Ireland, Jeannie. "Gothic Design." History of Interior Design. New York: Fairchild Books, 2018. 196–219.

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Interior Design Library. Web. 27 Feb. 2023. <http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9781501319914.ch-009>.

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in writing from the publishers.
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glass.
pieces of colored
finer detailing and
onto glass allowing

reducing the need for

in the period, painted
Figure 9.0 By late

cutting tiny individual

designs could be fired
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Gothic Design
The Mongols who had been fighting their
way west returned to the East for political
reasons (1242). Their empire weakened, and
the tribes in Europe settled down in rela-
tive peace. A miniature ice age (1315–1317)
resulted in a famine that decimated the popu-
lation, and the plague entered Europe (1347–
1350), killing approximately a third of the
population. As a result, the number of work-
ers decreased, wages rose, peasants revolted,
and the feudal system was no longer viable.
Strong leaders joined the vast land holdings
of feudal lords until most of the nations of
modern Europe had emerged, although cen-
tral Europe remained under the auspices of
the Holy Roman Empire.
Medieval burghers were typically mer-
chants or artisans whose liberties were
derived from feudal practices that allowed
guild members and merchants more freedom
than others, due to their need to travel. These
individuals formed the nucleus of an emerg-
ing middle class. Merchants continued their
visits to the East and, coupled with the Cru-
sades, influences from Muslim areas began
to affect design. New types of buildings were
required: warehouses, markets, guild halls,
and town halls. In northern Europe, many
of these structures featured stepped parapet
gables.
Gothic Advancements in Knowl-
edge and Technology
A number of effects of the Crusades were man-
ifested during the Gothic period. More luxu-
ries were introduced that increased comfort in
Chapter
homes; intellectual discourses resulted in doubt
9
about certain church practices that eventually
led to the Reformation; and women were raised
to a higher plane, having managed estates in
the long absence of their spouses. Knowledge
expanded exponentially, as classical literature
was introduced to Western Europe through
Islamic scholars from the Byzantine Empire
and Spain. These contacts sparked a renewed
interest in learning and experiments in struc-
tural engineering.
Advancements That Reduced Labor
Innovations reduced the amount of physical
labor necessary to complete tasks.
• Much of the stone used in English struc-
tures was imported from the Low Coun-
tries, which was made possible by the harbor
crane developed in the Low Countries for
loading and unloading freight.
• Water mills were greatly improved and
became capable of driving sawmills to cut
lumber and stone.
• The wheelbarrow (c. 1170) eased labor inten-
sity in agriculture, mining, and building
construction.
• The blast furnace (c. 1150) was capable of
producing sufficient heat to melt iron ore—
allowing it to be poured into molds, which
in turn allowed multiple identical pieces to
be manufactured. The new material was
used for weapons, furniture, tools, and dec-
orative pieces. (See Figure 9.1.)
19 7
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198 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me
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Figure 9.1 The
treadwheel crane used
by the Romans had been Chimneys
forgotten until c. 1225,
but its rediscovery made Until the twelfth century, the most common heat
building construction source was the central hearth with a small open-
more efficient. The
device allowed a heavy
ing either in the roof or high on a wall to dissipate
weight to be lifted as smoke. The smoke hole was insufficiently large
an individual inside the
wheel walked, reducing
to create an updraft so smoke-filled rooms were
the labor necessary to common. The first chimneys were located on an
raise the materials. exterior wall, allowing the hearth to be moved
from the center of the room. A projecting smoke
hood directed smoke either through an opening
in the wall or up through the chimney. Chimneys
were constructed of wood covered with plaster or
mud and carried smoke away only after room
temperature was raised sufficiently to create an
updraft. It was not until the sixteenth century
that improvements were made in the chimney
that improved the draft so smoke would be dissi-
pated regardless of room temperature.
Because chimneys were located on exterior
walls, some of the heat produced by the fire was
dissipated to the exterior, reducing efficiency and
there was always a danger of fire due to the wood
used in chimney construction. The chimney,
however, was a significant improvement in heat-
ing technology and was slowly adopted.
In the fourteenth century, the kachelöfen, or
tile stove, began to appear in Germany. These
stoves produced heat efficiently, vented smoke
through internal flues, and could be placed in any
location. A small opening that penetrated the wall
behind the stove allowed wood to be added with-
out entering the room. Some of these stoves had
Figure 9.2 Kachelöfen were more efficient than
fireplaces because rising heat traveled through a convoluted
channel that transferred much of its heat to the tiles of
the stove before going through the chimney. The tiles then
dissipated the heat to the rooms.
sleeping benches, most had small niches for heat-
ing water or drying small items, and some had
ovens. These stoves followed design trends of their
time and are still in use today. (See Figure 9.2.)
Gothic Arts and Design
Gothic arts and crafts were the purview of
guilds—organizations of artisans or merchants
who practiced a similar craft. Guilds were
designed to maintain established standards in
trade and to protect members from outside com-
petition. Guild members were not allowed to
compete with one another, and members of mer-
chant guilds were required to sell their wares at
fair prices without undercutting prices of others.
Guild members could hire apprentices who
worked under their direction for a certain
amount of time, usually five to seven years.
When deemed ready, the apprentice had to pass
a rigorous exam to become a journeyman with
permission to travel. Once they had attained
journeyman status, they spent up to three years
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traveling—often to distant lands, perfecting their
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craft, and gleaning ideas. After serving as a jour-
neyman, the artisan could be considered for mas-
ter status and guild membership.
Woodworking guilds included those of turn-
ers, carvers, and joiners, each of whom made
portions of furniture. During the Renaissance,
cabinetmakers were added. Leather workers,
basket makers, carpenters, and makers of cush-
ions and mattresses formed their own guilds.
Upholsterers provided hangings for beds and
windows, but it was not until the Renaissance
that they began to attach textiles to furniture.
Gothic Motifs
Most of the motifs used during the Gothic
period were carryovers from Romanesque design
including dogteeth, nailheads, chevrons, battle-
ments, and frets. Romanesque religious subjects
continued to be used and served as the “poor
man’s Bible,” although religious iconography
was altered to follow changes in theology. Scenes
from both the Old and New Testaments were
depicted side by side due to contemporary belief
that events in the Old Testament were precursors
of those in the New Testament.
By the tenth century, the market in relics was
enormous and fakes were sold at high prices. The
church began to substitute images of the Virgin
Mary for people to venerate, drawing their atten-
tion from the relics. Mary was depicted as an
affectionate mother cuddling her infant—a more
realistic and natural image than in prior designs,
but she was idealized as an aristocratic woman
with refined manners. Almost every city had a
Notre Dame (Our Lady) church or cathedral.
Lady Chapels behind the high altar were orna-
mented with the finest materials, soft colors, and
feminine décor.
Images of Christ emphasized His suffering: in
scenes depicting the Last Judgment, His chest is
exposed to show His wounds and He was often
shown as a man of sorrows wearing only a loin
cloth. Pietàs depicted an older Mary cradling
a dead Christ with His wounds exposed and
emphasized.
Secular themes from daily life including
scenes from court life or hawking and from con-
temporary popular literature often ornamented
illuminated manuscripts, frescoes, tapestries,
stained glass, furniture, and accessories. Allegor-
g o t hic D e sig n 19 9
ical themes were popular, especially the storm-
ing of the Castle of Love which was frequently
used on gifts such as combs or mirror frames.
Heraldic devices were adopted during the first
Crusade and may have been adopted from the
Muslims. Heraldic devices were identifying sym-
bols attached to clothing and standards, allow-
ing warriors in the midst of chaos to distinguish
between friends and enemies. (See Motifs 9.1.)
Gothic Representational Art
Artistic forms changed from the substantial and
severe Romanesque forms to lighter, more intri-
cately detailed examples. Figures were animated
in natural poses, and facial expressions reflected
emotions. Accurate representations of vines, leaves,
and flowers undulated or spiraled across surfaces
and foliage grew from the necks of column shafts
and covered the capitals. By the end of the period,
these elements were arranged in a more angu-
lar fashion—often in a square—and, following
architectural leads, figures were embellished with
enamel or polychrome paint in bright colors.
Like Romanesque sculpture, much Gothic
sculpture was tied to architecture that dictated
its form. Gothic sculpture, however, emerged
from the interior to dominate façades. Late
Gothic sculpture exhibited such high relief that
it was almost completely detached. The moldings
of Romanesque archivolts were replaced with
human figures, at first stiff and elongated with
arms held close to bodies and later with graceful
curves and refined gestures and expressions. The
term royal portal was used to describe those door-
ways with sculptures of royal ancestors of Christ
or showing Christ in Majesty.
Gothic Crafts
Gothic crafts were a continuation of those used
during the Romanesque period, with a few new
techniques added. Ivory carving was favored in
Spain and Italy, where supplies of ivory from
Africa or India were more easily obtained than
in the rest of Europe. Small carvings, often in
ivory, were designed for the laity as devotional
objects. Items such as mirror cases, small caskets,
and combs with scenes from the romances pub-
licized by the troubadours might be engagement
gifts. Polyptychs, or objects that had two or more
leaves that folded together, and statuettes were
carved for both secular and ecclesiastical use.
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200 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me
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The ballflower was a spherical motif with
three or four petals curved inward. It was
especially popular in England.
Poppy head was the term given to
finials that projected from the tops of
furniture.
A square four-petaled flower had
petals or leaves radiating from the
center.
Stained Glass
The earliest known stained glass has been dated to
the ninth century, but it was not until the Gothic
period when it became significant. The enormous
windows resulting from a new architectural sup-
port system minimized the structural portion of
wall area within churches, leaving little wall space
for decorative mosaics or paint. Stained glass
designs with biblical scenes, saints, prophets, and,
later, heraldic devices filled these window areas.
Colored glass was cut to the size and shape
of a piece within a drawing, and the pieces were
held together by lead cames, or H- or U-shaped
strips of lead that could be easily bent; the whole
was supported by a more rigid stone tracery
framework. Cames kept colors from blending
together when viewed from a distance and even-
tually became part of the design. The dove repre-
senting the Holy Spirit was often executed with
thin slices of alabaster rather than glass.
By the sixteenth century, a greater variety of
colors for painting were available, and it was no
longer necessary to cut small individual pieces of
glass into shapes to fit a design. The design could
By the thirteenth century,
scenes representing the act
of death itself, the dance with
death (Danse Macabre), and the
physical corruption of the body
were more common as were
depictions of the weighing of
the soul.
simply be painted on glass rectangles or squares,
the paint fused with heat to the glass, and then
the glass assembled into a frame. Scenes often
extended over several windows.
IN F LUEN C E 9.1
Stained glass was revived in the nineteenth
century with the Gothic Revival style and con-
tinued in use through the Art Nouveau period.
Tapestry
Tapestries were woven or embroidered textiles
that were at first imported from the East, where
silver and gold threads were used in abundance
on silk textiles. Italian cities with close ties to the
Byzantine Empire made use of gold and silk in
their tapestries, but other European tapestries
were usually worked in wool or linen. Arras, Fon-
tainebleau, and Tournai became French tapestry
centers during the medieval period, and other
centers were established by the sixteenth century.
Flanders, a key wool center, became a major tap-
estry center by the mid-fifteenth century.
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Borders surrounded scenes, including bibli-
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cal events, historical tableaus, hunting, heraldic
devices, and chivalric deeds and, in Italy, Ori-
ental subjects. Until the center at Fontainebleau
made large tapestries in a single piece, these tex-
tile products were made in small pieces and sewn
together.
Gothic Architecture
While Gothic was in vogue, it was called “the
French Style,” denoting its origins. The term
gothic was first used during the Renaissance
by Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) to describe what
to the Italians was an obscure barbarian style,
hence the pejorative name derived from the
Goths and Visigoths who had invaded Italy
numerous times. By the eighteenth century, the
term had begun to lose its negative connotations
as engineers and architects began to appreci-
ate the structural principles involved in Gothic
buildings.
IN F LUEN C E 9. 2
In the nineteenth century, there was a revival
of Gothic forms as a reaction to the classical
revivals then popular.
The Gothic style represented a break with
the classical heritage primarily as a result of
innovations in design and structure. Gothic
design was a northern phenomenon that
developed first in the Ile-de-France c. 1120.
The style was carried abroad by masons
who traveled to find work, by priests trav-
eling between religious houses, by pilgrims
who encountered unfamiliar building styles,
and by merchants who traveled in pursuit of
goods. Increasingly, design was in the hands
of master masons rather than the clergy. No
longer was architecture bound by canonical
rules or by adherence to ancient techniques
and design. Structures became more compli-
cated and significantly larger than Roman-
esque examples—comparable in size to those
of Rome and Byzantium—and showcases of
individual creativity.
The designers of these great structures
were master masons—men with experience
in construction—who knew how to create the
drawings necessary to communicate the pro-
cess to the workers. Rather than the compli-
g o t hic D e sig n 2 01
cated mathematics used by engineers today,
the master masons used a modular design with
the width of the choir (in churches) as the basis
for all vertical and horizontal proportions.
The exterior walls, for example, were 1/10 the
width of the choir. The master mason began
with a square, and then rotated the square to
determine proportions of other features.
City Planning
The Romanesque practice of establishing
urban centers around castle or monastery
walls continued. Typically, the main gates of
the castle faced the town and, sometimes, a
single circuit of walls encompassed both cas-
tle and town. Markets grew up around castle
walls, and during the Gothic period, became
increasingly important. The market cross
became the market square—the location of
which reflected the balance of power in the
community. Where local authorities were
powerful, civic structures (along with the
market square) were distanced from the castle
or cathedral.
The focal point of the town was the mar-
ket square; sometimes, the main church was
located either on the square or adjacent to it,
and civic buildings such as the town hall, and
later, palaces of officials, lined the sides of the
square. Main streets—which often led directly
from one city gate to another—intersected at
the market square.
Newly established towns favored a mod-
ified Roman gridiron plan with rectangular
blocks rather than square ones. City gates lost
much of their defensive function and became,
rather, a way to control the movement of peo-
ple and goods so that appropriate taxes and
fees could be collected. Hospitals, abbeys, and
convents were often located on the outskirts of
towns.
Building Technology
Gothic architecture is characterized by struc-
tural innovations. The pointed arch, ribbed
vault, and flying buttress combined to form a
structural framework that depended on isolated
support rather than thick bearing-wall con-
struction. The support system formed a skeleton
that could be filled in with curtain walls with
large openings.
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202 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me
IN F LUEN C E 9. 3
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The Gothic skeleton construction system was
the predecessor of modern buildings, from steel
and glass skyscrapers to wood-framed houses.
Pointed Arches
Romanesque buildings employed square bays, but
during the Gothic period, bays were elongated to
form rectangles. When square bays were used, all
sides were of equal length; therefore, the semicir-
cular arches were the same size. Two semicircular
arches could meet at right angles without struc-
tural difficulties. Once the bay was changed to a
rectangle, however, the diagonal arches met at a
center that was higher than the transverse arches.
At first, to insure that when semicircular arches
met at right angles, they terminated at the same
height, the shorter arches were stilted or supported
at a higher point on the wall than the longer
arches. This resulted in an awkward appearance.
The solution lay in the pointed arch. Unlike the
round arch, pointed arches use at least two centers,
making it possible to fit their profile to any needed
elevation. When the pointed arch was taller than
its radius, the resulting thrust was more vertical,
making it more stable than a semicircular arch.
Unlike semicircular arches, pointed arches used a
joint rather than a keystone at the apex.
Figure 9.3 Flying
buttresses were
connected through the
wall to the weakest
portions of the arch—
the haunch and the
springpoint—carrying
the thrust of the vaults
diagonally over the aisle
roof to a heavy abutment
away from the structure.
Stacked arches were
used where required by
height.
The pointed arch was first used in Europe
c. 1100, although it had been used in Assyria in
the eighth century bc, in Persian architecture
from the seventh century ad, and in Syria by the
eighth century. It quickly became a feature of
Islamic buildings and was known in Sicily and
Spain through these structures. In all likelihood,
this was a technology brought back by Crusaders.
Ribbed Vaults
The ribbed vault had been known to the Romans
and had been used in Syria, by the Moors in Spain,
in Lombardic Romanesque buildings, and at the
Norman cathedral at Durham, England, in 1093.
The panels of groin vaults were constructed first
and, when they met, formed an arris. When rib
vaults were used, the ribs were built first and
the lighter-weight panels filled in afterward.
Rib vaults were more versatile than groin vaults
because they could be employed for almost any
vault configuration. The ribs covered the joints
where vaults met. Where ribs intersected, a deco-
rative boss covered the joint. High above the level
of the floor, bosses appear small, but many are as
much as a yard in diameter.
Ribs made a framework, which was neces-
sary during construction to support the web until
the mortar dried.1 It was English and Eastern
European masons who experimented with rib
configuration and developed ever more complex
designs where ribs subdivided vaults as tracery
did openings. (See Details 9.1.)
Flying Buttresses
Flying buttresses transferred the thrust of the
arches diagonally to a buttress at the end, from
whence the weight was carried downward to the
earth. As walls rose higher, it was necessary for
the flying buttresses to continue farther outward
from the structure. In England, where extreme
heights were not used, flying buttresses could be
small. The nave at Salisbury Cathedral reaches
84 feet in height. At Beauvais in France, the nave
soared to over 157 feet. (See Figures 9.3 and 9.4.)
1 Evidence has shown that both the cured, or
dried, web and the rib framework will support
themselves. There are instances where the ribs
have fallen and the web remains or the web has
fallen and the ribs remain.
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g o t hic D e sig n 203

Details 9.1 rib Vaulting

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Fan Vault
In England, experimentation with rib vaults resulted
Quadripartite Vault in more complicated designs, such as the fan vault
Quadripartite vaults were divided by diagonal ribs in which ribs spread outwardly from the top of a sup-
into four compartments. port and usually met at the center of the vault.

Sexpartite Vault Stellar vault

Sexpartite vaults had an additional rib that divided In stellar vaulting, a star pattern is formed at the
the vault into six compartments. apex of the vault by the use of additional ribs.
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204 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me
A pinnacle was added on top of the final
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abutment to pinion the arch to the mass verti-
cally. This vertical spire was a conical or pyra-
midal structure that tapered to a point and that
was higher than it was wide. In England, gablets
or small gabled structures, might serve this func-
tion. Early examples were relatively plain, but
later ones were ornamented with small project-
ing forms representing foliage known as crockets.
The combination of these three elements (the
pointed arch, flying buttress, and ribbed vault)
decreased the load on external walls, freeing
space for fenestration, or openings, and mak-
ing possible soaring building heights. As rival-
ries between towns for the highest, largest, and
widest buildings increased, the technology was
pushed to its limits. While the technical prob-
lems had been solved by the mid-thirteenth
century, the engineering principles were not nec-
essarily understood. Many structures fell before
they were completed. Learning from their errors,
Gothic builders often rebuilt fallen structures,
giving them greater strength and stability, and
gradually improving building technology.
Roofs
Gable roofs were constructed of timber over inte-
rior vaults and were covered with lead. To stabilize
timber framing, Gothic carpenters introduced
the tie beam, a horizontal member that crosses
between pairs of rafters to tie them together and
Figure 9.4 Crockets
proliferated from ridges
and edges.
help counteract the diagonal thrust. The steep-
ness of the roof often required several tie beams
spaced along the rise. Carpenters added vertical
timbers to the timber framework to connect the
bottom joist with the various tie beams, forming
a series of triangles that increased the stability of
the roof structure.
The English hammer-beam roof employed
the same principle of triangulation to help coun-
teract rafter thrust. The hammer beam is a beam
that protrudes from the wall a short distance and
is supported by a diagonal or arched bracket. Sev-
eral layers may be used to finally connect at the
top. Each triangle transfers weight lower until
it ultimately reaches a bracket on the wall. (See
Figure 9.5.)
Piers
Column shafts were more slender than in previ-
ous structures, and a cincture, or ring, separated
them from the capitals and bases. As in Roman-
esque architecture, piers were compounded by
attaching engaged columns to their faces whether
piers were round, square, or octagonal. At Can-
terbury, contrasting stone was used for the piers
and slender colonnettes to emphasize them. By
the mid-fourteenth century, use of the bay was
discontinued, capitals disappeared, the shafts on
the piers reached from the floor to the vault in an
uninterrupted line, and vaults became more com-
plex. (See Figures 9.6 and 9.7.)
Figure 9.5 The ends of the hammer beams were
frequently augmented with decorative carving, and the spaces
between hammer beams might be filled with tracery designs.
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g o t hic D e sig n 205

Figure 9.7 Typical

of Gothic design, the
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supports in the nave

of Toledo Cathedral
are piers to which
colonnettes have been
attached and extend into
the vaults.

Figure 9.6 Gothic architecture made no use of

classical orders, although many of the column capitals were
adaptations of Corinthian examples. Here, the cincture
separates the unfluted shaft from the capital.

Tracery
Tracery followed a similar development to that
of piers. Windows were often 20 feet wide and
30 feet high, requiring mullions to help support
the glass. Tracery began as decorative support,
subdividing windows, or as simple vertical
mullions surmounted by pointed arches.
Gothic windows employed bar tracery,
a type that was more delicate than the plate
tracery of the Romanesque period. Rather
than being pierced openings in a single stone,
bar tracery was made of individual stone units
shaped and fit together, filling little of the win-
dow space. The first known use of bar tracery
was at the cathedral at Trier, Germany (c. 1227).
Both plate and bar tracery formed trefoils, qua-
trefoils, and cinquefoils—three, four, and five
foils, respectively. Multifoil designs featured
more than five foils. Sometimes the center foil
was cusped with points formed at the intersec-
tions of curved lines. Late Gothic tracery fea-
tured ogive2 arches. (See Figure 9.8.) Figure 9.8 Cinquefoils crown the openings and
quatrefoils the individual arches in this cloister.

Rose Windows
A few rose windows were used during the
Romanesque period, but they became charac-
teristic of Gothic cathedrals. Rose windows had
more complex tracery than wheel windows and
employed bar tracery. Rose windows were often
centered in the west front where they typically
2 Adjective used to describe ogee arches.
depicted the Last Judgment, signs of the zodiac
to represent God’s dominion over the heavens, or
the labors of the months to indicate His control
over the earth. Rose windows in transept façades
often featured the Virgin Mary. In Moorish areas
of influence, geometric and floral designs were
more typical. (See Figure 9.9.)
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206 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me

plague, and the change in the role of the church

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from domination to succor.

Gothic churches continued to use the
Latin-cross plan, with one or more transepts and
three vertical divisions on the interior. Emphasis,
however, was on vertical lines not only through
the use of precipitous towers, slender shafts with-
out capitals, and steeply pitched roofs, but also by
eliminating many of the horizontal moldings and
details typical of pagan classical designs. Follow-
ing Gothic propensity for buildings to reach heav-
enward, a slender spire (in France, called a flêche)
crowned the crossing. Spires that surmounted a
square tower were frequently octagonal with the
diagonals formed by squinches. (See Figure 9.10.)
Exterior ornament employed numerous
sculpted figures of kings, saints, biblical person-
Figure 9.9 By the ages, and laborers with the tools of their trade.
middle of the thirteenth Monumental Architecture Textures and patterns infused almost every sur-
century, rose windows
had increased in size, At first, the clergy stimulated Gothic architec- face. Figures were placed in horizontal rows,
filling most of the width ture; later, the laity, who as a group, was pre- beneath small architectural hoods, and occasion-
of the nave and transept
façades of churches.
occupied with religion, patronized religious
architecture. For this reason, it is mainly seen in
churches. Monasteries continued to be built, but
there was little change from those established as
early as the ninth century—even though reli-
gious orders differed. Inns were established as
places for the numerous religious pilgrims to stay,
and tithe barns were used for storage of the gifts
in-kind offered to the church and were often sim-
ilar to churches in appearance.
Secular buildings included guild halls, hospi-
tals, colleges, warehouses, market halls, and town
halls. Plans and decorative techniques for these
were derived not from the great cathedrals but
from domestic buildings. Many of them, how-
ever, rivaled the great cathedrals in size. Bells
and clocks were installed in towers in town halls,
guild halls, and other buildings and rung to call
people together, as well as to indicate times for
beginning and ending work.

Cathedrals and Churches

The building of a Gothic cathedral was as much
a cultural as a religious undertaking. Even mem-
bers of the nobility might help to pull a cart
loaded with stone or provide some other phys-
ical labor as a religious exercise. By the four- Figure 9.10 By the fourteenth century, openwork spires
teenth century, these enormous building projects began to appear. Rather than having solid surfaces, these
spires were almost lacelike in appearance, a feature that
were simply not economically feasible after the made them lighter in weight, allowing for greater height.
sweeping societal changes brought on by famine, Crockets proliferate on ridges of pinnacles and the spire.
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g o t hic D e sig n 207

ally, in scenes. Sculptural groupings, however, Of the many figures depicted on Gothic build-
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were usually limited to the tympana.
Late in the period, the triforium was reduced
in size to make room for longer clerestory win-
dows and infrequently was eliminated altogether.
The chevet continued to be used in France, where
the radiating chapels were linked more closely
than in Romanesque structures. While the chevet
was not universal, ambulatories and chapels were
typical in most European areas. (See Details 9.2.)
When possible, the high altar was located
above the burial place of a saint to whom the
church was dedicated. In England, the retro-
choir, the space between the high altar and the
apse chapels, became increasingly important. In
the choir, the stalls typically had folding seats
because prayers for the daily offices were said
while standing. Beneath the folding seat was
often a small shelf, or misericord, meaning act
of mercy. This shelf provided a small projection
against which an individual could lean while
standing.
ings, gargoyles were often used as water-spouts.
Often, gargoyles were grotesques, or mythical
beasts with fangs or wings designed to scare away
evil spirits; some were heraldic animals, such as the
unicorn, lion, and griffin. (See Figure 9.11.)
Castles
Although castles continued to be built through-
out the period, by the thirteenth century they
began to have more conveniences and to provide
more comfort. (See Figure 9.12.)
First, the hall began to be separated from
the keep as gatehouses became more fortified.
Because medieval households, especially in for-
tified buildings, consisted of numerous families,
separate halls were constructed around the com-
munal courtyard for the lord and his family, for
visitors, servants, and for extended family mem-
bers. Heraldic devices were carved in relief over
gates and on walls identifying the family associ-
ated with the structure.

Details 9.2 comparison of gothic cathedral Plans in england

and France

English cathedrals retained

absidiole
the squared chancel and
often had doubled transepts. apse
Most Continental cathedral
plans (including this French
example) had apses rather nave

transept
than chancels and featured a
proliferation of chapels.

chapter
house
transept
aisle

nave

cloister
aisle aisle

atrium

Salisbury Cathedral narthex

Amiens Cathedral
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208 A f t e r t he fA l l o f r o me

figure 9.11 Some

gargoyles represented Civic Structures
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real animals, such as this

pelican on Notre Dame
The hall, derived from the great hall in the cas-
in Paris. The pelican was tle, became the dominant civic structure. It was
symbolic of Christ’s love
for the church because
useful for hospitals, warehouses, and guild, mar-
it was believed that the ket, and town halls. These large aisleless rooms
bird would peck at its employed the same architectural features as
own breast to draw blood
to feed its young when churches, with ribbed vaults supported by piers
necessary. or columns. Early examples were often forti-
fied due to unsettled political conditions and
had small windows, battlements, and towers.
These elements associated with fortifications were
often retained after the necessity for them had
passed—not for defense but as nostalgic remind-
ers of the power within. (See Figure 9.13.)
By the thirteenth century, in relatively
peaceful areas, the ground floor was fronted by
an open arcade and was used as a commercial
area—reducing the need for a market square,
which became more ceremonial. The second
story was typically designed for communal use,
and the third story was divided into rooms—
often residential. Detached houses were con-
structed in a similar manner, with three stories,
each of which housed a different family. Individ-
uals were required to obtain a license to crenellate
a residential structure and battlements became a
sign of social status.

figure 9.12 With the increasing power of the state,

lawlessness was controlled to a greater extent. Although
fortified castles continued to be constructed in France (due to
the Hundred Years War) until later, by c. 1300 in other areas,
the military necessity diminished, and the castle became
more palatial. These palaces retained the towers, gatehouses,
moats, and crenellations as decoration rather than defensive figure 9.13 Town halls often featured tall towers, a visual
structures. expression of the authority represented within.
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G o t hic D e siG n 209

• pierced tracery used in spaces over openings

European Variations • a greater percentage of wall surface pierced by
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The increasing number of individuals who trav-

windows, including openings in the triforium
eled long distances and lingering influences of
the Mongol occupation in some areas resulted in French flamboyant Gothic (1300–1500) was
the adoption of varying design features, but it also characterized by S-shaped curves reminiscent
led to great commonality in design throughout of flames. The ogee arch dominated, and gables
Europe. The increasing participation in build- and the tops of arches were elongated. While
ing design by laity rather than clergy resulted in flamboyant arches worked well as tracery, the
design innovations. arch itself was structurally weak, precluding its
use in vaulting and limiting it to relatively small
France (1120–1500)3 openings unless beneath another arch.
The early Gothic period in France (c. 1120–
c. 1200), where it began, was characterized by Germany (c. 1140–1550)
• rib vaults German Gothic churches continued to use
• pointed arches apses on both ends and employed massive
• sexpartite vaults Romanesque-style buttresses. The hall church
• heightened walls with four divisions: arcades remained the most common form in German
(at the nave level), gallery, triforium, and areas, although internal piers became thinner.
clerestory Helm roofs were typical on German towers, with
four short pinnacles at the corners. Later German
• some early flying buttresses
Gothic churches featured almost continuous glass
The flying buttress matured during the French walls, ribs, soaring heights, and often flying but-
High Gothic period (1200–1300) and became tresses—all French influences. West towers were
characteristic of all subsequent French Gothic typically taller than their French counterparts
styles. High Gothic buildings also featured
• elongated clerestory windows that were dou-
bled with a small rose window centered above
them
• wall elevations with three tiers: arcade, trifo-
rium, and clerestory
• quadrapartite rib vaults (See Figure 9.14.)
French rayonnant architecture (1250–1350) was
part of the High Gothic period and included fea-
tures that were incorporated in French buildings
after 1250, regardless of the specific style. The
rayonnant style was named for wheel patterns
that radiated from a central point and was char-
acterized by bar tracery rather than plate tracery.
In addition,
• blind tracery that concealed bulky structural
components, such as buttresses
• pinnacles and gablets located at the ends of
buttresses
FiGure 9.14 The High Gothic Notre Dame Cathedral
3 Most Gothic buildings were constructed in Paris (1163–1345) was one of the first to feature flying
over a long period of time, often encompassing buttresses. The east end was constructed in the thirteenth
century and has rayonnant features. A flêche towers over the
more than one design style. It is difficult, then, to crossing, but the planned spires for the west front were never
determine exact dates for each of the styles. constructed.
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210 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me
and topped by openwork spires. German Son-
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dergotik (1350–1550) placed greater emphasis on
verticality when elements of the compound piers
rose uninterrupted to the clerestory. In northern
Germany and around the Baltic Sea, brick was
typically used for Gothic buildings.
Italy (Twelfth to Fifteenth Centuries)
Surrounded by ancient ruins of past glories,
the Italians never embraced the Gothic style.
In northern Italy, there were Gothic structures
similar to those in central Europe, but in parts
of southern Italy influenced by the contempo-
rary Byzantine style, the only identifiable Gothic
structures were of French or Spanish design. In
most of Italy, however, Roman forms dominated,
with the dome favored. Rather than reaching for
the heavens as French structures, Italian build-
ings were low, spacious, and retained Roman-
esque forms. The apse, or sometimes, chancel, in
churches was reduced to a shallow chapel beyond
the transept. Frequently, Italian Gothic buildings
had a screen façade that hid the actual form of
the building. It was typically polychrome mar-
ble veneer over brick, with painted columns and
frescoed walls. Like their predecessors, Italian
bell towers and baptisteries were usually separate
from the buildings they served.
Figure 9.15 Sienna
cathedral is a typical
Italian Gothic structure
with a dome, rather
than a tower, over the
crossing; a screen façade
with a rose window; and
mosaics in the gable
and interior. Interior and
exterior striped marble
emphasizes horizontal
lines.
Iberia (Twelfth Century to 1520)
Early Spanish Gothic (twelfth century) and High
Spanish Gothic (thirteenth century) were similar
to French styles, although buildings were not typ-
ically as high. Spanish cathedrals tended to have
a greater number of aisles, encompassing greater
area and the number of side chapels proliferated.
In Mudéjar Gothic (thirteenth to fifteenth cen-
turies), the true Spanish character was evident as
Spanish and Moorish features were combined.
(See Figure 9.16.)
Inside churches, a larger area was reserved
for the clergy, often up to half the nave as well
as the choir. The space was separated by a carved
reredos (sing. and pl.), or screen behind the altar,
that dominated the interior. Rejas, or decorative
iron grills, separated the choir from the nave.
The last stage of Spanish Gothic was known as
Isabelline (1474–1505) and was a transitional style
from Gothic to Renaissance. Semi-elliptical bas-
ket handle arches, shields, and written text used
decoratively were characteristic.
The early Gothic style in Portugal lasted
through the thirteenth century. There, the style
segued into High Gothic between the fourteenth
and mid-fifteenth centuries, until which time
Portuguese Gothic generally followed Spanish
designs. The Portuguese Gothic Manueline style
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g o t hic D e sig n 211

Figure 9.17 The

Manueline style did
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not develop until after

trade with India had
begun and incorporates
features of East Indian
temples. Although it
lasted only a short time,
it was the Manueline
style that was carried to
Portuguese colonies in
the Americas, India, and
the Orient.

Figure 9.16 Although consecrated in 587, the present

Toledo Cathedral is a High Gothic structure—one of three in
Spain. Its five aisles cover the entire area formerly occupied
by a mosque.

(1490–1520) was not developed until later and was

named for King Manuel I. Portuguese navigators
had experienced numerous successes on their voy-
ages of discovery, and the Manueline style was a
celebration of those explorations. The style made
Figure 9.18
use of numerous semicircular arches rather than Manueline marine
pointed arches, although these were typically motifs, including
anchors, ropes, shells,
subdivided into three or more curves. Solomonic seaweed, and the king’s
columns, eight-sided capitals, and ornate porches personal symbol, the
armillary sphere, were
were common. (See Figures 9.17 and 9.18.) mixed with influences
from Europe, Africa,
Brazil, India, and the
England (c. 1180–1520) Far East.
In England the Gothic style began later than on
the Continent. Early Gothic (c. 1180–1275) build-
ings were lower and longer, so there was little use
for the flying buttress. As during the Roman-
esque period, English cathedrals continued to
employ squared chancels and prominent, often
doubled, transepts. Rather than the flêche of
French examples, English cathedrals employed
a square tower over the crossing. Rose windows
were used only on English transepts, not on the
west end, and portals were relatively plain. Early
English Gothic featured lancet windows, which
were tall, narrow, without tracery, and were sur-
mounted by a pointed arch. Other features of
English Gothic architecture included pointed
arches, rib vaults, and profuse ornamentation,
especially on column shafts. (See Figure 9.19.) windows were elongated as the triforium began
Decorated English Gothic (c. 1250–c. 1380) to disappear. Decorated Gothic is characterized
made abundant use of tracery and, toward the by sculptured ornament and vertical mullions
end, the ogee arch. Ogee windows were large and parallel to the level of the springpoint, which
characterized by linear tracery, and clerestory branched to form elaborate tracery patterns.
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212 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me

Perpendicular Gothic (c. 1380–1520) was Domestic Architecture

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characterized by expanding the vertical elements When the walls of Constantinople were breached
of piers upward through the triforium and clere- by cannon in 1453, the castle finally became obso-
story and into the ribs of the vault. English vault- lete. Palaces and manor houses took their place,
ing was unparalleled, and innovations included although decorative towers and battlements
fan vaulting. While some English rib-vault might be incorporated.
designs were adopted on the Continent—mostly In northern Europe and England, the great
in Germanic areas—simpler vaults remained hall was the dominant domestic structure used
most common. (See Architecture 9.1.) for general activities, dining, and sleeping. Typ-
ically, buildings had a high gabled roof and a
porch that shielded the entry. The hall itself,
with two or more stories, was higher than sim-
ilar rooms in central Europe. The entry was at
one end beneath a minstrel gallery, a balcony
that was designed for use by musicians. Opposite
the entry was a raised dais reserved for the lord’s
or owner’s family. There, one or more chairs of
estate were placed beneath canopies. At first, a
curtained four-poster bed was located in one
corner of the hall, although it was later moved
to private quarters. Behind the dais was a room
used as a reception room and semiprivate living
area, called a chamber. Above the chamber was a
second-story solar that served as a bedroom.
In the hall, a trestle table was set up during
meal times and removed when not in use.
Benches typically lined the walls, were often
built in, and were used for sleeping as well as for
daytime activities. A service passage was shielded
from view of the hall by a screen, creating a
Figure 9.19 Salisbury Cathedral (1220–1258) is an
screens passage. To the side of the passage was
early English Gothic structure, with the double transept and the buttery and the pantry. The buttery was a
square-crossing tower of many English cathedrals. An abbey room in which alcohol was stored in barrels or
church, the cathedral has an octagonal chapter house.
butts and where beverages were prepared for
serving. The pantry was a storage area for dry
provisions.
The hall was also the basis of less preten-
Architecture 9.1 characteristics of tious homes. Often, the ground floor served as
gothic Architecture a storage area, and the hall itself was located on
the second story. A private chamber located on
• Pinnacles • No use of classical orders the ground floor was typically accessed through
• Spires, sometimes of open- • Radiating chapels
the upstairs hall. The materials used for these
work designs • Most surfaces decorated
homes varied according to the area, although
• Towers • Stained glass
• Ribbed vaults • Large window areas
timbered construction was widespread. Spaces
• Pointed arches • Bar tracery between framing members were filled with
• Flying buttresses • Cusped designs wattle and daub or nogging and often plastered
• Skeleton construction • Rose windows over and whitewashed. In some areas, the lower
• Round, square, or octagonal • Stone castles and town walls story was constructed of rubble with upper
piers • Half timbering stories of timber keeping the wood off the wet
• Slender column shafts • Jetties ground. Brick was used for construction in
the Low Countries and stone was used in the
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Cornwall and Cotswold areas of England. (See
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Figure 9.20.)
Two other types of dwellings were found
in central European cities: the dwelling tower
and the gabled house. The dwelling tower was
a multistoried, detached structure with a cren-
ellated parapet located where defense might be
necessary. Typically, at least the first two stories
were constructed of stone, although levels above
that might be timber. There was no access from
the first-story storage area to the second and sub-
sequent living stories, each of which was a single
room. Access was through a ladder that could
be pulled up in times of danger. Windows were
located on all four sides but were narrow and
resembled loopholes in castle walls.
By the sixteenth century, additions were made
to tower dwellings usually in the form of a hall
adjacent to the tower. Stairways to the upper sto-
ries, additional living areas, and storage facilities
were part of this addition. Later, a two-story res-
idence was attached with stables at ground level.
The gable house was built on a narrow, deep
plot and was probably similar to rural dwellings
of the period. This half-timbered house fronted
on the street and was divided into bays. In Den-
mark, a house with four or fewer bays and a
single story was used by tenants and peasants;
four to six bays on a two-story house for others;
and six bays, a two-story structure, a rear yard,
and a porte cochere, or covered passageway for
FiGure 9.20 The affluent began to move from drafty
castles to more comfortable manor houses constructed with a
great hall similar to that of castles.
G o t hic D e siG n 213
vehicular and pedestrian traffic, was reserved for
merchants.
These houses were a combination of living
and work space. Merchants were the wealthiest
citizens and lived along major streets or market
squares because their shops were located on the
first-story front. Artisans also had homes with
a rear courtyard around which their workshops
were located. The courtyard was where the sta-
bles were located, hay was stored for the animals,
and food was stored. Domestic servants, appren-
tices, and other workers lived on the second story
around the courtyard. Unlike Roman and Greek
courtyards, these were service yards rather than
living areas.
Principal family rooms were located at the
front on upper stories. Because land in urban areas
was expensive, by the thirteenth century second
stories often projected beyond the first story in
the front—an extension known as a jetty. Jetties
provided additional living area above street level
and some protection from the elements for those
walking under them. By the Renaissance period,
jetties of buildings on opposite sides of the streets
sometimes almost met, and it was necessary to
pass laws governing the depth of extensions.
Windows of most houses faced the street
rather than the courtyard and had shutters rather
than expensive glazing. Northern homes had
more windows to provide light than did south-
ern homes, where the climate dictated few win-
dows to minimize heat from the sun. It was not
until the eighteenth century, when business and
domestic activities were separated, that urban
dwellings began to change in Europe. Dwell-
ings were independent of one another, with
a gap between them through which an open
sewer often ran. The gap was designed to help
prevent the spread of fire, a constant danger in
a time when thatched roofs were typical. Later,
cities passed laws requiring tile roofs to prevent
conflagrations. The gabled roofs of houses were
tiled, shingled, or made with sheets of lead over a
wooden framework.
Openings
Typically walls were thick and, around windows,
splayed diagonally on the interior to increase
light penetration. A seat was frequently recessed
within this area and was sometimes high enough
to require steps. Glass was not common in homes
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214 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me

Figure 9.21 Oriel oiled cloth, covered window openings and mini-
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windows were often

highly ornamented mized drafts. Later medieval windows had upper
in keeping with their and lower sections separately framed so that the
original religious
function. Because they lower section could be pivoted for ventilation.
projected beyond the As in the Romanesque period, bifora win-
wall, the large window
area not only allowed dows were typical. Lancet windows were
more light into the grouped in threes or fives. A large bay window
room but also offered
better views than flush
might project into the courtyard behind the
windows. chamber and solar, especially in England. While
the angular bay window extended to the ground,
the oriel window on the second-story solar was
supported on a bracket. Oriel windows were
more common than bay windows until after the
Renaissance. The window usually housed a pri-
vate chapel with an altar. (See Figure 9.21.)

until the fifteenth century. Interior wooden shut-
ters pierced with small openings that were filled
with translucent materials, such as mica, horn, or
Gothic Interiors
Floors were made of brick, stone, or tile and were
covered with straw, which was swept out, burned,
and replenished during the annual spring-
cleaning ritual. Where wood was readily avail-
able, plank floors provided greater warmth and
comfort than those of stone. (See Figure 9.22.)
Walls were often plastered or paneled with
oak wainscoting to a height of about 12 feet.
Above that level, standards, armor, weapons,
and trophies were displayed. Adding wood to
the walls improved interior comfort because

Figure 9.22
Structural ceiling beams
and trusses were visible
and frequently painted.
The ends of beams were
supported by decorative
brackets projecting from
walls. Plaster ceilings
were often painted with
gold stars on a blue or
green ground.
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it provided some insulation and decreased the
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drafts from cold stone surfaces. Wainscoting was
made of tongue-and-groove boards placed ver-
tically to form a flush surface. Carved linenfold
designs, which imitated the appearance of folded
fabric or parchment, tracery, and oak leaves,
acorns, and branches, were common in panel-
ing. Sometimes the motif was embellished with
scalloped edges, or, infrequently, carved arrows
might protrude from the “fabric.” Panels were
also ornamented with heraldic motifs, and fini-
als or a carved cresting often crowned the entire
wainscot.
Heraldic banners were hung either parallel to
or perpendicular to walls. These colorful square
or rectangular banners varied in size depend-
ing on the social standing of their owners. A
major advance in painting was its removal from
structural backgrounds to movable panels in the
mid-fourteenth century. Now patrons could have
their portraits painted and hang them anywhere,
changing locations as desired. In more preten-
tious homes, designs imitating hanging textiles or
murals might be painted. By the fifteenth century,
tapestries were hung over windows and doors, on
walls, and around beds to decrease cold drafts.
Gothic Furniture
Guilds had strict rules concerning furniture con-
struction and dictated the species of wood used,
the kinds of joints, sizes, and forms of decoration.
Fines were levied when artisans deviated from
acceptable norms.
There were few furniture pieces during the
early Gothic period. Those who owned large
estates continued to move from one residence to
another and furniture remained relatively por-
table or was built into walls. By the end of the
Gothic period, more pieces had been added, but
even then the number of pieces in any home was
small. Chests, benches, stools, a few chairs, tables,
beds, and a variety of cupboards were universal.
Upholstery was not used, but wool cushions in
brown, green, scarlet, and russet were common.
An innovation of the Gothic period was the back-
ing of glass mirrors by lead—greatly improving
the reflected image.
Gothic furniture was rectilinear, heavily
proportioned, and architectural in character.
Like Romanesque furniture, early Gothic exam-
ples were simply constructed of boards joined
g o t hic D e sig n 215
Figure 9.23
Because panels were not
permanently attached to
the framework in panel
construction, the panels
were less likely to split
when the framework
expanded or contracted
together with wooden pegs called trenails or, in in response to moisture
or temperature changes.
very crude construction, with iron nails. By the These panels are
end of the Gothic period, however, the mortise- ornamented with a
linenfold motif.
and-tenon joint, a device as ancient as Egypt, was
redeveloped. Horizontal rails and vertical stiles
were joined with mortises and tenons to frame
lighter panels. Not only was panel construction
lighter in weight, but it made larger flat surfaces
feasible. The panels themselves were not attached
to the styles and rails but floated within their
framework. Stiles and rails might have parallel
fluting or reeding, and edges were usually bev-
eled. Panels were sometimes ornamented, and
multiple panels might be carved with unrelated
subjects or pierced to form designs. While the
crudely constructed early pieces were covered
with textiles, these more finely constructed pieces
remained uncovered. (See Figure 9.23.)
Furniture forms often took the shape of min-
iature buildings and architectural features domi-
nated the decoration: tracery, pointed arches, rose
window designs, finials, and crockets. Vine and
leaf tracery were especially prominent in France,
and figures were employed almost everywhere.
In France and England, arcades graced the fronts
of chests and other case pieces.
Ornamentation of earlier Gothic furni-
ture pieces was relatively simple, consisting
of either low-relief or chip carving—both of
which were flat in appearance. Chip-carved
motifs were derived from those carved in
stone on buildings and were usually geomet-
ric in form. Chip carving remained common
north of the Alps and, when replaced in finer
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216 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me
furniture with more elaborate carving, was
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retained in provincial furniture through the
nineteenth century.
Later Gothic furniture in southern France
and Germany was richly carved in high relief.
Some differences in carving can be attributed
to divergent regional character, and some is
due to the type of wood used. England had
plentiful supplies of oak and most English
Gothic furniture was constructed of this
material. The grain of oak is relatively coarse
and lends itself to simple linear designs. Wal-
nut, which was used in France and Italy, has
a finer grain suitable for elaborate carving
with sharp details. Soft woods, such as pine
and other conifers, were used in some areas,
often for peasant furniture. The grain in soft
woods lends itself to chip carving and linear
designs but is not fine enough for detailed
relief carving. Romanesque turned pieces
exhibit inconsistencies associated with carv-
ing, but it is obvious that the lathe was once
again employed by the Gothic period, as turn-
ings were more consistent. Painting and gild-
ing were used on major pieces of furniture to
highlight turnings or carving.
IN F LUEN C E 9. 4
Turned furniture elements remained common
until the Renaissance and in rural areas long
after they had vanished from more fashionable
furniture pieces.
IN F LUEN C E 9.5
During the nineteenth-century Gothic
Revival, furniture with Gothic details was
popular, even though the furniture itself was
unlike Gothic examples. Arts and Crafts period
furniture featured paintings incorporating
medieval legends.
Iron was preferred for furniture that was
moved from place to place, and several exam-
ples of iron folding stools are extant. Iron was
also used for beds, especially after the thir-
teenth century, as a method of minimizing
bothersome fleas and other insects. Wrought
iron hardware decorated with foliage and
scrolls was located on the surface of furniture
such as chests.
IN F LUEN C E 9.6
Iron beds were also used during the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries because they were
more likely to be bug-free.
Seating Units
Most people sat on stools or benches. Early stools
usually had three legs, a feature that made them
stable on uneven surfaces. The wide, flat, back
leg of the back stool rose above the triangular
seat to form a rudimentary back. Later stools had
solid trestle ends. Boarded stools had solid sides
that formed a small chest and were made by car-
penters. Joint stools, so called because they were
made by joiners, had three or four turned legs
connected by stretchers. An apron, or rail beneath
the seat, connected the legs. With the exception
of shorter stools, the legs were splayed to provide
better support. Stools designed for use at a table
were approximately 22 inches in height, allowing
users to rest their feet on table stretchers rather
than the floor. Other stools varied in height from
those designed as footstools to some taller than 22
inches that had overhanging tops (referred to in
inventories as “stoole tables”). French stools were
known as escabeaux (sing. escabeau).
Benches continued to be used especially for
dining in the great halls. Benches sometimes
received high, solid backs and arms, in which
case they were known as bancs à dos in France
(English: settle. Italian: archebanc). Benches often
had an enclosed seat for storage, with a hinged lid
for access. Sometimes, a canopy was attached on
the wall above high back settles, in which case
they were known as dossiers in England (French
banc à ciel). Seating units with backs were used
in front of the fire to keep occupants warmer by
mitigating drafts. (See Figure 9.24.)
Chairs were rare until late in the Gothic
period and were considered a symbol of author-
ity. A variety of X-shaped chairs continued to be
used, especially in Italy, but they were relatively
crude in form. The faldstool no longer folded by
the end of the Gothic period but continued to
be used. The chair of estate was the most likely
candidate for ornamentation, including turnings
or gilding. The late Gothic choir stall chair was
derived from seats used in church choirs—hence
their name. Like their predecessors, choir stall
chairs had high paneled backs and arms.
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Figure 9.24 Panel construction was employed for
benches. This bench has a high back and a storage area in
the seat.
Storage Furniture
The chest was still the most important article
of furniture. Early Gothic examples were rel-
atively crude and were often made of boards
held together with iron bands. The later panel
construction negated the need for iron bands
because stiles and rails stabilized the chests.
Most Gothic chests featured the same type of
tracery seen in buildings, usually in the form of
arcades, or linenfold panels. In England espe-
cially, a few chests were decorated with scenes
of medieval knights, usually participants in a
joust. For this reason, these chests are known
as jousting or tilting chests. Italian chests, or
cassoni (sing. cassone), varied from those in
other European areas in that they were usually
longer and lower. (See Figure 9.25.)
The coffer continued to be used for import-
ant papers and valuables. As such, it was often
bound with iron bands or had strong locks. The
bahut became a long, low chest with a hinged
lid designed to be attached to the top of a larger
chest. While traveling, items of immediate need
could be stored in the bahut, making it unneces-
sary to carry the larger chest into an inn or tem-
porary lodging. Because the bahut often had an
g o t hic D e sig n 217
arched lid, the term was later used in France to
indicate any type of chest with an arched top.
The English hutch, or French huche, was
at first a household chest of crude construction,
probably for grain storage or a place for bread
to rise. As it evolved, it became more decorative,
was raised on legs, and the lid became perma-
nently attached.
As living conditions became settled and
increasingly sumptuous, more elaborate articles
of furniture were used. The dresser or dres-
soir was a utilitarian piece used in the kitchen
for dressing food, including wild game. It was
surmounted by one or more open shelves that
held the necessary utensils and vessels for food
preparation.
The buffet was a French piece used in the
dining room and could be partly or completely
enclosed. It was used to display and store glass-
ware, silver, and other expensive objects. Typi-
cally on top of the cabinet, shelves were arranged
in a pyramid form, with each tier slightly recessed
inward from the sides of the tier below. The
number of shelves varied according to geographic
location and depended on the social status of the
owner: six or more shelves were usually indicative
of royal status. The buffet was often crudely con-
structed but was draped in fine fabrics and, late
in the period, might have a canopy. Less preten-
tious buffets might be located in the same room
and were used for serving food.
The livery cupboard was a ventilated unit in
which food was stored. The door panels might
have pierced designs or turned spindles. The first
livery cupboards had a single door; later examples
had two. Livery cupboards were sometimes small
Figure 9.25 Chiefly used as a storage piece, the chest
also functioned as a seat, a bed, and sometimes a table, as
well as a container to transport goods. Tracery designs are
featured on this French paneled chest (c. 1475).
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218 A F t e r t he FA l l o F r o me
enough to be carried, as food and other needed
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commodities were delivered (French livré) each
evening to individuals within the household.
The press cupboard was enclosed by solid
doors and used to store clothing, linens, and
other items. Only the wealthy needed or could
afford these cupboards.
The armoire was the largest type of cupboard
and was used to store armorial equipment behind
a pair of doors. Few were movable, and frequently,
they were so large that they were built into the
wall. Some were even small rooms. In England,
these rooms were called garderobes and were used
for storing clothing as well as armor. The English
furniture piece that was equivalent to the free-
standing armoire was the ambry. (See Figure 9.26.)
The sideboard was a shelf or table on which
food could be placed prior to serving. This form
was often decorated with carved designs or
wrought iron work. The crédence was originally a
small table that served the same purpose in France.
(In Italy, it was known as the credenza.) By the
fourteenth century, the crédence evolved into a
table surmounted by a number of shelves, like the
buffet, and by the Renaissance, the piece became
massive, enclosed, and richly decorated. The term
Figure 9.26
Cupboard was a term
first used during the
Gothic period to describe
a board or shelf on which
cups were placed. Later,
a compartment that
closed with doors was
added.
credere meant to believe, and it was from this word
that the name of the crédence was derived. Food
was served from this unit, but a servant had to try
each dish before it could be served.
Tables
Medieval tables were taller than later examples—
about 32 to 34 inches. Their height allowed din-
ers to rest their feet on stretchers. Although there
were a few small tables, the board continued
to be used for dining in the great hall. Illustra-
tions of the period depict tables placed in a U
around the sides of the room—reminiscent of the
Roman triclinium, although for a larger number
of guests.
A Gothic innovation was the fixed table, or
table dormant. This table had a permanently
attached top, making it unwieldy to move from
one residence to another, so it remained in one
place. Crudely made, it was covered with rich
textiles when the owner was present.
The prie-dieu, used in the bed chamber, was
a prayer stand that combined a box for a kneel-
ing bench with uprights that supported a small
ledge. The lectern continued to be used as a read-
ing stand in monasteries and by the late fifteenth
century had begun to be used in homes, even
those of the illiterate.
Beds
It had long been custom for servants to remain
in the room with masters during the night. By
the fifteenth century, manuscript illustrations
depicted a low bed that pulled out from beneath
the high bed. This bed, called a trundle or
truckle bed for the rollers beneath it, could be
stored under the high bed during the day and
used at night by servants. The trundle bed had
a wooden frame and a platform created by rope
or leather strips. The poor often slept on simple
pallets on the floor.
IN F LUEN C E 9.7
The trundle bed remains in use and was the
precursor to the modern rollaway bed.
Beds of the wealthy became more elaborate
and required the use of a step or a stool because
the mattress was high off the floor. The bed of
estate continued to be used by the highest-ranking
member of the household.
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Later beds, derived from the tent, had four
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posts to support the tester and hangings that
kept warm air in and drafts out. Fewer curtains
were used in southern Europe where the climate
was warmer. The bed was often elevated on a
platform, and sometimes, a hinged surface pro-
vided access so that the platform could be used
for storage. Italian beds were often paneled from
the sleeping surface to the floor and more deco-
rative than examples in colder areas. In part, this
was because curtains were used only around the
posts.
Enlightenment
Even while most of Europe was in the throes of
the medieval period, there were the beginnings
of change in Italy, where the glory that was Rome
g o t hic D e sig n 219
had never fully receded. Ancient manuscripts
were brought to light, old philosophies were
appraised, and the vagaries of the church ques-
tioned. The technological advances of the Gothic
period were examined and further developed as
scientific processes led to ever-increasing knowl-
edge and a new period of enlightenment based
on classical Rome blossomed.
The Renaissance was not only a rebirth of
classical culture but also a synthesis of a millen-
nium of experience, wisdom, and technology
that resulted in a vibrant, flourishing, sophisti-
cated society. The advancements in navigation,
the closure of trade routes to the Orient, and the
demand for goods from foreign lands resulted in
explorations that opened much of the unknown
world to Europe.