CHAPTER 1: Representation of data

• Non-numerical data are called qualitative or categorical data.

• Numerical data are called quantitative data, and are either discrete or continuous.
- Discrete data can take only certain values.
- Continuous data can take any value, possibly within a limited range.
class frequency
Frequency density = class width

CHAPTER 2: Measures of central tendency

Mean
∑𝑥
ungrouped data : 𝑥̅ =
𝑛
∑ 𝑥.𝑓
grouped data : 𝑥̅ =
∑𝑓

coded data :
(ungrouped data)
∑(𝑥−𝑏)
𝑥̅ − 𝑏 =
𝑛
∑(𝑎𝑥−𝑏)
𝑎𝑥̅ − 𝑏 =
𝑛
(grouped data)
∑(𝑥−𝑏).𝑓
𝑥̅ − 𝑏 = ∑𝑓
∑(𝑎𝑥−𝑏).𝑓
𝑎𝑥̅ − 𝑏 = ∑𝑓

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CHAPTER 3: Measures of variation
Range = largest value – smallest value
IQR (interquartile range) = Q3 – Q1

Box and whisker:

For Q2-Q1 < Q3 – Q2 → positively skewed

The longer tail of the curve drawn over a bar chart would be to the side of the larger values.

For Q2-Q1 > Q3 – Q2 → negatively skewed

The longer tail of the curve would be to the side of the smaller values.

Standar deviation :
ungrouped data :

∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 ∑ 𝑥2 ∑𝑥 2
Standar deviation = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒=√ =√ −( 𝑛 )
𝑛 𝑛

grouped data :

∑(𝑥−𝑥̅ )2 . 𝑓 ∑ 𝑥 2 .𝑓 ∑ 𝑥.𝑓 2
Standar deviation = √𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒=√ ∑𝑓
=√ ∑𝑓
−( ∑𝑓
)

For datasets x and y

∑ 𝑥+∑ 𝑦
Mean = 𝑛𝑥 +𝑛𝑦

2
∑ 𝑥 2 +∑ 𝑦 2 ∑ 𝑥+∑ 𝑦
Variance = −(𝑛 )
𝑛𝑥 +𝑛𝑦 𝑥 +𝑛𝑦

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Coded data:
ungrouped data
Var x = Var (x−b)
∑ 𝑥2 ∑𝑥 2 ∑(𝑥−𝑏)2 ∑(𝑥−𝑏) 2
−( 𝑛 ) = −( )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

1
Var x = 𝑎2 ( 𝑉𝑎𝑟 (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏)

∑ 𝑥2 ∑𝑥 2 1 ∑(𝑎𝑥−𝑏)2 ∑(𝑎𝑥−𝑏) 2
− ( 𝑛 ) = 𝑎2 ( −( ) )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

grouped data
Var x = Var (x−b)
∑ 𝑥 2 .𝑓 ∑ 𝑥.𝑓 2 ∑(𝑥−𝑏)2 . 𝑓 ∑(𝑥−𝑏).𝑓 2
∑𝑓
− ( ∑𝑓 ) = ∑𝑓
−( ∑𝑓
)

1
Var x = 𝑎2 ( 𝑉𝑎𝑟 (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏)

∑ 𝑥 2 .𝑓 ∑ 𝑥.𝑓 2 1 ∑(𝑎𝑥−𝑏)2 . 𝑓 ∑(𝑎𝑥−𝑏).𝑓 2

∑𝑓
− ( ∑ 𝑓 ) = 𝑎2 ( ∑𝑓
−( ∑𝑓
) )

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Chapter 4: Probability
⋃ = or
⋂ = and
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
P (event) = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

P(A’) = 1 – P(A)
Note: P(A’) = probabilities of A complement → P (not A)

P (A⋃B)’ = P (A’ ⋂ B’)

P (A⋂B)’ = P (A’ ⋃ B’)

Mutually Exclusive Events

P (A⋃B) = P(A) + P (B) – P (A⋂B)

Mutually Exclusive Events (no common favourable outcomes)

P (A⋃B) = P(A) + P (B)

Independent Events
P (A⋂B) = P(A) x P (B)

Conditional Probability
Probability of event A occuring given that event B has occured
𝑃 (𝐵⋂A)
P (A/B) = 𝑃(𝐵)

Probability of event B occuring given that event A has occured

𝑃 (𝐴⋂B)
P (B/A) = 𝑃(𝐴)

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Chapter 5: Permutations and Combinations
n! = n x (n – 1) x ( n – 2) x ……
0! = 1
Permutation (arranged)
a way of selecting and arranging objects in a particular order
𝑛!
nPr = (𝑛−𝑟)!

Permutations of objects with repetitions

𝑛!
nP q, r, s =
𝑞! 𝑟! 𝑠!

Circular permutation
(n-1)!
Combination (chosen and selected)
a way of selecting objects in no particular order.
𝑛!
nCk =
𝑘! (𝑛−𝑘)!

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