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Liu 2007
Liu 2007
Liu 2007
The Government
Communication Decision
Wheel: Toward a Public
Relations Model for the Public
Sector
a b
Brooke Fisher Liu & J. Suzanne Horsley
a
College of Communication, DePaul University
b
Department of Communication, University of Utah
To cite this article: Brooke Fisher Liu & J. Suzanne Horsley (2007): The Government
Communication Decision Wheel: Toward a Public Relations Model for the Public
Sector, Journal of Public Relations Research, 19:4, 377-393
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any
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JOURNAL OF PUBLIC RELATIONS RESEARCH, 19(4), 377–393
Copyright © 2007, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
J. Suzanne Horsley
Department of Communication, University of Utah
We argue that the existing public relations and communication models do not ade-
quately account for the unique environmental characteristics of the public sector. By
reviewing the public sector environment literature, we identify 8 attributes that affect
government public relations: politics, focus on serving the public, legal constraints,
extreme media and public scrutiny, lack of managerial support for public relations
practitioners, poor public perception of government communication, lagging profes-
sional development, and federalism. We then review 5 existing public relations mod-
els, arguing that none of these models fully incorporates the unique environmental
characteristics of the public sector. We conclude by proposing a new model: the gov-
ernment communication decision wheel.
Just as tensions were peaking after the September 11 attacks, rumors began to
spread of an anthrax attack. This lethal form of bioterrorism forced the Centers for
Disease Control’s scientists and public relations experts to communicate quickly
about an alien substance that was not yet fully understood. Scientists had yet to de-
termine the biological traits of anthrax spores or how they could be contained from
spreading to the public at large. At the same time, public relations personnel had to
communicate with the public and media without inciting unnecessary fear, often
without being able to first talk with the CDC scientists (Ehling, 1992; Robinson &
Newstetter, 2003; Sieb & Fitzpatrick, 1995; Wright, 1981).
Correspondence should be sent to Brooke Fisher Liu, Ph.D., Assistant Professor, DePaul University,
College of Communication, 2320 N. Kenmore Ave., Chicago, IL 60614. E-mail: prof.liu@yahoo.com
378 LIU AND HORSLEY
The anthrax crisis is just one of the many emergencies that government agen-
cies must properly respond to and manage quickly, efficiently, and accurately to
protect the public’s safety. The government’s level of responsibility far exceeds
that of the private sector when the public’s safety is at risk. Although the stakes are
higher, the amount of scholarly research does not reflect the importance of govern-
ment communication (Garnett, 1992; Garnett & Kouzmin, 1997; Graber, 2003;
Horsley & Barker, 2002). In this study, we highlight the differences between pub-
lic and private sector environments and propose that a unique model is needed for
public relations practiced in the public sector.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
Currently, the public relations field does not distinguish between the public and
private sectors, applying the same models to all scenarios. By understanding the
unique environmental characteristics of the public sector, we demonstrate a need
for a new theoretical approach to public sector public relations.
vate enterprises can serve the public good through corporate social responsibility
programs. Nevertheless, the focus on the public good allows government agencies
to provide important services that the market may not deem necessary, such as risk
communication (Schneider, 1995).
Legal constraints. Although the public good may guide government ac-
tions, legal constraints often limit the ability of agencies to communicate fully and
openly. Federal agencies must comply with the Freedom of Information Act; states
and local governments have their own access-to-information laws. In addition, Ti-
tle 18, Section 1913 of the United States Code prohibits lobbying by government
officials and spending public funds on advertising. This law does not interfere with
normal communication activities (Graber, 2003). It creates tension, however, be-
tween what is considered to be public communication and what is considered to be
advertising.
Media scrutiny. Public sector organizations also face a higher level of media
scrutiny. Allison1 (2004) argued that government decision-making is covered more
often in the media than the actions of private companies and the media can influ-
ence the timing of government decisions. Allison described the relationship be-
tween government and media as “mutually dependent” (p. 404), a depiction that
does not apply to the media and private companies (p. 404). Lee (2001) referred to
this relationship as “public reporting” (p. 33), meaning that a fundamental duty of
government officials is to constantly report decisions and actions via the media, to
maintain an informed citizenry (p. 33). Some researchers, however, do not view
the relationship between the government and the media as complementary (e.g.,
Wamsley & Schroeder, 1996). These researchers note that the government is never
free from the 24–7 news cycle. Thus, to avoid negative media coverage, govern-
1Original source: Proceedings of the Public Management Research Conference, November 19–20
1979 (1980). Washington, D.C.: Office of Personnel Management, OPM Document 127–53–1, pp.
27–38.
380 LIU AND HORSLEY
ment employees tend to follow the status quo and improvise less (Garnett, 1997;
Graber, 2003; Hicbert, 1981; Schneider, 1995).
use of the taxpayers’ money for the purpose of promoting and soliciting support
for various agency activities” (Lee, 1997, p. 318). Because of this climate in which
communication is undervalued, many qualified communicators leave government
service for organizations that demonstrate more respect for their work and offer
better salaries (Garnett, 1997).
cerns, but they also have to work within a system of federalism. Public administra-
tion scholar Laurence O’Toole (2000) defined federalism as “a system of authority
constitutionally apportioned between central and regional governments” (p. 2).
Local agencies communicate on matters within their municipal boundaries, but
states may step in to communicate about matters that go beyond those geograph-
ical borders. Likewise, the federal government may intercede and communicate
about matters of national importance (Schneider, 1995). Partly due to federalism,
but also due to a lack of formalized communication structure, agencies practice a
decentralized approach to communication. As Graber (2003) explained, “The lack
of centralized control over external communications explains why public officials
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in the United States often do not speak with one voice about major issues. When
authoritative pronouncements are contradictory, people become confused, an-
noyed, and often cynical” (p. 228).
In sum, the unique attributes of the public sector environment are: politics, pub-
lic good, legal constraints, devaluation of communication, poor public percep-
tions, lagging professional development, and federalism. Because of these unique
attributes, we argue that a new theoretical approach is needed to understand public
relations practiced in the public sector.
and tactics, rather than the foundation for a theory. Finally, a review of the litera-
ture did not find any research testing Hiebert’s model.
ing and rehearsal, the crisis event, evaluation and revision of public relations
efforts, and interagency and political coordination analysis. Throughout these
stages, the internal and external environment of the organization influences organi-
zational behavior and decision making. Horsley and Barker’s model is limited by
focusing only on government crisis communication. The model also does not in-
clude several significant attributes of government communication, such as oppor-
tunities for citizen feedback, legal constraints, and a focus on public interest. Hors-
ley and Barker developed their model from a survey of mid-Atlantic state
government agencies. The model has not been further tested.
Public relations process model. Hazelton and Long (1988) proposed the
public relations process model, which provides an open systems theory approach
to understanding public relations. The model outlines an environmental
supersystem that provides exogenous input for the three subsystems: organization,
communication, and target audience. These exogenous inputs consist of five inter-
related and interacting dimensions: legal/political, social, economic, technologi-
cal, and competitive. Within the organization subsystem, environmental inputs in-
teract with the organization, and organizational goals direct the behavior of public
relations practitioners. Hazelton and Long’s model has predominately been used
as an educational tool in public relations courses. Limited empirical research, how-
ever, has tested the model (e.g., Weaver, 2005, 2006). For example Werder (2006)
tested public relations strategies derived from the model to determine the influence
of problem recognition, involvement, constraint recognition, and goal compatibil-
ity on an organization’s response to activism.
The value of Hazelton and Long’s (1988) model is that it provides a roadmap of
the entire public relations process, not just one step, such as message dissemina-
tion. Also, unlike most models, the public relations process model incorporates the
importance of unique environments. However, the public relations process model
was developed with the private sector in mind, as evidenced by how Hazelton and
Long define public affairs: corporate relations with government rather than com-
munication originating from government.
THE GOVERNMENT COMMUNICATION DECISION WHEEL 383
narrow and too broad. The theory cannot be applied to all situations because it only
hypothesizes how factors affect public relations behavior during conflict resolu-
tion situations. Further, by identifying 86 factors, the theory lacks parsimony.
More significant to our research focus, these 86 factors predominately focus on
private sector considerations rather than public sector considerations. Critical fac-
tors unique to the public sector, such as political turnover and political party affilia-
tion, are not included in the extensive list of factors.
The review of models reveals that a new model is needed to better address the
unique attributes of public sector public relations. The review, however, also re-
veals that the existing models can make significant theoretical contributions to the
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The Microenvironments
Multilevel microenvironment. In the multilevel microenvironment, two or
more levels of government collaborate on a single issue. Each level of government,
however, still maintains some unique and separate responsibilities based on the
U.S. system of federalism. An example that typifies the multilevel microen-
vironment is the United States welfare program that is administered by both the na-
tional and state governments. The multilevel microenvironment also includes one
of more levels of the U.S. government interacting with foreign governments. An
example of this is the U.S. Department of Defense coordinating with the Iraqi Se-
curity Force.
Model of the Government Addresses public sector Only allows for one-way Inclusion of public sector
Communication Process environmental constraints; asymmetrical environmental constraints;
identifies when to select various communication; concept of adapting
communication vehicles for typology rather than a foundation communication strategy based on
government communication. for a theory. specific public sector
environmental constraints.
Synthesis Model of Public Sector Addresses wide variety of public Only applies to crisis situations; Inclusion of public sector
Crisis Communication sector environmental constraints. only allows for one-way environmental constraints.
asymmetrical communication.
Public Relations Process Model Explains how organizations interact Biased toward corporate sector; Concept of supersystem and
with their environment and need more detail on the subsystems.
change. subsystem dimensions.
Two-Way Symmetrical Model Combines mixed-motives and Does not allow for one-way Combining two-way symmetrical
two-way symmetrical; explains communication; does not account and asymmetrical
how organizations adapt for unique public sector communication; concept of
strategies to effectively meet the environment. organizations adapting strategies
organization’s and the publics’ to effectively meet publics’
needs. needs.
Contingency Theory Explains how the practice of public Only applied to conflict resolution; Concept that there is no
relations is contingent on factors 86 factors predominately focus one-size-fits all approach to the
that vary across time, on private sector considerations. practice of public relations.
environment, situation, and
publics.
385
386 LIU AND HORSLEY
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ple is a state alcohol beverage control agency partnering with the state police de-
partment to educate retailers and minors about the implications of underage
alcohol purchases.
agement agencies, worked closely with nonprofits and private organizations to as-
sist survivors.
information laws. In addition, Title 18, Section 1913 of the United States Code
prohibits lobbying by government officials and spending public funds on advertis-
ing. Therefore, we propose that legal constraints equally affect all four micro-
environments. To test this proposition, we propose a survey of a representative
sample of government agencies from all levels of government to determine if legal
constraints are equally apparent while the agencies are conducting business in all
four microenvironments.
CONCLUSIONS
Every person’s life, in good times and bad, in peace and war, is affected by the ways
in which government organizations, including how thousands of administrative
392 LIU AND HORSLEY
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