167

TWO DUMB DONKEYS DECLARE THE WORD OF THE

LORD: A LITERARY-STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF
NUMBERS 22-241
E. R. WENDLAND
ABSTRACT
This literary-structural study explores selected aspects of the poetic
organization and associated rhetorical functions of the speech-punctuated
narrative recorded in Numbers 22-24.2 After a summary description of the
overall discourse organization of these chapters, I will focus on the poetic
features of the sequence of seven oracles (“orations”) of Yahweh that were
uttered by the Mesopotamian prophet Balaam with direct or indirect
reference to the tribes of Israel. These prophecies were commissioned by
the Moabite king Balak as curses, but they were dramatically transformed
by the LORD into present and future blessings to be bestowed upon his
people. In conclusion I overview a number of applications that concern the
communication of this captivating passage meaningfully in contemporary
language-cultures, with special reference to translating, formatting,
articulating, and supplementing the original Hebrew text.

INTRODUCTION
Demarcating the discourse
Before considering these three chapters (Num 22-24) in greater exegetical detail,
it is necessary to set them within their wider textual context.3 What leads us to
1
This study derives independently from a commentary that I am co-authoring with
Lénart de Regt (Handbook on Numbers) on behalf of the United Bible Societies. I
must acknowledge the scholarly collaboration of Dr. de Regt with regard to this
material, which I made reference to when doing research for the present article. He
has also commented helpfully on an earlier draft but is not responsible for any errors
or infelicities that may remain in this published text.
2
“This is one of the most remarkable stories in the Bible: the dramatic encounter of
Balaam, the pagan mantic, with the God of Israel” (Allen 1994:213). Not only was
Balaam mightily engaged with the God of Israel, but so was the Moabite king Balak,
instigator of these extraordinary proceedings, as a classic representative of all those
Canaanite nations that worshipped other gods.
3
Based on my own study of the Hebrew text, I will analyse these three chapters as a
literary whole, that is, as a text which is coherent, cohesive, complete, and compelling
within itself. Thus, I do not make the ultimately fruitless and distracting attempt to
distinguish various literary “sources” or strands within this section, as do several
commentators (e.g., Budd 1984:262-263, 265; Dozeman 1998:178-179). In contrast to
those who find such alleged “literary problems” (Bewer 1905:238), I concur with

ISSN 1013-8471 Journal for Semitics 21/2 (2012) pp. 167-199

168 E.R. Wendland

consider these passages as a cohesive and coherent unit within the book of
Numbers (Hebrew: ‘in the wilderness’; we recall that chapters and verses
were not distinguished in the original text) – as some have called them the
“Balaam cycle” or even somewhat misleadingly, “the Book of Balaam” (Cole
2002:363, 371)?4 The brief narrative recounting Israel’s defeat of Og, king of
Bashan (Num 21:32-35), clearly ends with “and they took possession of his land”
in verse 35. A new account, in this case, a closely connected series of episodes,
then begins at Numbers 22:1 with a short travel note and specification of
geographical location.5 This place – “the plains of Moab on the other (eastern)
side of the Jordan (River)” ) – is important because it
will remain the site of the twelve tribes of Israel for the remainder of the book of

Wenham who observes: “The charming naivety of these stories disguises a brilliance
of literary composition and a profundity of theological reflection” (1981:164; cf.
Allen 1973:248-256). Dijkstra makes a “structural analysis” of an ancient (9-8th
century BCE) Aramaic text referring to “Balaam the son of Beor” (cf. Num 22:5),
which was discovered at Deir ‘Alla in Jordan. He concludes that its does “indicate
how closely phraseology, structure, and form of the text approach those of OT
prophecy” (1995:60).
4
As in the Torah as a whole, the chief agent and central speaker of these chapters is
neither Balak nor the prophet Balaam, but God, the LORD. A number of significant
theological themes are common between chs. 22-24 and the rest of the book of
Numbers, for example: deliverance from Egypt, sacrifices/offerings to God,
Yahweh’s revelations, God’s anger over sin, divine sovereignty over all nations,
blessings and curses, Israel’s numbers, the proximate peoples’ fear of Israel (Cole
2000:373-376). On the “prophetic” role of Balaam, see Chavalas (2003:77-78).
5
22:1 is a hinge verse in the sense that it serves both as a conclusion to the “journey
motif” in the book of Numbers as well as a “historical introduction” to the Balaam-
Balak story (Cole 2000:377). A few translations (e.g., CEV) place a major section
heading between verses 1 and 2, apparently following the Hebrew Codex
Leningradensis, which indicates a break by leaving space between the margin and the
start of the line (indentation). In the Hebrew text, however, there is no discourse
transition marker at the start of verse 2 that would suggest a division in the text at this
point. Rather, the phrase which opens verse 1, “The Israelites set out and …” (or
something similar) often signals the beginning of a new stage in the Israelites’ journey
(e.g., 20:1, 22; 21:4, 10). It indicates the typical starting-point of a new section in
Numbers. Furthermore, the reference of Israel being encamped on the plains of Moab
on the east side of the Jordan River across from Jericho is a locative marker that
occurs at or near the beginning of many of the sections in this final portion of
Numbers (e.g., 26:3, 33:50, 35:1). In terms of the content, too, it is the proximate
presence of the numerous Israelites that motivates Balak into action in this portion of
the narrative.
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 169

Numbers and, indeed, throughout Deuteronomy as well (cf. Deut 1:1-5; 34:8).
This delineation of setting leads immediately to the introduction of another
powerful villain into the narrative, namely Balak, the king of Moab (v. 2), who
decides to engage a foreign sorcerer and seer named Balaam (v. 5) to curse the
arrival of the dreaded nation of Israel into his territory (v. 6). “Balaam becomes
for a brief moment the revelatory instrument of God, replacing Moses, who
mysteriously is nowhere present,” while “Israel is talked about and seen from a
distance” (Cole 2000:364).
Chapters 22-24 recount the dramatic story of how Yahweh foils the efforts of
Balak to get his hired (on promissory credit) prophet Balaam to utter an
imprecation that will destroy the Israelites or at least hinder their relentless
progress.6 Balak and Balaam are thereby linked, albeit antagonistically,
throughout this section until their ultimate separation is reported in 24:25. In 25:1
the locative setting of the nation in focus is again specified: “When Israel was
staying in Shittim …” ( !"), that is, in the Moabite foothills. Thus,
the cast of characters reverts back to “the people” , with probable reference
mainly to the men of Israel), who “began to profane (themselves)” #!"$ by
committing sexual, and associated religious infidelity %& )7 with Moabite
(mixed with Midianite) women.8 Chapters 22-24 then stand as an independent

6
The subject of “curses” in the Hebrew Bible is discussed in Brichto (1962; see also
Allen 1973:236-243). Ryken and Ryken suggest that the literary role of these chapters
is to serve as an “interlude” that provides a “foil to the negative picture of the
Israelites that emerges from the narrative as a whole” (2007:217).
7
The Hebrew verb “play the harlot” (z-n-h) is a common expression in the Old
Testament to speak of general unfaithfulness and disloyalty towards God (Jer 2:20). It
thus has both a physical and a spiritual sense. A person who worships or makes
sacrifices to another god while claiming loyalty to Yahweh is like a man committing
adultery, who betrays his wife and is unfaithful to his marriage promise. Indeed, Baal
fertility cults at the time did practice temple prostitution. But the main point of this
expression is to indicate that the Israelites are both publicly and privately betraying
the LORD (Ashley 1993:516; Cole 2000:435-436; Wenham 1981:185).
8
Although it is later revealed that Balaam played a key role in the illicit behaviour of
Israel (31:16), he is not mentioned at all in ch. 25; rather, the primary focus is on the
contrastive priestly character of Phinehas (vv. 6-13). Sternberg offers some important
insights concerning the compositional connections between Numbers 22-24 and ch.
31: “It is not for nothing that God took drastic measures to prevent [Balaam] from
cursing Israel in Moab’s employ. But his malignity having been checked in one
instance, he soon found another opportunity to express it, in a different place and by
170 E.R. Wendland

narrative segment within the book of Numbers as a whole.

On the other hand, it is important also to see the thematic connection which
this passage has with its context, both prior and subsequent to these three
chapters. As already noted, in terms of narrative setting the final portion of
Numbers presents a period of non-movement, as the people remain situated on
the Moabite side of the Jordan, very close but not yet having entered their
promised land (22:1; cf. 14:23). The journey through the desert has come to an
end, and a new generation of Israelites will now be given another chance to
remain faithful and thus enter the territory of Canaan. Chapter 25 then marks the
final tragic rebellion and punishment of the old guard, the generation of Israelites
who were counted in the census of chapter 1. Under the apparent instigation of
fickle Balaam (31:16), the prophet who has just blessed them from afar, the
people submit to the god Baal of Peor by taking part in what seem to be heathen
fertility rituals. The resulting plague kills the last members of this generation,
thus putting a transitory end to idolatry before their progeny can enter Canaan,
and setting the stage for a new census that is reported in chapter 26.
In graphic contrast to these sad instances of infidelity, the seven Balaamite
oracles of Numbers 23-24 provide (ironically, only for the readers/hearers of the
text) a great sign of hope with reference to Israel’s new generation, which is
about to cross the Jordan to take possession of their homeland. These prophecies
present “a remarkable picture of God working on behalf of his people in spite of
their almost complete failure to follow him faithfully” (Cole 2000:364). Yahweh
remains faithful to his covenant promises to bless Israel (e.g., 14:20-24), despite
their repeated rebellious lapses (the latest being the “bronze snake” episode of
21:4-9), even choosing to do this through a devious pagan diviner and
unbeknown to the nation at large.

different means. The otherwise redundant specification of the manner of his death
even pinpoints the continuity of theme and characterization between the
discontinuous episodes. Having disregarded the warning against mischief given him
en route to Moab by an angel ‘with his sword drawn in his hand,’ he now
appropriately dies ‘by the sword’ in the aftermath of the Midianite plot [31:8]”
(1987:315).
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 171

OVERVIEW
The macrostructure of Numbers 22-24
Having demarcated the discourse, its beginning and end-points, I now summarize
the principal compositional units that comprise the narrative spanning Numbers
22-24. The diagram below presents a synopsis of this symmetrically formed text,
which features various sets of three:9
A. Episode One (22:1-14)
a. Introduction to Balak’s problem – he sends men to Balaam (1-6)
b. Balaam’s first encounter with God (7-12)
c. “In the morning” Balak’s men return home (13-14)
B. Episode Two (22:15-21)
a. Balak sends men to Balaam again (15-17)
b. Balaam’s second encounter with God (18-20)
c. “In the morning” Balaam goes along with Balak’s men (21)
C. Episode Three (22:22-40)
a. God is angry with Balaam for going (22a)
b. Balaam’s third encounter with God (22b-35a)
i- Donkey sees angel of the LORD the first time
(22b-23)
ii- Donkey sees angel of the LORD the second time
(24-25)
iii- Donkey sees angel of the LORD the third time
(26-35a)
c. Balaam meets Balak (35b-40)
D. Oracle (Blessing) One “in the morning” (22:41-23:12)
E. Oracle (Blessing) Two (23:13-26)
F. Oracles (Blessings) Three-Four (23:27-24:19)
a. Shift of setting (23:27-30)
b. Balaam prepares to utter his oracle (24:1-3a)
c. The third divine oracle of blessing for Israel (3b-9)

9
Wenham proposes a rather different set of structures that also features three
(1981:166). Cole (2000:371-372) posits seven “cycles” that correspond in major
outline to my seven major discourse units.
172 E.R. Wendland

d. Balak’s reaction to this oracle (10-11)

e. Balaam’s response to Balak (12-13)
f. Balaam prepares to utter the fourth oracle (14-15a)
g. The fourth divine oracle of blessing for Israel (15b-19)10
G. Oracles (Curses) Five, Six, and Seven (24:20-25)
a. Curse one (20)
b. Curse two (21-22)
c. Curse three (23-25)

Some of these triadic patterns are more concrete and textually supportable than
others, for example, the three encounters of Balaam and his donkey with the
“angel of Yahweh” ('"' ( ) * ) in ch. 22; the three sets of seven altars with
sacrifices prepared by Balak (23:1, 14, 29); and the three divine “oracles” ( )
against pagan nations at the end of this section (24:20-24). There is a subtle
satiric parallel between the three times that Balak is stopped in his attempts to
extract a curse of Israel from Balaam (ch. 23) and the three times that Balaam
and his donkey are stopped by the LORD’s messenger (ch. 22). Other triads in
this section are less obvious perhaps,11 but viewed within the overall framework
established by those already mentioned they do have greater plausibility, for
example, the three “episodes” that constitute the narrative of ch. 22,12 which are
followed by three major “oracles” in which the Lord blesses Israel through
Balaam’s mouth.13

10
In this fourth oracle pronouncements of blessing for Israel (24:17a-b, 19) surround
prophecies of doom for a pair of immediate enemy nations – ironically, the Moab of
King Balak and Edom (24:17c-18). These curses thus anticipate and interconnect with
the contents of oracles 5-7.
11
The expression “these three times,” for example, occurring thrice – in 22:28, 22:32-
33, and 24:10.
12
Wenham argues on the basis of the threefold occurrence of the temporal phrase “in
the morning” ( +, ) in 22:13, 21, 41 that the Balaam narrative may be divided into
three cycles of two days each, though he recognizes that the timing of the third cycle
is not as clearly stated (1981:165). In any case, I would concur with Wenham’s
conclusion that “these interlocking [structural] patterns make the usual source-critical
analysis unlikely” (1981:165). Works of exceptional literary quality are not composed
by incongruent committee (see Wendland 2004:37-42).
13
It is arguable that the fourth apparent oracle (24:15-19) is both structurally and
thematically a continuation of the third oracle (24:3-9). See further below.
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 173

In fact, on this basis one could divide the entire account into a corresponding
pair of major divisions, namely, (I) the story of Balaam’s journey to Moab to
meet King Balak, and their preliminary formalities (22:1-40), followed by (II),
which is a record of the seven oracles of Balaam that progressively lead to his
parting ways with Balak (22:41-24:25). The second part may be further viewed
metaphorically as a reflection of the first involving a similar theme and cast of
characters. The central idea linking both sections has to do with Yahweh’s efforts
to communicate beneficent messages with reference to Israel in spite of the
opposition (whether assumed or actual) of a key hostile player in the
proceedings, that is, Balaam (part I) and Balak (part II). In both cases, too, we
have an essential “inspired” (by God) mouthpiece engaged in the action –
Balaam’s donkey (I) and Balaam himself (II), as schematized below:
Yahweh/angel – Balaam – donkey Balaam – Balak – Yahweh.
God of course is in complete control of the entire chaotic situation, working
behind the scene on behalf of his people Israel, who are completely unaware of
the drama that is going on in the heights above their encampment on “the plains
of Moab” (22:1). Thus, the almighty, irresistible word of the LORD comes
through a literal donkey in part I and ironically through a metaphoric “donkey,”
the prominent pagan prophet, in part II – in both cases, in opposition to the
frustrated wishes of an imperceptive “master” (first Balaam, then Balak).14
What then might the communicative function of these structural patterns be?
The symbolical import of “seven” as a suggestion of completeness is generally

14
Hence the metaphoric title of this article: “two dumb donkeys” – one physiologically
insensate and voiceless, the other spiritually insensitive and vocally perverted (by
nature), but both miraculously given insight and utterance by the LORD. Irony is
generated within the two halves of the Balaam narrative as the second plays off the
first on several levels, including the humorous: “…the Moabite king, waiting for a
first-class imprecation, is progressively reduced to impotent fury, quite in the manner
of Balaam’s blind rage against his wayward ass” (Alter 1981:106). This includes also
the subtly shifting use of narrative perspective – overlapping, contradictory, and/or
alternating viewpoints, opinions, and evaluations involving Balak, Balaam,
God/Yahweh/the angel of the LORD, even Balaam’s donkey. We have, for example,
“the clairvoyance of Balaam’s ass, which generates nothing but satire at the expense
of the seer reduced lower than his own beast” (Sternberg 1987:174; cf. 2 Pet 2:16).
174 E.R. Wendland

accepted, for example, with reference to the seven oracles uttered by Balaam.15
However, there does seem to be a definite rhetorical purpose that is also effected
by these crafted threefold arrangements. They may be regarded as “rhetorical”
because, taken together, they are a vital part of the author’s deliberate strategy of
persuasion.16 In other words, the narrator is not merely recounting a history
lesson “for the record”, that is, for the enlightenment and edification of posterity.
Rather, he wanted to achieve much more communicatively, specifically
ideologically (religiously), through his compositionally mixed discourse, namely,
to teach, advise, admonish, warn, encourage, and probably more.17 He
accomplished these illocutionary objectives in terms of both form (literary
technique) and content (moral-theological themes) through, for example, a series
of ironically contrasting character sketches (Balak, Balaam, his donkey, the angel
of the LORD) which lead up to a sequence of crucial poetic-prophetic
pronouncements concerning God’s elect people Israel and all who would oppose
his will for them.
We will look at some of these features more closely on the micro-textual
level of analysis below, but before leaving the macrostructure, it is important to
call attention to the climactic character of the various compositional patterns.
First of all, in the case of the two narrative halves, it is clear that the first prepares
for the second in the tale of two “donkeys”, one bestial the other human, both of
which are compelled to pronounce the word of the LORD in the face of strong
opposition. Similarly, each one of the triadic sets appears to peak out on the third

15
“The number seven was held in high regard among Semitic peoples in general” (Allen
1994:214).
16
As already noted, I view these three chapters as being essentially the compositional
product of a single “author-orator” (+/- certain subsequent editorial modifications),
whom I will refer to as “he/him” since “Moses” is, at the very least, the book’s
“implied recorder/speaker” as Yahweh’s chosen spokesman and representative (Num
1:2-3, 5:5-6, etc.; see also 33:2). Such a position on unitary authorship of course
makes it easier to carry out a unified literary-rhetorical analysis of the original text.
On the “rhetorical” dimension of Scripture, see Wendland (2004:189-228).
17
This functional profile for the biblical text as a whole would include the corpus of
speech-acts that have been incorporated into it as a constitutive part of the narrative
fabric. Most prominent in this internal discourse sequence are the divine blessings,
which are an archetypal and performative speech act. To bless is to verbally (and
orally!) convey some explicit benefit, but the focus is less on the benefit and more on
the interpersonal relationship thus reinforced (Briggs 2008:76, 82).
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 175

occasion in a passage that is highlighted in a special way both semantically and

stylistically, for example, Balaam’s third encounter with “Yahweh’s messenger”
('- "' ) . ) on the road to Moab, in particular, the third divine revelation to his
donkey.18 A similar sort of emphasis is manifested in Balaam’s third oracle
concerning Israel and their future leader, a prophecy which, as has already been
suggested, is subtly linked with the fourth in regard to form, content, and
theological intent.19 Even the third imprecatory curse appears to reach a climax
through an initial exclamation of “woe” (' # / ) and allusive references to
far-away foreign nations that will forever “come to ruin” ( , 0 ) for opposing
Israel and their LORD (24:20, 21, 24).

ANALYSIS
A poetic-rhetorical survey of Balaam’s oracles
In this section I will proceed descriptively through the seven divine oracles
uttered by Balaam in Numbers 23-24. I will preface this with a few comments
concerning the appearance and words of Yahweh’s messenger to the prophet in
22:26-35, both directly and through the mouth of his donkey.20 The aim is to

18
Regarding the personage of “the angel of the LORD,” see the study of Martin, who
concludes: “In accordance with other usages, it seems likely that the angel of Yahweh
of Judges is a supernatural character manifested to declare a word from God. …
These connections between the angel of Yahweh and the Exodus tradition convey to
the hearers a sense of theological continuity between the Exodus and their ongoing
battles with the Canaanites” (2009:334, 340).
19
“Viewed structurally, with the assumption of unity, there is a magnificent movement
to the oracle chapters. There is a repetitive nature to the structure, but not static
repetition. Rather there is to be seen a development, a growing intensity; indeed, a
crescendo. … The unity is progressive and dynamic, exhibiting structure, dramatic
flow, climax – yes, and art” (Allen 1973:254, 332).
20
Yahweh had already spoken directly to Balaam earlier through some sort of
unspecified revelation (22:9, 12, 20). The divine speech manifests certain noteworthy
rhetorical attributes, for example the poetic parallelism of v. 12 (compare with the
contrasting command in v. 20):
'1 ) ,
'2 -, , .
3 4' )4 5
176 E.R. Wendland

draw attention to certain significant organizational aspects on the microstructure

of the discourse along with some of the principal literary (oratorical)21 features
that are evident in the text. Due to limitations of space, only a selection of the
more important poetic techniques and rhetorical functions can be discussed.

The Angel of the LORD instructs Balaam about his oracles – Numbers
22:26-35a
This section recounts the third and acmatic appearance of the LORD to Balaam’s
donkey and ultimately to the prophet himself. In v. 26 the Hebrew is literally
“And the angel of the Lord added to move forward” ( 0 '"' 2) 67 !"). The
verb for “added” ironically repeats the construction used in the preceding
sentence: “and he [Balaam] added to beat her [the donkey]!” (8 ,5' 67, !"). Each
stage in the unfolding narrative is thus dramatically highlighted.
Dramatic irony continues throughout this narrative segment. For example, at
the third appearance of “the angel of the LORD” (v. 26), Balaam’s (female)
donkey22 has reached a point of no turning “either to the right or to the left”
( ", 4 9% ) 2 ). So, not wanting to risk a collision with God’s
messenger, the discerning beast lies down in the path under her human burden,
the imperceptive prophet. Then “Balaam’s anger burned” ( 6 2 #!") against
his donkey (v. 27), just as “God’s anger had burned” ( : '; < 6 2 #!") against him
as he set out on his mission (v. 22). Now, in enraged frustration Balaam beats his
beast even more severely, specifically “with his staff” ( =1 ) (v. 27; compare vv.
23, 25) – a walking stick that perhaps also functioned as a divining rod (Ashley
1993:457). “I wish I had a sword,” he exclaims (29), threatening to kill his
donkey, when ironically, “the ass has avoided the sword that is in fact in the

21
Many specific discourse features, such as the various structural patterns, diverse
repetition, dramatic dialogue, and phonological attributes would support the
supposition that much, if not all, of the text covering chs. 22-24 originated (and was
transmitted) in oral form before being written down, that is, delivered as formal
“oration”. These same oratorical qualities, which are characteristic of Hebrew poetic
and prophetic discourse in general, also facilitate an oral articulation, or public
performance of the same text even today (see Wendland 2009:383-394).
22
The appearance of this “donkey” ('athon – feminine gender) is unusual since normally
the larger, stronger male donkey was used for riding (e.g., Ex 4:20; Josh 15:18). In
any case, “the reader is introduced to a character that will be important in the
following story” (Ashley 1993:451).
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 177

angel’s hand to kill Balaam” (Sherwood 2002:177).23

In response to her beating (v. 28), the LORD “opened the mouth of the
donkey” ( ' >2 '"' #?@!") for a brief exchange which further reveals that
the “foolish” one ( A) in this whole affair was the master, not his beast. Finally,
the LORD “opened [uncovered] the eyes of Balaam” (C % 2 ': "' B ") (v.
31) to see the truth of the matter that his faithful donkey (as well as all
readers/hearers of the account) had known all along: the profane prophet is face
to face with '- "' ) . ! Indeed, if the donkey had not “seen” (v. 33), what the
seer could not – that the divine angel was confronting him “like an adversary”
( 9 ) (v. 32) – Balaam surely would have been a dead man!24 This encounter
climaxes in the angel’s final words of strict instruction (v. 35), which closely
correspond to those of “God” at the close of the preceding narrative unit (v. 20).
The discourse is poetically as well as rhetorically crafted to highlight the
warning:
D 2 '"'
( )* E , !"
% 0 '2 ) F
G '2 7@ D "
H 02 0
,
3+ 2 ) !"
The A-B-A’ ring construction manifested in this passage encircles the act of
divinely inspired “speaking” ( ) that is at the heart of the message, not only of
the angel, but also of Balaam’s forthcoming discourse. “But only the speech that
I speak to you, that you shall speak” – the Hebrew pronominal object “that” ( , )
emphatically refers back again to precisely what the LORD will command
Balaam to prophesy. This prophet can be sure that his message comes directly
from Divinity. His problem is that he knows full well in advance that what he
will say is going to be completely contrary to what his royal patron and

23
Thus, “the donkey became a blessing to an instrument of cursing” (Brown 2002:207).
24
The angel’s emphatic threat of death in v. 33b is expressed in the form of a
contrastive, rhyming poetic couplet:
?B ' 'I , 2 J '?G
#< ' 8 "
178 E.R. Wendland

commissioner desires. Thus the dramatic irony of the conflict between Balaam
and his donkey is replaced by that which emerges between Balaam and Balak.
“Whether or not Balaam understood all this, the reader may get the point that the
story of Balaam and his donkey prefigures the way Balak will treat Balaam; the
story [of ch. 22] will be reenacted in chs. 23-24” (Ashley 1993:460). Balaam
becomes transformed into the ass of the LORD; what an impact that must have
on any attentive audience!25

Oracle One – Numbers 22:41-23:12

Each of Balaam’s seven oracles is introduced with the identical formula, “and he
took up his oracle and said” ( , !" K!" – Num 23:7a, 18a; 24:3a, 15a, 20b,
21b, 23a). The Hebrew verb % in itself indicates that some form of marked,
distinctive speech is about to follow. The noun normally refers to a brief
proverb, wisdom saying and/or artistically structured poetic expression
(formulated in parallelisms); 1 Kings 4:32 (5:12) mentions Solomon’s
presumably succinct “proverbs”, whereas a much longer disputational discourse
is referred to in Job 27:1.26 Balaam’s prophetic “oracles” similarly range in size
from a single bicolon (against Amalek, 24:20b) to twelve of them in 24:3-9. I
have grouped Oracles 5-7 together as one due to their brevity, their common lack
of a distinct historical setting, and their radical change in general topic and type –
that is, from blessings for Israel to curses against surrounding nations.
Note that there is a similar structural pattern of nine narrative elements that is
essentially followed for each of the first three of Balaam’s oracles (the
distinctives of the fourth oracle will be discussed below). This symmetrical
topical arrangement, which does not include the content of the oracle itself, may
be summarized as follows (Allen 1973:254-255; Cole 2000:398):
a. Balak takes Balaam to an observation point to view the tribes of Israel

25
By the time Balaam arrives in the territory of Moab and is met by an anxious King
Balak (22:36), “the story has become a classic suspense story, as we have been led to
wonder what will happen” (Ryken and Ryken 2007:215).
26
Herbert suggests that a mashal “has a clearly recognisable purpose: that of quickening
an apprehension of the real as distinct from the wished for, or complacently accepted;
of compelling the hearer or reader to form a judgment on himself, his situation or his
conduct” (1954:196; cf. Allen 1973:243-246). This definition would clearly apply to
the various weal and woe oracles of Balaam.
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 179

(22:41; 23:13-14a; 23:27-28).

b. Balaam instructs Balak to offer seven sets of sacrifices (23:1; missing;
23:29).
c. Balak obeys Balaam by sacrificing the prescribed animals (23:2;
23:14b; 23:30).
d. Balaam tells Balak to stand by his offering altars (23:3; 23:25;
missing).
e. Balaam goes alone to meet the LORD and receive a revelation (23:4-5;
23:16; missing).
f. Balaam returns to Balak, standing by his offering (23:6; 23:17;
missing).
g. Balaam obeys the LORD and pronounces an oracle of blessing upon
Israel (23:7-10; 23:18-24; 24:3-9).
h. Balak admonishes Balaam for uttering an oracle of blessing instead of
cursing, his sense of frustration increasing in each of the three scenes
(23:11; 23:25; 24:10-11).
i. Balaam responds by saying that he must speak only what the LORD
tells him to (23:12; 23:26; 24:12-13; cf. 22:35).
Each eventive sequence embodies a narrative in miniature, beginning with a
problem, which is followed by a build-up in tension, a peak point at the oracle of
the LORD, and finally a denouement. Balaam’s fourth oracle (24:15-19) breaks
this clearly established pattern, which may be an indication that it represents the
rhetorical climax of them all. This parallel structure within the text has more than
just literary importance.27 It also helps to demarcate the discourse into
corresponding units. The “missing” elements too have a perceptible dramatic and
thematic significance; for example, the lack of movement at stages (d-f) in oracle
three suggests a certain independent action on the part of Balaam under the

27
Alter perceptively sees an underlying theological implication in this careful, artful
discourse patterning: “Paganism, with its notion that divine powers can be
manipulated by a caste of professionals through a set of carefully prescribed
procedures, is trapped in the reflexes of a mechanistic world-view, while from the
biblical perspective reality is in fact controlled by the will of an omnipotent God
beyond all human manipulation. … The harmony of theological argument and
narrative art in the whole story is beautifully complete” (1981:106-107).
180 E.R. Wendland

influence of “the spirit of the LORD” (24:2).

Balaam’s first oracle (23:7-10) is relatively short. It consists of just seven
parallel couplets in Hebrew. Structurally, the passage seems to divide into two
parts – a personal introduction (7-8), with important links to the narrative of
chapter 22,28 followed by the prophecy proper (9-10). The poem’s constituent
segments are also roughly in parallel: verses 7a and 9a (focus on location); verses
7b and 9b-10a (focus on Israel); verses 8 and 10b (focus on Balaam’s personal
reaction). In addition to being a blessing upon Israel as a people who cannot be
imprecated against (8a, including a highly significant intertextual allusion to
Yahweh’s blessing of Abraham’s descendants in Gen 12:3),29 who are unique
and distinctive (9b; cf. Deut 32:8-10),30 and very numerous (10a; cf. Gen 13:16,
28:14), this first oracle highlights the prophet’s predicament: As a renowned
sorcerer under divine interdiction, he is powerless against them (8), and he
futilely wishes that he might be included in their ranks (10b). The text’s poetics
(e.g., consonance, assonance, classic 4:3 parallelism, utterance final focus in
4', 5) foreground the prominence of the last couplet in terms of both form (end-
stress) and (very) surprising content:31
- @% , . ?
34', 5 #0 ' 4

Oracle Two – Numbers 23:13-26

The narrative sequence of constituent elements recurs as outlined above (a-e,
except for b). Balaam then returns to the sacrificial site (f, 23:17) and is

28
“These verses [7-8] interestingly illustrate how the prosaic repetitions of poetic
parallelism can be effectively interwoven with the thematic repetition of phrases in
the prose” (Alter 1981:105).
29
With a “curse” ( ) also being placed on those daring to disparage Abraham’s
descendants!
30
“Far from being the object of cursing, God’s people would become the instrument of
blessing” for all nations (Gen. 22:18) (Brown 2002:212).
31
There may also be an intended wordplay in v. 10 involving “Israel” ( ), the
nation whom Balaam was supposed to curse, and “upright” ( ), the very same
people whom he wished to emulate. However, “[t]his couplet is ironic in the light of
the circumstances of Balaam’s death recorded in 31:8, 16” (Ashley 1993:472).
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 181

immediately greeted by Balak’s impatient question, “What has the LORD

spoken?” ('"' 2' ). This indicates how anxious the king is to know, quite
ironically, how the God of Israel has responded to his efforts through Balaam to
curse his people! This urgent, self-incriminating query has no parallel in the
context of the other prophecies, either in the first (23:6) or the third (24:27).32
Balaam’s second prophecy starts out with an opening formula and consists of
eleven parallel couplets. As in the first oracle, so this second one also seems to be
divided into two parts consisting of three roughly parallel segments (after the
introduction in verse 18b): I: verses 19-20 and II: 21-24. Verses 19 and 21b-22
focus on God, the LORD; verses 20 and 23 focus on not cursing Israel; verses
21a and 24 focus on blessing in Israel. Oracle Two highlights the uniqueness of
Israel (cf. 23:9b) and her protective, promise-keeping God.
Verse 19 clearly indicates the divine source of the prophecy and forms the
basis for the by now familiar point that is made in verse 20 (God’s blessing upon
Israel cannot be reversed by human machinations!). These words reflect prior
promise (e.g., Gen 26:3b; Lev 26:9-10) and thus express a general, almost
proverbial divine principle, one that continued in Israel’s religious tradition (see
1 Sam 15:29). In the build-up towards the extended prohibition against bringing
any harm to Israel expressed in vv. 20b-21a (cf. also 23a), the second half of v.
19 consists of two rhetorical questions to which the implied emphatic answer is
“By God – no, not at all!” Try as hard or as often as he might, Balak will never
succeed in his malevolent efforts, and ironically, each attempt does the exact
opposite, only increasing the divine benefactions for Israel!
In v. 21b there is an enigmatic reference to a mighty “king” being “among”
the nation of Israel ( ) ). The question is: does this refer to some human king
or to Yahweh as Israel’s king – or to both, a case of deliberate prophetic
ambiguity? I prefer the last option, that is, a preview of the much more explicit
references to divine kingship and rule in Oracle Four (24:17, 19). In the current
setting, the point is that no mantic imprecation or sorcerous practice can be
applied against the camp of Israel (vv. 21a, 23a) because Yahweh dwells within

32
Balak’s question betrays his resignation to the fact that it is YHWH (the God of
Israel) who ultimately determines who or what will be blessed or cursed (Sherwood
2002:179).
182 E.R. Wendland

( 1 "- '; < '."' , 21b). The next verse (22) provides the evidence for the
preceding acclamation. God has proven his kingship on behalf of Israel before all
the nations by means of the great Exodus salvation event. Even outsiders will be
compelled to exclaim: “[See] what God has done!” ( >2' , 23b).33 Their
fame and greatness (as awesome as that of proverbially powerful and ferocious
wild beasts – vv. 22b, 24) derives from their almighty deity (cf. Gen 49:9).
King Balak’s resounding response to this second oracle is understandably one
of great disappointment and increasing consternation (25). Indeed, the emphasis
and rhetorical pointing is brought out by the poetic mode of expression featuring
contrasting verbs: “No, don’t curse them at all, and no, don’t bless them at all!”
(4LI 0 , ) 2 J 4L =M , ,+2 J). The parallelism thus forms an inclusive
merism: “Just don’t say anything at all (if you cannot do what I command)!”
“After this occasion the Moabite king decides that he would prefer silence over
either blessing or cursing” (Cole 2000:414). Unfortunately for him, his desperate
subsequent attempt (23:27) only leads to a pronouncement of even greater
benefits for Israel (Oracle Three), coupled ultimately with a prediction of disaster
for his own people in Oracle Four (24:17c).

Oracles Three/Four – Numbers 23:27-24:19

The organization of the introduction to this third oracle is similar to that of the
preceding two (see the structural pattern above), for example, Balak begins (step
a) by taking Balaam to a new location – apparently, as in the first instance, a
well-known site for the worship of the Canaanite fertility god, Baal (“Baal-Peor,”
23:28, 25:3; cf. “Bamoth-Baal,” 22:41). However, it is important to take note of
several significant differences from the preceding pattern. This time Balaam does
not recede from the sacrifices in order to receive his oracle from the LORD (steps
e-f), and the text mentions explicitly that the “spirit of God” ( '; < N4 ) comes
upon him (as on a true prophet of Yahweh). Furthermore, Balaam is no longer
ritually inspecting the omens of divination (24:1); instead, he looks straight out to
the wilderness to view where the whole of Israel is encamped “tribe by tribe”
(" 9 ) (24:2; cf. 22:41, 23:13). He now knows in advance that what will come

33
So it is that “at the close of Israel’s journey, a pagan seer testified to the miracle of its
beginning: God brought them out of Egypt” (Brown 2002:218, original italics).
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 183

forth from the LORD is to be more good news for Israel, and indeed, he proceeds
to pronounce his most comprehensive blessing of the nation – words with a
decided focus on the future. No longer a pagan diviner, he has become a prophet
of the Divine, Yahweh (Levine 2000:191).34
This third oracle of Balaam (24:3-9) consists of twelve parallel units (an
appropriate number with reference to the tribes of “Israel”). Unlike the previous
two prophecies, Balaam’s third oration is introduced with the usual Hebrew word
for “oracle” ( . O %), which often appears to mark divine messages in the prophetic
books (especially Jeremiah and, most noticeably, Amos, e.g., 4:5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11).
With three repetitions this genre term prominently marks the message of
“Balaam, son of Beor” ( ,A % - ) who alliterates himself by name here for
the first time in the manner of a Hebrew prophet (24:3; cf. Isa. 1:1, 2:1). The
amount of heavenly benefit prescribed for the people of Yahweh is stepped up
now to a perceptibly higher level than in the preceding oracles. This oration has a
clear beginning, which is also distinct from the first and second oracles in that it
highlights the divine inspiration of the prophet Balaam (vv. 3b-4). There is also a
prominent blessing at the end in verse 9b. In between we find two strophes, the
first (vv. 5-7a) which emphasizes the prosperity of Israel, the second (vv. 8-9a)
which foregrounds the nation’s power – the two being connected by a “hinge
couplet” (v. 7b), with syntactic links to the preceding strophe and semantic links
to the subsequent strophe.
Oracle three leads off with an impressive introduction to the prophet and his
revelation (24:3-4). Interestingly (and perhaps again ironically), Balaam’s eyes
are “open” ( O ) and “uncovered” (' B) at the beginning of Balaam’s third
prophecy – the latter being a parallel to 22:31, where his eyes are uncovered
during the third encounter between the donkey and the angel of the LORD. The
chiastic structure of these opening verses may serve to underscore the
completeness and/or clarity of Balaam’s new prophetic perception (Cole
2000:417):
(A) … [with] unveiled eyes (B) … he hears the words of God,

34
Even Balaam’s poetry in this oracle seems to reach a new level, “a model of excellent
communication skills,” which is in turn, “an excellent memory aid, ensuring that these
great truths are not quickly forgotten” (Brown 2002:220-221).
184 E.R. Wendland

(B’) the vision of Shaddai he beholds (A’) … with uncovered eyes.35

Some elaborate natural images (four similes marked by 5) in v. 6 and references
to abundant life-giving “water” ( - - ) in v. 7a depict the blessed fertility that will
characterize the “beautiful tents” (H ', 4 , ) of Israel, the nation being addressed
(v. 5).36 This description builds up to the medial peak of this third prophecy in v.
7b, which shifts suddenly and somewhat surprisingly to royal imagery. However,
as suggested above, these references to kingship do serve as a transition to the
oracle’s concluding strophe and an assortment of vivid figures that pertain to
national strength and military prowess (vv. 8-9).37 The seminal event of divine
deliverance in the Exodus is reiterated (8a; cf. 23:22a) ( P1 P F ), and
there is another important allusion also to Jacob’s prophecy about the lion-like
power of Judah in Gen 49:9 (v. 9a; cf. also 23:24a). The unexpected reference to
a subservient “Agag” (B- B 0 ) in v. 7b appears to foreshadow the central content of
Balaam’s next oracle, especially 24:17-19. The Amalekites were long-standing
enemies of the Israelites (see Gen 14:7; Exod 17:8-16; Num 14:45; Judges 6:3);
however, the text does not refer to the historical Agag of 1 Sam 15:8-9, 32-33.38
Rather, it is likely that “Agag” was a dynastic name for all Amalekite kings, like
“Pharaoh” in Egypt (Allen 1973:301) and is being used here metonymically to
designate any pagan ruler. In any case, Israel’s coming “king” ( 5 ) and
“kingship” ( IO ) was going to be the greatest of all (7b)!
Another noteworthy poetic allusion, one which was sure to catch the ears of
any Israelite audience, appears in the lyric pronouncement at the close of this
prophecy (24:9).39 Again it goes back to the Patriarchs and Isaac’s unwitting

35
“The terms for God, ’el and shaddai, are juxtaposed at the centre of the chiasmus,
emphasizing that it was not the great divination prophet Balaam who was the revealer
of mysteries, but the great and mighty ’el shaddai who enabled the prophet to become
such a spokesman” (Cole 2000:419).
36
For some details, including the textual difficulty of verse 7a, see Ashley (1993:489-
491) and Noordtzij (1983:226-227).
37
Again, see Ashley (1993:493-494); Noordtzij (1983:227-228); and Gane (2004:710).
There may be more deliberate ambiguity in the 3rd per. sg. pronominal references of
v. 8 – that is, to God, to collective Israel, or, arguably, to both.
38
“The LXX reinterprets this line in a more eschatological vein by changing Agag to
Gog, the legendary enemy of Israel described in Ezekiel 38-39” (Dozeman 1998:190).
39
“The very meter of this bicola (2:2) seems to give these words a finality and
solemnity. These words are in fact a curse: a curse on Balak and Balaam – the ones
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 185

blessing of Jacob (Israel) in Gen 27:29c (the two lines occurring in reverse
order): 4 H , " )4 H I 0 . These words also resonate more immediately
not only with those of the two earlier oracles (23:8, 20), but more potently and
ironically also with Balak’s repeated protestations to Balaam about cursing, not
blessing Israel (23:11-12, 25-26; cf. 22:12).40
Irony, bordering on sarcasm, surfaces again in Balak’s aggravated dismissal
of Balaam in 24:10-11. There is further emphasis on the key notions of “cursing”
and “blessing” in Balak’s poetic opening words (10):
H + - , ,+.
) ?I '- L'"
3 > ; '&
His subsequent command for Balaam to “flee (# ) to [his] place” is also a
forceful utterance that plays on the verb “bless” (Q ) from his preceding
utterance: “So go on – get out of here!” he orders his failure of a prophet (v. 11).
Balak then quotes himself (the Hebrew is almost the same as what his
messengers promised in 22:17, “I will surely do you great honour”) as he stresses
the concept of “reward” ( I), which he wrongly assumed that he had the power
to grant. The contrast in outcomes (from the king’s jaundiced point of view) is
stressed in Hebrew by the particle 'GL'", which is left out of many translations,
e.g., GNT, RSV (“But see now…” would work in English). Thus, Balak seems to
blame the LORD for Balaam’s loss, with a considerable measure of irony:
“Look, this god in whose name you claim to speak has cost you your fee!”
(Ashley 1993:495).
After reiterating in verses 12-13 what he has told Balak already on several
occasions (the final constituent [i] of the reiterated narrative sequence described
earlier), Balaam too cuts his ties with the king who had so eagerly summoned
him. “So now, listen up…” (as the Hebrew '?/ " literally “and now” indicates, v.
14) – Balaam moves on to the next point he wants to make, first of all, to say

attempting to break the blessing enunciated. Balaam is constrained to bless in absolute

terms the nation he was hired to curse” (Allen 1973:305).
40
“The theology of blessing and cursing (Gen. 12:2-3) is now made an explicit part of
the oracle of blessing. … The irony cannot be missed by Balaam or by any who hear
his words. In his actions he brings a curse on his own head, even as he speaks
blessing!” (Allen 1994:216).
186 E.R. Wendland

simply that he is going home (“to my people” 1 ) as Balak had commanded (on
this declaration, see further below). But before leaving the scene and the dramatic
stage on which he played such a prominent role, the illustrious prophet has a little
surprise for the king – namely, a few added oracles (still under the inspiration of
the “spirit of God,” v. 2) at no extra cost!41 “Come,” he says (literally), playing
on the same verb (Q ') that ended his preceding utterance – meaning “go” or
“come,” depending on the context: “Let me advise you,” or in light of the
prophecy to come, “warn” might be a more appropriate speech act representation
for RA in English. Warn about what? “What this people (Israel) will do to your
people (Moab) in future (lit. “in the latter days”).” Under the circumstances,
Balak can expect no good news from this oracle: in the coming confrontation of
“peoples” ( ), the Israelites will reign supreme through their “exalted king”
(24:7b)!
There are several reasons for seeing a close connection between Oracles
Three and Four – as if the latter is actually an extension of the former. This
interpretation is supported by the following features: (a) the long repeated
personal “introduction” of 24:15-16 (cf. 24:3-4); (b) the topical focus on a future
powerful ruler in Israel (24:7b; cf. 24:17, 19); and (c) by the fact that there is no
shift of setting (time, place, physical activity) involved before the essential
content of the oracle itself is delivered. Thus, Balaam delivers his prophetic
oration on his own initiative, without being asked to do so, and without the
sacrifices that preceded the first two prophecies. So after the reiterated text which
serves to link the two oracles into a structural and thematic whole (vv. 15b-16),42
Balaam’s fourth prediction again appears to adopt a chiastic structure (see 24:3-4
above), one that highlights its contrastive themes – the dominance of Israel’s

41
“Balaam, abandoning all cultic and mantic acts, is animated by the Spirit to outdo all
that had gone before this moment” (Allen 1973:306). So powerful is his inspiration,
as it were, that he cannot desist from delivering every last word – in effect, the
concluding climax of Oracle Three.
42
There is actually an added poetic line in v. 16b (the LXX includes it in v. 4 as well):
“and who knows the knowledge of the Most High” ( S , "). This intensifying
assertion is ambiguous and could mean that Balaam has knowledge: (a) from God, (b)
about God, or (c) like unto that of God. Interpretation (a), that of the Most High as
being the divine source of Balaam’s knowledge and what he is about to prophesy is
probably the most likely.
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 187

royal ruler and the demise of all his enemies:

(A) Israel and its great future ruler (17a-b) (B) destruction of Moab
predicted (17c),
(B’) destruction of Edom predicted (18a) (A’) Israel and its great
future ruler (18b-19).
Verse 17 is an important passage in the history of biblical interpretation as well
as in Christian theology;43 therefore I will give more attention to some of its
exegetical details – that is, in addition to its outstanding poetic and rhetorical
features. Balaam sees a human king rising out of Israel sometime in the distant
future. The star and sceptre are in all likelihood both metonyms for a king or
even for a coming messianic figure. Thus, this verse has been variously
interpreted as a prophetic reference to King David or to the promised Messiah.44
The central prophecy begins with an apparent enigma regarding the
antecedent of the third person pronominal suffixes on both initial, rhymed verbs
(cf. 23:9a): “I see him” (4L- - ) – “I perceive him” (4L 4 0 ). But to whom or what
does this “him/it” refer? Such delay in explicit reference generates some added
suspense within the text, naturally arousing the hearer’s interest. Furthermore, as
noted, the pronoun “him” could refer to “Israel” as a nation (as in the preceding
oracle), to a human ruler (as specified by the “king” of v. 7b),45 or perhaps even
to both simultaneously (an instance of deliberate poetic-prophetic ambiguity).
The enigmatic character of this passage is reinforced by each line of the parallel,
negativized temporal and spatial setting – “not now” ('? , "), “not nigh” ( , "
+).
This leads then to the figurative referent, a “star” ( I( 5) anthropomorphically
“moving, marching, making its way” (Q ) out from among (the people) of
“Jacob”.46 That resolves the ambiguity somewhat, and the next line clarifies

43
For a diversity of hermeneutical opinions, see the comments in Allen (1994:216-217);
Cole (2000:425-426); Dozeman (1998:191); Duguid (2006:286-288); Gane
(2004:712-713); Noordtzij (1983:231-232).
44
This is true even within ancient Judaism: “Both the Targum Onkelos and the Targum
Jonathan show that rabbinical Judaism was convinced that Balaam here spoke of the
Messiah…[w]hile the Jewish exegete Rashi…expressed his conviction that the ‘star’
of verse 17 refers to David, who made subjects of both Moab and Edom (2 Sam 8:2)”
(Noordtzij 1983:231; see also Allen 1973:311 and Brown 2002:223-224).
45
The Targums render “the king” instead of the pronoun here.
46
The parallel verbs of 24:17b are prophetic perfects. “Astrological imagery must have
188 E.R. Wendland

things further with mention of a “sceptre” (9- - ), a common image referring to

some royal personage.47 The “king” of v. 7b, “rising out of Israel” ( ! )
(17b), is becoming increasingly likely as the subject under prophetic
consideration. The figure of a “star” used with reference to a “king” was common
in the ancient Near East (though not in Hebrew sacred writings), and the royal
reference is confirmed by the parallel term “sceptre” (Ashley 1993:500).48 This
interpretation can lend some assistance for understanding the more difficult
parallel passage in v. 19. It is arguable, first of all, that the final poetic line of v.
18, which otherwise deals with “Edom” and its synonym “Seir,” belongs with the
first line of v. 19, where we then have the familiar word pair “Israel” and “Jacob”
(as in the three preceding oracles: 23:7, 10, 21, 23; 24:5, 17, but significantly,
now in reversed order). This pair then couples with a final line to produce the
following alliterative, 3:2:3 closing tricolon:

Literally: “And-Israel [is] one-acting mightily – and-he-will-rule from-Jacob –

and-he-will-destroy the-remains from-a-city”.49 The Hebrew text for the second
line may be understood as: “one out of Jacob shall rule” (NRSV), which is what
the Latin Vulgate has (cf. also NIV’s rendering “A ruler shall come out of Jacob
and destroy …” and NJPS’s “a victor issues from Jacob to wipe out …”). This
interpretation, with reference to a future royal ruler (see v. 17 and 24:7b), is
supported by the chiastic arrangement suggested as a possibility above.50

come naturally to a Babylonian diviner such as Balaam. That stars could be used
metaphorically for kings is suggested by Isaiah 14:12, where the king of Babylon is
called ‘Day Star’…” (Wenham 1981:179).
47
“The sceptre is the insignia of the ruler since ancient times, as the ancient Near
Eastern representations of kings and rulers with crook or club show (see also Gen.
49:10; Ps. 2:9, 45:6; Amos 1:5, 8)” (Noordtzij 1983:231).
48
The ancient Syriac translation, the Peshitta, renders 9- - as “prince” here. The Jewish
medieval commentator Rashi interpreted this as referring to a king who chastises and
rules.
49
Allen argues for understanding “city” ( ) collectively as “cities” (1973:322), which
could be then extended metonymically to incorporate all enemy forces.
50
I would thus concur with Allen’s understanding of this problematic passage
(1994:217): “There is no subject for the verb ‘[he/it] will come out [rule]; the likely
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 189

Sandwiched in between the external references to the coming sovereign “out

of Jacob” (17b/19a), we get a glimpse of the pagan peoples that he will
ultimately defeat and destroy – first “Moab” (17c)51 and then “Edom” (18).
Balaam’s announcement of the dire fate of the first nation mentioned ( )
would have grated especially harshly on the ears of its king – Balak! These two
internal passages are not easy to interpret in their lexical details (see Allen
1973:315-321), but the overall sense of the text is quite clear: “The future ideal
king [from Israel] will vanquish once and for all those enemies of Israel who
have most recently caused them harm or distress” (Cole 2000:427) – probably to
be extended metonymically to all future opponents as well, the latter being
suggested by Balaam’s three subsequent mini-oracles.

Oracles Five, Six, and Seven – Numbers 24:20-25

These prophecies are grouped into a single unit since they were ostensibly
delivered together orally in staccato fashion – that is, they are not separated by
extended narrative text as in the case of oracles 1-4. These three bring the total
number of Balaam’s oracles to seven, the number symbolizing poetic
completeness. They continue the theme of divine punishment found in the middle
of the preceding oracle (vv. 17c-18) as well as at its very end with reference to
the vengeance to be meted out by the future Israelite ruler (19b). There are other
echoes that resonate with similar passages in the earlier oracles (e.g., 23:24;
24:8). These closing predictions thus act as a poetic denouement, as it were, on
Balaam’s surprising sequence of prophetic orations, now pronounced directly
against all those who oppose the rule of Yahweh and his people.

referent is the Star-Scepter of v. 17. The Star-Scepter makes Israel triumphant as he

gains dominion over the enemies of God’s people. The theme of this oracle is
sustained: Israel’s ultimate blessing centers in her Deliverer from all enemies” (see
also Ashley 1993:502-503).
51
In parallel with “Moab” we have the debatable reference, “all the sons of Sheth”
( 2 % 2 5). The Hebrew form shet is also the form of the name of Adam and Eve’s
son in, for example, Gen 4:25 (cf. “Cain” in v. 21). On this basis, it has been
suggested that “all the people of Seth” stand for all (neighboring) peoples (so already
Rashi) – Israel will defeat all its foes. Others have linked them with nomads – the
Sutu, or Shutu – a nomadic people living south of Moab, who are also known from
Egyptian execration texts (Wenham 1983:179; Ashley 1993:497).
190 E.R. Wendland

The mention of “Amalek” (+ 0 ) in v. 20b would certainly call to mind their

subservient king “Agag” from 24:8. The Amalekites were “the first” ( . )
among the pagan nations to oppose Israel as they made their way out of Egypt
towards Canaan (Num 14:45). However, “his end” ( #0 ) would be utter
devastation – the former expression corresponding poetically to “the first” in the
preceding line. Because of the Hebrew climactic phrase , 0 in the second
line of the couplet, it seems best to include the temporal reference “forever”
(NRSV, GNT) within the scope of the “destruction” being predicted (cf. Deut
25:19; 1 Sam 15:20). This is the central theme of all three short prophecies: all of
Israel’s adversaries or potential rivals in the land will ultimately be destroyed by
the LORD, an expression that runs like a grim refrain throughout these three
oracles (see also vv. 22a and 24b). The nations mentioned first (Moab, Edom,
Amalek, “the Kenites”)52 may be simply close at hand and representative – or
they may be coupled by merismus with those far away (from Kitim and Assur, v.
24) to incorporate the complete inventory of real and potential enemies.
The third and final imprecatory oracle typically breaks the pattern at its
opening, for no nation is initially “seen” (23a, cf. 20a, 21a), and the first line of
“woe” seems deliberately ambiguous; literally, according to the MT: “alas who
when-his-establishing/ordaining-him/it God” ( KO ' # / ). Amidst many
53
other conjectural proposals, Allen’s appears to fit the context best; here we have
“a summary of the theology of the nations in providence of God. … In his ‘Alas’
Balaam realizes the ultimate futility of his vocation. God is in control”
(1973:329). In the context of the entire Balaamic corpus of seven oracles, the
implicit warning resonates with renewed vigour: All those who “live” outside
and oppose the people of God will come to a ruinous end (v. 24)!
His relationship with King Balak having already been irreparably broken

52
Reference to the Kenites, literally “Cain” ( +) in v. 21 has raised questions since this
people are presented in OT history as being generally friendly to Israel (e.g., Judges
1:16, 4:11). However, since the figurative reference to the tribe’s “dwelling place” or
“nest” ( +) seems to reflect an attitude of pride before the LORD (cf. Ob 3-4), perhaps
pejorativized further by their being named after the killer “Cain” of Genesis 4, this
group too faces future destruction, though not at the hands of Israel.
53
See, for example, Ashley (1993:508-509); Budd (1984:256); Cole (2000:431);
Noordtzij (1983:235-236).
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 191

(24:11, 14), Balaam leaves the scene of his amazing prophecies regarding Israel –
predicting abundant blessings for this people and their coming king in contrast to
the greatest of disasters for their foes. The narrative simply reports (24:25) that
Balaam and Balak parted ways – but even this report is poetically expressed in
clearly parallel terms:54
,+ !" ) !" +T!"
35 ) ' + 2 B"
However, the text does leave us with a lingering enigma: Whereas Balak “went
his way,” presumably within his own country of Moab wherein they were
standing, the question is, where would “his place” be as far as Balaam was
concerned? To be sure, he had said that he was returning to his own “people”
( 1 ) in v. 14, but on the other hand, he does appear to be heavily involved on
the local scene in Israel’s sinfulness that follows in chapter 25 (see 31:8, 16).
Thus, the literal “returned to his place” could also either refer to some other
location in the land nearby, or be a conventional way of ending a narrative
episode (as in Judges 9:55; 1 Sam 14:46). In any case, it is extremely doubtful
that his momentous divine messages had any religious impact or effect on him at
all (cf. Deut 23:5; Joshua 13:22, 24:10; Neh 13:2; 2 Peter 2:15-16; Jude 11; Rev
2:14). In this respect he departed in spiritual darkness, just as dumb as his
donkey!

CONCLUSION
The well-known biblical scholar and literary critic Robert Alter offers this astute
observation in concluding his brief study of the Balaam story:
It is important that Balaam is a poet as well as a seer, for the story is
ultimately concerned with whether language confirms or confers
blessings and curses, and with the source of the power of language

54
“The concluding verse of the section is a satiric jab at the failed experiment. … The
plot also rests on a reversal, a narrative situation in which an action produces the
opposite of the effect intended” (Ryken and Ryken 2007:217) – also dramatically
ironic, since the audience (or reader) knows what is happening and the predictable
outcome all along.
192 E.R. Wendland

(1981:105).
I think that my own literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24, despite its
various omissions and shortcomings, has served to underscore Alter’s evaluation
about the poetry as well as the power of the language manifested in these
chapters. Indeed, the word of the LORD, whether uttered by the donkey, his
master, or the directive divine angel has been found to be masterful and most
memorable – in the original Hebrew text. The latter proviso then raises an
important question: How powerful and poetic does Balaam sound in another
language, that is, in translation? Is this an aspect of the intended “meaning” of the
biblical text that translators need worry about or even try to reproduce, at least
partially, in their mother tongue? I will close with a few thoughts that address
this and related issues pertaining to Scripture translation and transmission,
organizing my reflections with reference to these topics: re-expressing,
formatting, articulating, and supplementing the original text verbally in a
contemporary language-culture. For illustration, I will briefly apply each of these
four aspects of interlingual communication to the text of Numbers 24:15-17a.
By “re-expressing” I am referring to some manner of rendering the Hebrew
“source language” (SL) text into some “target language” (TL) of today. This
challenging task may be accomplished with a greater or lesser degree of
correspondence to the original forms, resulting in a more or less literal or
idiomatic version, depending on the prescribed project brief, including its
primary communicative goal (Skopos).55 My argument is that, in a Bantu
language at least, only a “literary-functional” translation methodology can do
justice to the genius of the poetic rhetoric (or rhetorical poetics) of the biblical
text.56 A literalistic approach results in unnaturalness and even
incomprehensibility at times – as indicated by the following back-translation of
the old (1922) “missionary version” in the Chewa language of Malawi:

55
An overview of functionalist “Skopos theory” is given in Wendland (2004:50-53),
also with reference to the related notions of translation practice in general (Wendland
2004:84-92) and speech-acts in particular (Wendland 2008:95-100).
56
As described and illustrated with respect to a variety of OT and NT Scripture texts in
Wendland (2004). Such a version is more faithful to the meaning of the text in the
original language and, on the other hand, to the form of the text in the target language.
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 193

And he spoke his parable

And said,
Balaam child of Beor spoke loud-
ly,
And/with a person with those shut eyes
he spoke loudly;
He spoke loudly while hearing the words
of God,
And knowing the wisdom of the One high
above,
Seeing a vision of the Most power-
ful One,
Falling down to the ground with opened
eyes;
I see him, but now not;
I gaze upon him, but not nearby, no;
A star will come forth from Jac-
ob,
And/with a royal staff will rise up
in Israel, …

The preceding rendition has been reproduced visually more or less as published,
which only adds to the unintelligibility of this passage (for example, vv. 15-19
are punctuated as a single sentence, with unhelpful hyphens as indicated).
So what is the alternative? The following is my revision of the much more
recent (1998) “popular language” version; it has been modified in the interests of
lyricism, idiomacity as well as orality – the latter referring to the audio quality of
the text when uttered aloud (see below). In this case, the Chewa translation,
poetically shaped to match the generic function of the original text, has also been
provided so that its stylistic quality too might possibly be evaluated:

Ndipo adayambapo kulankhula mau,

ndiwo mau auneneri wakewo akuti,
“Nawu ulosi wa Balamu, mwana wa Beori:
Ndine munthu wokhala m’maso otsekuka,
194 E.R. Wendland

indee, amene mau a Mulungu akumvawo,

iye wodziwatu nzeru za Wopambanazonse,57
n’kuwonadi m’masomphenya za Mphambe.58
Ndagwidwa mwauzimu koma n’kuwonabe.
Zimene ndikupenya ine n’zam’tsogolozo,
zokhudza zapatali, za munthu wa Israyeli.
Ndiye m’thu wowala ndithu ngati nyenyezi,
ndodo yachifumu mba! ili m’manja mwake.”

And so he began to utter words,

they are his own prophetic words, he says,
“Here is the prophecy of Balaam, child of Beor:
I am a person who has opened up eyes,
Yes indeed, who hears the very words of God,
he who truly knows wisdom of the Most High One,
who really sees in visions the things of Mphambe.
I have been grabbed in spirit but still can see.
What I’m gazing at are those things of the future,
about things far away,59 about a person of Israel.
He’s a person shining brightly like a star,
a royal staff TIGHTLY GRIPPED!60 in his hands.

Of course, a “meaning-oriented” version will adopt a particular hermeneutical

perspective and eliminate certain points of potential ambiguity in the original.
These issues of interpretation must be discussed and decided upon in advance so
that the translators have a specific operational procedure to follow and refer to in
cases where different understandings arise, either with regard to the sense of the

57
Wopambanazonse (a compound word) is a divine praise name, literally “One-who-
surpasses-all-things.”
58
Mphambe – another praise name referring to “the (almighty) storm god of thunder and
lightning,” who is also recognized by the Chewa people as the Creator.
59
Zapatali is deliberately ambiguous, either “things far away” or “things very
important.”
60
Mba! is an emphatic oratorical predicating particle (ideophone), one that evokes here
the image of an object which a person is holding on to very tightly – also securely.
Although munthu ‘person’ is unmarked as to gender (either male or female), in the
present context and unless explicitly specified, this noun and all related pronouns
would be understood as referring to the masculine.
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 195

SL text or how to render it in the TL.

The second Chewa example also illustrates two other important matters of
modern translation practice, in particular, regarding the transmission of the text.
The first issue is that of format and typography – how to effectively display the
translation on the printed page so that it is as legible as possible. This involves
instrumental techniques such as the use of a clear font style and size, the
inclusion of sufficient interlineal and marginal space, an unjustified right margin
to eliminate disruptive hyphenation, and utilizing shorter lines that are
meaningful in themselves. Such a text that is more readable in print will at the
same time be easier to articulate aloud in public before a listening audience. This
crucial oral-aural factor is one that is often ignored even in many so-called
“dynamic equivalent” versions today (Wendland 2009:314-320, 388-391).61
“Essentially literal” translations like the ESV are much more awkward
stylistically, which only compounds the difficulties that the text confronts most
readers with – and its hearers in particular.62 How has the translation been
fashioned so as to enhance its enunciative capacity and auditory quality, for
example, through the use of verbal euphony, balanced utterances with
appropriate variations to indicate focus or emphasis, the use of flowing, rhythmic
diction, the inclusion of natural pause points (through syntactic manipulation and
punctuation), and meaningful paragraphing (each language will have its own
norms and ideals in these respects)? Such an oral-aural oriented rendition will
also facilitate the memorization and public translation of the text in performance,

61
The Good News Translation (published by the United Bible Societies, New York,
1994) is the prime example of a “dynamic equivalence” version. The New English
Translation (www.netbible.com, 1996) claims that it is “somewhere between the two
extremes” of a “formal correspondence” version and a “dynamic equivalence” version
(from its first Appendix, p. 2305). Generally, I would say that the NET is more formal
than dynamic.
62
Translators of the English Standard Version (published by Crossway Bibles,
Wheaton, 2001) state in their Preface that they “have sought to be ‘as literal as
possible’ while maintaining clarity of expression and literary excellence” (viii).
However, many renderings like the following for 24:16 would call that twofold claim
into question: “the oracle of him who hears the words of God, / and knows the
knowledge of the Most High, / who sees the vision of the Almighty, falling down with
eyes uncovered: /…” That would be a strange vision indeed – to see the “Almighty”
in such a fallen condition!
196 E.R. Wendland

a communication factor that is becoming ever more prominent in contemporary

translation theory and practice.63
And finally, there is the issue of supplementing the text of a translation by
means of a variety of paratextual aids – features such as section headings,
selective (relevant!) cross-references, a glossary for key terms and technical
vocabulary, a topical index or concordance, and perhaps most important of all, an
abundance of descriptive and expository notes. Such auxiliary techniques are
most prevalent in a so-called “study Bible”, but they are essential helps in any
version published today – the aim being to provide essential “contextual frames
of reference” that enable readers to interpret the biblical text more readily and
often more correctly too (Wendland 2008:222-225, 234-244). Many Scripture
publication programs have come to the realization that in these days of
widespread “biblical illiteracy” the translation text on its own is often insufficient
for supplying an adequate cognitive framework for its interpretation. While not
the complete answer or sole solution to this problem, extratextual tools do serve
to stimulate, facilitate, and guide the hermeneutical process along a much surer
path, one that helps readers to avoid potential errors of understanding as well.64
In the case of Balaam’s oracles of Numbers 23-24, for example, the use of
section headings to demarcate each separate prophecy would assist readers in
differentiating them.65 Similarly, it would be important to insert a cross reference

63
According to Giles and Doan, such poetic passages (they focus strictly on lyric
“songs”) “played a central role in the recall of the past as a realizable present. The
recitation, or public performance, of these texts presents us with a shared
performer/spectator relationship” (2009:6; perhaps “auditor” or “audience” would be
more to the point than “spectator”; cf. Wendland 2009:ch. 10)
64
Paratextual devices are of course most helpful for individual readers of the Scriptures.
However, they may also be used orally to assist an audience to audibly follow the text
– for example, a topical title when beginning a new pericope, or a short explanatory
footnote to clarify some point of ambiguity in a given passage. But these “asides”
must be clearly differentiated from the biblical text through some sort of vocal “tag,”
e.g., “The heading for this section reads…”
65
Great care must be taken, however, in the formulation and deployment of such
headings, for like the translation itself they can also confuse and mislead. At Num
24:15, for example, the ESV inserts this title: “Balaam’s Final Oracle”, which begins
a section that continues for the rest of the chapter, until the next section heading at
25:1, “Baal Worship at Peor”. Thus, the false impression is given that Balaam uttered
a total of only four oracles, while the last blessing of Israel (15-19) and the final three
woes against pagan nations have been rolled into one discourse unit.
 A literary-structural analysis of Numbers 22-24 197

at 24:15-16 to indicate the close correspondence of these verses with 24:3-4. A

footnote then could be utilized to comment on the significant point of difference,
that is, “who has knowledge from the Most High” (16b, NIV), and this note
could be expanded to give a little explanation of “Most High,” for example:
“This term (Elyon) is a superlative title referring to the one supreme God,
namely, Yahweh (see v. 13), who is ‘above’ or superior to and distinct from other
gods, that is, all pagan deities (see also Gen 14:18-20).” Such footnotes can also
be used to draw attention to particular translation difficulties or places where the
vernacular rendering might differ from versions in other languages that readers
might have access to, for example, with reference to the expression “falling
down” ( @,%) in 24:16b. A literal translation in Chewa, as in the old version above,
would be misunderstood in a physical sense, and so the revision has “captured (or
possessed) in spirit” to suggest some manner of visionary experience that would
be associated with a typical “prophet”.
The oracles of Balaam, and indeed the fascinating verses leading up to them,
mark a high point in the book of Numbers. The vivid character contrasts
featuring an impetuous Moabite monarch, an imperceptive foreign seer, an
insightful donkey instructed by the angel of the LORD, and the superintending
oversight of Yahweh, highlight the sequence of episodes that focus upon some
amazing divine predictions of blessing for Israel, who surprisingly are nearly
absent from the various shifting scenes (being visible only in the distance).
Similar to the great formulas of benediction in Numbers 6:24-26, Balaam’s
orations are not simply uttered in prose; they are composed and arranged
metrically, suitable for public oral recitation. The very genre of Hebrew poetry
indicates the thematic importance of these visionary passages, which then
becomes an issue of practical relevance for Bible interpreters and translators
alike. Therefore, if at all possible, Balaam’s oracles should be rendered in some
distinctive manner in the vernacular, that is, in a suitable oratorical style that
foregrounds their prophetic function – indeed, as consequential speeches from
the LORD God himself.
198 E.R. Wendland

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E. R. Wendland
Department of Ancient Studies
Centre for Bible Interpretation and Translation in Africa
University of Stellenbosch
Private Bag X1 Matieland, 7602
South Africa
E-mail: erwendland@gmail.com