of the same LAN.
Catchment areas - Zone that falls within area that can be served by an
internetworking device such as a hub.
MDF - Main Distribution Facility. Primary communications room for a
building. Central point of a star networking topology where patch
panels, hub, and router are located.
IDF - Intermediate Distribution Facility. Secondary communications
room for a building using a star networking topology. The IDF is
dependent on the MDF.
Layer 1 Documentation (Logical Diagram)
 Logical diagram is a snapshot view of overall LAN implementation
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 Useful in troubleshooting problems and implementing expansion in
the future
 Elements of the Logical Diagram Include:
o Exact locations of MDF and IDF's wiring closets
o The type and quantity of cabling used to interconnect the
IDFs with the MDF, along with how many spare cables are
available for increasing the bandwidth between the wiring
closets.
o Detailed documentation of all cable runs, what the
identification number is and which port on the HCC or VCC
that run is terminated on. This is called a 'cut sheet'.
Layer 2 - LAN Switching
The purpose of Layer 2 (Data Link Layer) devices in the network are to
provide 'flow control', 'error detection & correction', and 'reduce congestion' in
the network. The two most common Layer 2 devices (other than the
NIC, which every host on the network has to have) are Bridges and LAN
switches.
LAN switch’s (Layer 2 Switch) can allocate bandwidth on a per port basis
thus allowing more bandwidth to vertical cabling, uplinks and servers.
Note: The theoretical maximum bandwidth for a Layer 2 Switch is:
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Theoretical No-of-ports * Bandwidth

Maximum = -----------------------
Bandwidth 2
Asymmetric Switching -
 Provides switching between unlike bandwidths (10/100 Mbps)
 Requires the switch to use memory buffering
Use Switches to reduce congestion:
 Avoid congestion on a LAN by using microsegmentation to
eliminate collision domains
 Cascade switches and hubs
 Tailor availability to the needs of the device
Microsegmentation - Division of a network into smaller segments, usually
with the intention of increasing aggregate bandwidth to network
devices.
By installing LAN switching at the MDF and IDFs we can start to look
at the size of our collision domains and the speed for each horizontal
cable and vertical cable run. Since the vertical cable will be carrying all
of the data traffic between the MDF and the IDFs, the capacity of
this run must be larger.
Layer 2 Switch Collision Domains:
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 In a pure switch LAN environment, the size of the collision
domain is between two hosts.
 When using hubs, the size of the collision domain increases and
bandwidth is shared.
A shared LAN hub is a multiport repeater and therefore is a collision
domain. All hosts connected to the shared LAN hub share the same
collision domain and the bandwidth.
Layer 2 Switch with Hubs:
 use hubs to supply more connection points for hosts
Layer 2 Migrating to higher bandwidth:
 migration to higher bandwidth is as simple as patch to higher
speed port or adding additional high speed ports
 double the capacity in the vertical cabling by bringing up another
link
Layer 3 - Routing
Implementation of Layer 3 (Network Layer) devices such as routers
allow for segmentation of the LAN into unique networks both physical and
logical. Routers also allow for connectivity to wide area networks (WANS)
such as the Internet.

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 Routers serve as broadcast firewalls
 Routers consolidate for scalable internetworks
 Network protocol addressing and routing provides built-in scaling
Use Routers to Impose Logical Structure
 One router divides subnets and networks
 One router structures an internetwork
 Routers serve as broadcast firewalls
Routers permit greater scalability because they serve as firewalls for
broadcasts (broadcast domains). With bridges and switches, all
unknown addresses must be flooded out every port. The router also is
the central point in the LAN for traffic destination of the WAN port.
File Servers and Traffic Patterns
One of the keys to designing a successful network is to understand the
data traffic network. The Applications (servers) can be categorized
into two distinct classes - (1) 'enterprise servers' and (2) 'workgroup
servers'. Within the MDF and IDFs, the Layer 2 LAN switches must
have high speed (100MBps) ports allocated for these servers.
Enterprise network - Large and diverse network connecting most major
points in a company or other organization.Differs from a WAN in that
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it is privately owned and maintained.Enterprise servers - support all of the
users on the network such as E-mail or DNS. Work Group servers -
support a specific set of users.
Since everyone on the network needs access to the enterprise servers,
it should be connected to the MDF. This way traffic to these type of
services only have to travel to the MDF and will not be transmitted
across other networks.
Workgroup - Collection of workstations and servers on a LAN that are
designed to communicate and exchange data with one another.
The Workgroup servers should be placed in the IDF closest to the
users accessing these applications. By doing this, traffic to these
servers will only have to travel network infrastructure to that IDF and
will not affect other users on that network segment.
Documenting Your Network
What to Document:
 Physical Network Maps (cutsheet)
 Logical Network Map (IP addressing scheme)
 Addressing Maps (snapshot view of network)
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A standard should be set in the addressing of important hosts on the
network. This addressing scheme should be kept consistent throughout
the entire network.
Reasons to Document:
 Dramatically decreases problem resolution time
 Networks with the most problems, have the least documentation
 Networks with good documentation drastically reduce problem
load
 The more documentation the better
Chapter 5
Network Address
IP addressing
IP addresses are represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value.
It is usually expressed in a dotted decimal format. For example,
9.167.5.8 is a valid IP 66 TCP/IP Tutorial and Technical Overview
address. The numeric form is used by IP software. The mapping
between the IP address and an easier-to-read symbolic name, for
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example myhost.ibm.com, is done by the Domain Name System
(DNS).
The IP address
IP addresses are used by the IP protocol to uniquely identify a
host on the Internet (or more generally, any internet). Strictly
speaking, an IP address identifies an interface that is capable of
sending and receiving IP datagrams. One system can have multiple
such interfaces. However, both hosts and routers must have at
least one IP address, so this simplified definition is acceptable.
IP datagrams (the basic data packets exchanged between hosts)
are transmitted by a physical network attached to the host. Each
IP datagram contains a source IP address and a destination IP
address. To send a datagram to a certain IP destination, the
target IP address must be translated or mapped to a physical
address. This may require transmissions on the network to find
out the destination's physical network address. (For example, on
LANs, the Address Resolution is used to translate IP addresses
to physical MAC addresses.)
IP addressing standards are described in RFC 1166 – Internet
Numbers. To identify a host on the Internet, each host is
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assigned an address, the IP address, or in some cases, the
Internet address. When the host is attached to more than one
network, it is called multi-homed and has one IP address for each
network interface. The IP address consists of a pair of numbers:

IP address = <network number><host number>
The network number portion of the IP address is administered by
one of three
Regional Internet Registries (RIR):

 American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN): This registry is
responsible for the administration and registration of Internet Protocol
(IP) numbers for North America, South America, the Caribbean and
sub-Saharan Africa.
 Reseaux IP Europeens (RIPE): This registry is responsible for the
administration and registration of Internet Protocol (IP) numbers for
Europe, Middle East, parts of Africa.
 Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC): This registry
is responsible for the administration and registration of Internet
Protocol (IP) numbers within the Asia Pacific region.
IP addresses are 32-bit numbers represented in a dotted decimal
form (as the decimal representation of four 8-bit values
concatenated with dots). For example, 128.2.7.9 is an IP address
with 128.2 being the network number and 7.9 being the host
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number. The rules used to divide an IP address into its network
and host parts are explained below.
The binary format of the IP address 128.2.7.9 is:

10000000 00000010 00000111 00001001
Class-based IP addresses
The first bits of the IP address specify how the rest of the
address should be separated into its network and host part. The
terms network address and netID are sometimes used instead of
network number, but the formal term, used in RFC 1166, is
network number. Similarly, the terms host address and hostID
are sometimes used instead of host number.
There are five classes of IP addresses. They are shown in Figure
4.2.
Figure 4.2. IP - Assigned classes of IP addresses
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Where:
 Class A addresses: These addresses use 7 bits for the <network> and 24
bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 2 7-2 (126)
networks each with 224-2 (16777214) hosts; a total of over 2 billion
addresses.
 Class B addresses: These addresses use 14 bits for the <network> and 16
bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 2 14-2 (16382)
networks each with 216-2 (65534) hosts; a total of over 1 billion addresses.
 Class C addresses: These addresses use 21 bits for the <network> and 8
bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. That allows for 2 21-2
(2097150) networks each with 28-2 (254) hosts; a total of over half a billion
addresses.
 Class D addresses: These addresses are reserved for multicasting (a sort of
broadcasting, but in a limited area, and only to hosts using the same class D
address).
 Class E addresses: These addresses are reserved for future use.
A Class A address is suitable for networks with an extremely large
number of hosts. Class C addresses are suitable for networks with a
small number of hosts. This means that medium-sized networks (those
with more than 254 hosts or where there is an expectation of more
than 254 hosts) must use Class B addresses. However, the number of
small- to medium-sized networks has been growing very rapidly. It was
feared that if this growth had been allowed to continue unabated, all
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of the available Class B network addresses would have been used by
the mid-1990s. This was termed the IP address exhaustion problem.
(The number of networks on the Internet has been approximately
doubling annually for a number of years. However, the usage of the
Class A, B, and C networks differs greatly. Nearly all of the new
networks assigned in the late 1980s were Class B, and in 1990 it
became apparent that if this trend continued, the last Class B network
number would be assigned during 1994. On the other hand, Class C
networks were hardly being used.)
The division of an IP address into two parts also separates the
responsibility for selecting the complete IP address. The network
number portion of the address is assigned by the RIRs. The host
number portion is assigned by the authority controlling the network. As
shown in the next section, the host number can be further subdivided:
this division is controlled by the authority which manages the network.
It is not controlled by the RIRs.
Reserved IP addresses
A component of an IP address with a value all bits 0 or all bits 1 has
a special meaning:
 All bits 0: An address with all bits zero in the host number portion is
interpreted as this host (IP address with <host address>=0). All bits zero in
the network number portion is thisnetwork (IP address with <network
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address>=0). When a host wants to communicate over a network, but does

not yet know the network IP address, it may send packets with <network
address>=0. Other hosts on the network interpret the address as meaning this
network. Their replies contain the fully qualified network address, which the
sender records for future use.
 All bits 1: An address with all bits one is interpreted as all networks or all
hosts. For example, the following means all hosts on network 128.2 (class B
address):
128.2.255.255
This is called a directed broadcast address because it contains
both a valid <network address> and a broadcast <host address>.

 Loopback: The class A network 127.0.0.0 is defined as the loopback
network. Addresses from that network are assigned to interfaces that process
data within the local system. These loopback interfaces do not access a
physical network.
IP subnets
Due to the explosive growth of the Internet, the principle of
assigned IP addresses became too inflexible to allow easy
changes to local network configurations. Those changes might
occur when:
 A new type of physical network is installed at a location.
 Growth of the number of hosts requires splitting the local network into two
or more separate networks.
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 Growing distances require splitting a network into smaller networks, with

gateways between them.
To avoid having to request additional IP network addresses, the
concept of IP
subnetting was introduced. The assignment of subnets is done
locally. The entire network still appears as one IP network to the
outside world.
The host number part of the IP address is subdivided into a
second network number and a host number. This second network
is termed a subnetwork or subnet. The main network now consists
of a number of subnets. The IP address is interpreted as:

<network number><subnet number><host number>
The combination of subnet number and host number is often
termed the local address or the local portion of the IP address.
Subnetting is implemented in a way that is transparent to remote
networks. A host within a network that has subnets is aware of
the subnetting structure. A host in a different network is not.
This remote host still regards the local part of the IP address as
a host number.
The division of the local part of the IP address into a subnet
number and host number is chosen by the local administrator. Any
bits in the local portion can be used to form the subnet. The
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division is done using a 32-bit subnet mask. Bits with a value of
zero bits in the subnet mask indicate positions ascribed to the
host number. Bits with a value of one indicate positions ascribed
to the subnet number. The bit positions in the subnet mask
belonging to the original network number are set to ones but are
not used (in some platform configurations, this value was actually
specified with zeros instead of ones, but either way it is not
used). Like IP addresses, subnet masks are usually written in
dotted decimal form.
The special treatment of all bits zero and all bits one applies to
each of the three parts of a subnetted IP address just as it does
to both parts of an IP address that has not been subnetted (see
“Reserved IP addresses”). For example, subnetting a Class B
network could use one of the following schemes:

 The first octet is the subnet number; the second octet is the host number.
This gives 28-2 (254) possible subnets, each having up to 2 8-2 (254) hosts.
Recall that we subtract two from the possibilities to account for the all ones
and all zeros cases. The subnet mask is 255.255.255.0.
 The first 12 bits are used for the subnet number and the last four for the host
number. This gives 212-2 (4094) possible subnets but only 24-2 (14) hosts per
subnet. The subnet mask is 255.255.255.240.
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In this example, there are several other possibilities for assigning the
subnet and host portions of the address. The number of subnets and
hosts and any future requirements should be considered before
defining this structure. In the last example, the subnetted Class B
network has 16 bits to be divided between the subnet number and the
host number fields. The network administrator defines either a larger
number of subnets each with a small number of hosts, or a smaller
number of subnets each with many hosts.
When assigning the subnet part of the local address, the objective is
to assign a number of bits to the subnet number and the remainder to
the local address. Therefore, it is normal to use a contiguous block of
bits at the beginning of the local address part for the subnet number.
This makes the addresses more readable. (This is particularly true
when the subnet occupies 8 or 16 bits.) With this approach, either of
the subnet masks above are "acceptable" masks. Masks such as
255.255.252.252 and 255.255.255.15 are “unacceptable.” In fact, most
TCP/IP implementations do not support non-contiguous subnet masks.
Their use is universally discouraged.
Types of subnetting
There are two types of subnetting: static and variable length.
Variable length subnetting is more flexible than static. Native IP
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routing and Routing IP (RIP) Version 1 support only static
subnetting. However, RIP Version 2 supports variable length
subnetting
Static subnetting
 Static subnetting implies that all subnets obtained from the same
network use the same subnet mask.
 This is simple to implement and easy to maintain, it may waste
address space in small networks. Consider a network of four hosts
using a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0. This allocation wastes 250 IP
addresses.
 All hosts and routers are required to support static subnetting.
Variable length subnetting

 When variable length subnetting is used, allocated subnets within the
same network can use different subnet masks.
 A small subnet with only a few hosts can use a mask that
accommodates this need. A subnet with many hosts requires a
different subnet mask.
 The ability to assign subnet masks according to the needs of the
individual subnets helps conserve network addresses.
 Variable length subnetting divides the network so that each subnet
contains sufficient addresses to support the required number of hosts.
 An existing subnet can be split into two parts by adding another bit to
the subnet portion of the subnet mask. Other subnets in the network
are unaffected by the change.
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Mixing static and variable length subnetting

Not every IP device includes support for variable length
subnetting. Initially, it would appear that the presence of a host
that only supports static subnetting prevents the use of variable
length subnetting. This is not the case. Routers interconnecting
the subnets are used to hide the different masks from hosts.
Hosts continue to use basic IP routing. This offloads subnetting
complexities to dedicated routers.
Static subnetting example
Consider the class A network shown in Figure 4.3
Figure 4.3. IP - Class A address without subnets
Using the following IP address:
00001001 01000011 00100110 00000001 a 32-bit address
9 67 38 1 decimal notation
(9.67.38.1)
9.67.38.1 is an IP address (class A)
having
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9 as the <network address>
67.38.1 as the <host address>
The network administrator may wish to choose the bits from 8 to 25 to
indicate the subnet address. In that case, the bits from 26 to 31
indicate the actual host addresses. Figure 4.4 shows the subnetted
address derived from the original class A address.
Figure 4.4. IP - Class A address with subnet mask and subnet address
A bit mask, known as the subnet mask, is used to identify which bits of
the original host address field indicate the subnet number. In the
above example, the subnet mask is 255.255.255.192 (or 11111111
11111111 11111111 11000000 in bit notation). Note that, by convention,
the <network address> is included in the mask as well.
Because of the all bits 0 and all bits 1 restrictions, this defines 2 18-2
(from 1 to 262143) valid subnets. This split provides 262142 subnets
each with a maximum of 26-2 (62) hosts.
The value applied to the subnet number takes the value of the full
octet with non-significant bits set to zero. For example, the
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hexadecimal value 01 in this subnet mask assumes an 8-bit value
01000000. This provides a subnet value of 64.
Applying the 255.255.255.192 to the sample class A address 9.67.38.1
provides the following information:
00001001 01000011 00100110 00000001 = 9.67.38.1 (class A address)
11111111 11111111 11111111 11------ 255.255.255.192 (subnet mask)
===================================== logical_AND
00001001 01000011 00100110 00------ = 9.67.38.0(subnet base
address)
This leaves a host address of:
-------- -------- -------- --000001 = 1 (host address)
IP will recognize all host addresses as being on the local network for
which the logical_AND operation described above produces the same
result. This is important for routing IP datagrams in subnet
environments
The actual subnet number is:
-------- 01000011 00100110 00------ = 68760 (subnet number)
This subnet number is a relative number. That is, it is the 68760th
subnet of network 9 with the given subnet mask. This number bears no
resemblance to the actual IP address that this host has been assigned
(9.67.38.1). It has no meaning in terms of IP routing.
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The division of the original <host address> into <subnet><host> is chosen
by the network administrator. The values of all zeroes and all ones in
the <subnet> field are reserved.
Note:
Because the range of available IP addresses is decreasing rapidly, many
routers now support the use of all zeroes and all ones in the <subnet>
field.
This is not consistent with the defined standards.
Variable length subnetting example

Consider a corporation that has been assigned the Class C network
165.214.32.0. The corporation has the requirement to split this
address range into five separate networks each with the following
number of hosts:
• Subnet #1: 50 hosts
This cannot be achieved with static subnetting. For this example,
static subnetting divides the network into four subnets each with 64
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hosts or eight subnets each with 32 hosts. This subnet allocation does
not meet the stated requirements.
To divide the network into five subnets, multiple masks should be
defined. Using a mask of 255.255.255.192, the network can be divided
into four subnets each with 64 hosts. The fourth subnet can be
further divided into two subnets each with 32 hosts by using a mask of
255.255.255.224. There will be three subnets each with 64 hosts and
two subnets each with 32 hosts. This satisfies the stated
requirements.
Determining the subnet mask

Usually, hosts will store the subnet mask in a configuration file.
However, sometimes this cannot be done, for example, as in the
case of a diskless workstation. The ICMP protocol includes two
messages: address mask request and address mask reply. These
allow hosts to obtain the correct subnet mask from a server.
Addressing routers and multi-homed hosts

Whenever a host has a physical connection to multiple networks
or subnets, it is described as being multi-homed. By default, all
routers are multi-homed since their purpose is to join networks
or subnets. A multi-homed host has different IP addresses
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associated with each network adapter. Each adapter connects to
a different subnet or network.
IP routing
An important function of the IP layer is IP routing. This provides
the basic mechanism for routers to interconnect different
physical networks. A device can simultaneously function as both a
normal host and a router. A router of this type is referred to as
a router with partial routing information.
The router only has information about four kinds of destinations:
• Hosts that are directly attached to one of the physical
networks to which the router is attached.
• Hosts or networks for which the router has been given explicit
definitions.
Hosts or networks for which the router has received an ICMP redirect message.
• A default for all other destinations.
Additional protocols are needed to implement a full-function
router. These types of routers are essential in most networks,
because they can exchange information with other routers in the
environment. The protocols used by these routers are reviewed in
Chapter 4, “Routing protocols” on page 137.
There are two types of IP routing: direct and indirect.
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Direct routing
If the destination host is attached to the same physical network
as the source host, IP datagrams can be directly exchanged. This
is done by encapsulating the IP datagram in the physical network
frame. This is called direct delivery and is referred to as direct
routing.
Indirect routing
Indirect routing occurs when the destination host is not
connected to a network directly attached to the source host. The
only way to reach the destination is via one or more IP gateways.
(Note that in TCP/IP terminology, the terms gateway and router
are used interchangeably. This describes a system that performs
the duties of a router.) The address of the first gateway (the
first hop) is called an indirect route in the IP routing algorithm.
The address of the first gateway is the only information needed
by the source host to send a packet to the destination host.
In some cases, there may be multiple subnets defined on the
same physical network. If the source and destination hosts
connect to the same physical network but are defined in
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different subnets, indirect routing is used to communicate
between the pair of devices. A router is needed to forward
traffic between subnets.
Figure 4.5 shows an example of direct and indirect routes.
Figure 4.3. IP - Direct and indirect routes - Host C has a direct route
to hosts B and D, and an indirect route to host A via gateway B
5. 3.4. Testing the NIC

5.3.5. Configuring computers connected in
a peer to peer mode
b. client/server mode
5.3.6. Testing whether the host is reachable and responding
5.3.7. Sharing resources
5.3.8. Subnetting a class C network
6. Connecting computers in peer-to-peer
 Installing and configuring peer-to-peer network
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 Resource sharing
 File sharing
 Hardware sharing
 Software sharing
7. Documentation
6.1. Overview of documentation
6.2. Current hardware configuration
6.3. the installed software
6.4. Any patches, and special settings.
6.5. Documenting Network Performance
6.6. Documenting Server Performance
6.7. Other Documentation: README files ,The manufacturer’s technical
support CD-ROM ,The manufacturer’s technical support website
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Self-Check 1
 Answer the questions on the following questionnaire; provide the answer sheet to your
trainer.
 Check your answers by looking at the feedback sheets; ask for the assistance of the
trainer whenever necessary.
Satisfactory
Questions
Response
 The trainee should answer the following questions YES NO
Part one: - Write “TRUE” if the statement is correct and “FALSE” if

not on space provide
_______1. Standalone system can properly satisfy the need of today’s
computer user.
_______2. Application (software) sharing occurs when several users
at different locations run application programs that are installed
centrally in one location (application server).
______3. Computer network is a system in which a number of
independent computers are linked together to share data and
peripherals.
______4. LAN connects computers and other devices on opposite
side of the world
_______5. A multinational corporation with linked computers in
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different countries is using a LAN.

Part two: - Choose the best answer and write you answer on space
provide
_______1. Among the following which one is the disadvantage of
computer network?
A. Inexpensive to Install
B. Requires Administrative Time
C. File Server May Fail
D. The dangers of computer virus
E. All except A
_______2. Which one is not true about server computer?
A. It has powerful processors

B. It has large size hard disk
C. It has smaller size RAM
D. All
E. None of the above
_______3. A collection of LNA in two or more organization is called:

A) Extranet B) Intranet C) Internet D) MAN
_______4. Which one of the following is NOT the function of
network operating system loaded on the server computer?
A. Manages network resources

B. Disables clients to access remote drives as if they were on the
clients own machine
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C. Controls the flow of data

D. Maintain security
E. None
________5. Among the following network type which one has no

geographical limit?
A. WAN B. LAN C. NIC D. fiber optics
_______6. Sharing programs on a network
A. Saves disk space

B. Reduces maintenance cost
C. Reduce licensing cost
D. All
_________7. What is the maximum length of a UTP category 5 cable

segment in an Ethernet network?
A) 100 meters
B) 185 meters
C) 500 meters
D) 2 kilometers
E) 200 meters
_______8. A device that provides an interface b/n cable and

computer is:
A. Modem C) Repeater
B. Network Interface Card D) Hub
_______9. Of the following copper cable which one transmits voice,
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video, and data?
A. Cat1 C) cat2
B. Coaxial cable D) All
_______10. Among the following which one has a capacity to

transmit signal in the forms of light pulses.
A) Coaxial cable C) Microwave
B) Infrared D) Fiber optics E) B
&D
_______11. Which cable do you NOT use for LAN that requires
a high level of security?
A. Fiber Optics C) Unshielded twisted pairs

B. Coaxial cable D) Shielded twisted pairs
_______12. Which one is fast becoming the most popular LAN

cabling?
A) Twisted-pairs cable B) Coaxial cable
C) Fiber optics D) Infrared
_______13. A standard category of UTP that consists of two
twisted pairs of copper wire and certified for voice but not data
transition is:
A. Category 1 C) Category 6 E) A&B

B. Category 5e D) Category 2
_______14. Which of the following is the potential problem of

copper cable?
A. Cost C) Addition of two new computer

B. Light pulse interference D) Crosstalk
_______15. Which one is the benefit of Centralizing Administration
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and Support?
A. Centralized Software Update: like Antivirus

B. Centralized Storage and Backup
C. Centralized Processing and management of data, such as
Airline reservation.
D. All
 The trainee’s underpinning knowledge was
[ ] Satisfactory [ ] Not satisfactory
 Feedback to Trainee:
Trainee’s Signature: Date:

Instructor’s Signature: Date:
Answer Key
Part one
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1. False
2. True
3. True
4. False
5. False
Part two
1. A
2. C
3. A
4. E
5. A
6. D
7. A
8. B
9. B
10. D
11. C
12. A
13. A
14. D
15. D
Performance Criteria
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Satisfactory
Assessment Criteria
Response
The trainee will be assessed through the following criteria: YES NO
 Answered all the interview questions clearly
 Performed all activities accordingly
 Followed all instructions in the activities
Trainees’ Performance is:

[ ] Satisfactory [ ] Not Satisfactory
Feedback to Trainee:
Trainee’s Signature: Date:

Instructor’s Signature: Date:
TVET College SHEET

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NEFAS SILK TVET COLLÈGE

Practice Task Safety

Introduction to Computer Networking

 Their small hard drive capacities were inefficient.

To address the above problems, Computer networking was born.

A computer network is a connection of two or more computers and other devices

Benefits (Advantages) of Network Computing

1. Sharing Information (Or Data)-- like, Company Data Base

2. Sharing Hardware(Peripheral Devices) Printers, Faxes,

3. Sharing Internet Connection /communication

e-mail, voice and video conferencing.

Expensive Professional Software

5. Centralizing Administration And Support

i. Centralized Software Update: like Antivirus

ii. Centralized Storage and Backup

iii. Centralized Processing and management of data, such as

In short sharing programs on a network

 Saves disk space

 Reduces maintenance cost

 Reduce licensing cost

Sharing Hardware (Peripheral devices)

Computer networks enable us to share expensive hardware resource among several

Central Disk storage – Network system provide the possibility of using a

Centralizing Administration And Support

The login (gain access to) Process:

Even if your computer is physically connected to a network, you cannot typically

A network administrator/supervisor is the person who is responsible for setting up

Note:Network administration tasks include:

 Managing users and security.

Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network

File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible

Cables May Break. The Topology chapter presents information

 Stand-Alone Computer : A computer that is not connected to a network

• Peers are computers which use and provide network resources.

• Serversare powerful computers that provide network resources

• Example: Shared data, Shared printers and other peripherals, &

Local Area Network (LAN)

Wide Area Network (WAN)

 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): a network that transmits data and

 Internet It is a global collection of networks, both big and small. It is a

 Intranet: Intranets are similar to World Wide Web (WWW) where

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

There are 7 standards categories of UTP:

• Consists of two twisted pairs of copper wire

• Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.

• Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.

• Consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.

• Improved version of category 5

• Similar to CAT 5e.

Twisted-Pair Cabling Components

RJ-45 connector and jack

Wall plates these support two or more RJ-45 jack

Various twisted-pair cabling components

o It is relatively inexpensive and easy to install.

types of cabling. Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray electronic

shielding is referred to as dual shielded. For environments that are subject to

higher interference, quad shielding is available. Quad shielding consists of two

layers of foil insulation and two layers of braided metal shielding.

Coaxial cable showing various layers

electrical noise and crosstalk.

A nonconducting outer shield—usually made of rubber, Teflon, or plastic—

surrounds the entire cable.