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Week 13 Endocrine 2 1 PP
Week 13 Endocrine 2 1 PP
physiology 1
301269 – Endocrine 2
Chapter 16 Amerman Dr. Ben Perry
1
Learning outcomes
2
The Endocrine
System
• Microscopically, composed of multiple
spheres (thyroid follicles); follicle cells at
outer edge of follicles produce and secrete
thyroid hormones
• Colloid—protein‐rich, gelatinous material;
contains precursor for thyroid hormone and
high concentration of iodine atoms; both
important to thyroid hormone synthesis
• Parafollicular cells—in spaces between
adjacent thyroid follicles; large cells that
produce hormone calcitonin
Thyroid gland structure 6
Figure 16.13b
Anatomy and
histology of the
thyroid gland.
Thyroid hormone 7
• Thyroid hormone consists of amino acid core bound to
either 3 (triiodothyroxine, T3) or 4 (thyroxine, T4) iodine
atoms
• Both T3 and T4 are physiologically active but T3 much
greater so; T4 is commonly converted to T3 in some
target tissues – but…T4 more abundant in blood than T3.
• T3 and T4 are both amino acid‐based hormones; but
more hydrophobic than other amino acid‐based
hormones; do not interact with plasma membrane‐
bound receptors
• Both T3 and T4 enter target cell nucleus; bind with
receptors; either activate or inhibit specific gene
transcription
Thyroid hormone 8
Almost every cell contains thyroid hormone
receptors; makes effects widespread; three
main categories of effects:
Regulation of metabolic rate and
thermoregulation–set basal metabolic rate
(amount of energy required by body at rest)
Increases ATP consumption by increasing:
• Synthesis of ATP‐requiring Na+/K+ pumps
• Gluconeogenesis, and breakdown of proteins in skeletal
muscle and fats in adipose tissue
• Reactions in same tissues that build proteins and fats
Thyroid hormone 9
Regulation of metabolic rate and
thermoregulation (continued)
• Thyroid hormones increase the rate cells carry
out both catabolic and anabolic reactions;
leads to no net change in cell’s overall
composition
• Why would cells expend energy in way that
leads to no net change?
• Energy transfer in cellular reactions is inefficient;
much energy is lost as heat
• Heat from reactions helps maintain core body
temperature (thermoregulation)
Thyroid hormone 10
Figure 16.15 Production of thyroid hormones.
Thyroid hormone 12
Sequence of events leading to thyroid hormone
synthesis (Figure 16.15):
• Thyroglobulin—large thyroid hormone
precursor protein; secreted by follicle cells into
colloid
• Iodide ions are secreted into colloid; converted
to iodine atoms that attach to thyroglobulin
• Some tyrosine residues receive single iodine
atom, forming monoiodothyronine, or MIT;
others receive two iodine atoms, forming
diiodothyronine, or DIT
Thyroid hormone 13
Thyroid hormone synthesis (continued):
• Iodinated thyroglobulin enters follicle cell by
endocytosis; converted to T4 and T3 by
lysosomal enzymes; MIT and DIT cleaved from
thyroglobulin
• T3—MIT is combined with DIT
• T4—two DIT molecules are combined
• T4 and T3 are released into bloodstream
• Many target tissues can convert T4 to more
active T3; T4 lasts longer in blood than T3; acts
as reservoir for potential T3
14
Figure 16.15 Production of thyroid hormones.
Thyroid hormone 15
T3 and T4 production is regulated by
negative feedback loop with three tiers of
control (Figure 16.16):
• First tier involves thyrotropin‐releasing
hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus; second
tier is thyroid‐stimulating hormone (TSH)
from anterior pituitary gland
• Second tier: TSH stimulates production of T3
and T4 by follicle cells, secretion of T3 and T4
from follicle cells into blood, and growth and
development of thyroid gland
Thyroid hormone 16
Third tier
• Production and secretion of TRH and TSH
increase when
• Levels of free T3 and T4 fall
• Body is exposed to cold temperatures
• Secretion of TRH and TSH is inhibited by
rising levels of free T3 and T4; TSH is also
inhibited by somatostatin
17
Figure 16.16
Maintaining
homeostasis:
regulation of
thyroid
hormone
production by
a negative
feedback loop.
Thyroid hormone 18
• Overproduction leads to hyperthyroidism
• Underproduction leads to hypothyroidism
Thyroid hormone 19
Hyperthyroidism—
• Symptoms—weight loss, heat
intolerance, disruptions in blood
pressure and heart rhythms, and
development of goiter and
exophthalmos (enlargement of
thyroid gland and protruding
eyeballs, respectively)
• Graves’ disease—most common
hyperthyroidism; immune system
produces abnormal proteins that Figure 16.17 Disorder
of thyroid hormone
mimic actions of TSH on thyroid secretion: goiter.
gland
Thyroid hormone 20
Hypothyroidism—
• Symptoms—weight gain, cold intolerance,
slow heart rate, low blood pressure, and
goiter; can be due to immune system
disorder or lack of available iodine
• Congenital hypothyroidism—develops
when infant is born with inadequate thyroid
function; can lead to delayed physical and
nervous system development; potentially
intellectual disability if left untreated
Thyroid hormone - Regulation 21
• In hypothyroidism, thyroid gland is unable to
produce more T3 and T4
• Hypothalamus and anterior pituitary don’t
“know” that thyroid gland is not functioning
• Receptors sense that T3 and T4 levels are low,
so cells continue to secrete more TRH and
TSH in attempt to stimulate thyroid
• Leads to characteristic elevated TSH and
decreased T3 and T4 levels seen with
hypothyroidism
23
T3 and T4 levels are low ‐
FIRST‐TIER
CONTROL Hypothyroidism Hypothalamus
Clinical
Hypothalamus hypothyroidism
increases TRH
production
SECOND‐TIER Pituitary gland
CONTROL
Thyroid hormone levels
Pituitary gland increases
TSH production remain low DESPITE high
THIRD‐TIER
Thyroid dysfunction which
TRH and TSH
CONTROL
reduces T3 and T4
TSH DOES NOT stimulate production
T3 or T4 production from
thyroid
Because T3 and T4
EFFECTS
production remain low,
there is no negative
feedback loop acting to
lower TRH and TSH
Thyroid hormone - Regulation 24
• Situation works in reverse with hyperthyroidism;
under normal conditions, cells of hypothalamus and
anterior pituitary gland decrease production of TRH
and TSH when levels of T3 and T4 rise
• In hyperthyroidism, levels of T3 and T4 are extremely
elevated
• Detected by receptors of hypothalamus;
production and secretion of TRH and TSH fall to
nearly zero
• Leads to characteristic decreased TSH with
elevated T3 and T4 levels seen in hyperthyroidism
Clinical
25
FIRST‐TIER
T3 and T4 levels are high ‐
Hypothalamus
CONTROL Hyperthyroidism
Hypothalamus
hyperthyroidism
decreases TRH
production Thyroid hormone levels
remain high DESPITE a
SECOND‐TIER Pituitary gland
CONTROL reduction in TRH and
Pituitary gland decreases TSH release, because the
TSH production
thyroid is producing
THIRD‐TIER Thyroid dysfunction such as
CONTROL
hyperplasia excessive T3 and T4
Thyroid still produces
excessive T3 or T4
independent of
production
hormonal stimulation
EFFECTS
Thyroid hormone levels
remain high; feedback
Feedback loop prior to
mechanism to reduce TRH
and TSH release remains
the thyroid works, but is
active not effective because of
dysfunction in thyroid
Parathyroid glands - Structure 26
Parathyroid glands—
typically 3–5 separate
glands; on posterior
surface of thyroid gland;
secrete parathyroid
hormone from chief
cells
Figure 16.14 Anatomy of the parathyroid glands.
Endocrine control of calcium by 27
• Increases release of calcium ions from
bone by stimulating osteoclast activity
• Increases absorption of dietary calcium
ions by small intestine
Parathyroid hormone 29
Figure16.18 Maintaining homeostasis: regulation of blood calcium ion
concentration by a negative feedback loop.
Calcitonin 32
Calcitonin—produced and secreted by
parafollicular cells; released when calcium ion
level in blood increases above normal:
• Primary target is osteoclast cells in bone;
osteoclast activity is inhibited by calcitonin;
allows osteoblast activity
• Unopposed osteoblast activity reduces blood
calcium ion levels as these ions are
incorporated into bone matrix
• Table 16.2 summarizes hormones of thyroid
and parathyroid glands
Summary – Endocrine regulation of Ca2+ 33
Table 16.2 Hormones of the Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands.
The Endocrine
System
Figure 16.23 Anatomy and
histology of the pancreas.
PAGE 36
36
Endocrine Pancreas - Insulin 37
• Insulin—primary antagonist of glucagon;
produced and secreted from beta cells of
pancreatic islets; stimulates following
responses in target cells (liver, cardiac muscle,
skeletal muscle, and parts of brain):
• Promotes uptake and storage of ingested
nutrients (lipids, amino acids, and glucose); lowers
blood glucose levels
• Synthesis of glycogen in liver; synthesis of fat from
lipids and carbohydrates
• Promotes satiety (feeling of fullness)
Insulin Regulation 38
Insulin and glucagon are antagonists in complicated feedback loop that
maintains blood glucose homeostasis (Figure 16.22a‐b)
• Following feedback responses are initiated when blood glucose level
increases (Figure 16.24a):
• Stimulus—blood glucose level increases above its normal range, in
response to feeding or hormones such as cortisol
• Receptor—Beta cells of pancreas detect increased glucose
concentration
• Control center—Beta cells increase insulin secretion; alpha cells reduce
glucagon secretion
• Effector/response—insulin decreases blood glucose level by increasing
glucose uptake by cells and storage of glucose, amino acids, and fats
• Homeostatic range and negative feedback—as blood glucose level
returns to normal range, negative feedback to beta cells decreases
insulin secretion
Insulin Regulation 39
Figure 16.24a Maintaining homeostasis: regulation of
blood glucose concentration by negative feedback loops.
40
Endocrine Pancreas 41
• Hyperglycemia—blood glucose levels are too high;
common causes of chronic hyperglycemia:
• Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin‐dependent diabetes
mellitus)—disease caused by destruction of beta islet
cells that produce and secrete insulin
• Target cells are unable to take in circulating glucose
• Glucose is overproduced in liver because of
unopposed actions of glucagon
• Glucagon also elevates level of ketone bodies in blood
Endocrine pancreas - Glucagon 42
Glucagon and insulin regulate concentration of
glucose in blood
• Glucagon—produced and secreted from alpha
cells in pancreatic islets; major target tissues
are cells of liver, muscle tissue, and adipose;
promotes reactions that increase levels of
glucose and metabolic fuels in blood:
• Increased breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis)
• Formation of new glucose (gluconeogenesis) in
liver
Endocrine Pancreas - Glucagon 43
Glucagon (continued):
• Breakdown of proteins in muscle tissue to
release amino acids for gluconeogenesis
• Release of fats from adipose tissue for
gluconeogenesis and for additional cellular
fuels
• Formation of fuel molecules (ketone bodies)
in liver
Glucagon and Ketone Bodies 44
• Ketone bodies—four‐carbon molecules formed
during fatty acid metabolism; released into
bloodstream; taken up into skeletal and cardiac
muscle cells
• These cell types (among others like brain) are able
to oxidize ketone bodies for fuel, unlike liver cells
• During extreme caloric restriction or starvation,
glucagon promotes rapid ketone body formation;
overwhelms capability of cells to use them;
accumulate in blood; can cause dangerous
lowering of blood pH termed ketoacidosis.
Endocrine pancreas - Glucagon 45
• Glucagon secretion is inhibited by both
elevated blood glucose level and somatostatin
• Glucagon secretion is triggered by:
• Any decrease in blood glucose concentration
• Sympathetic nervous system stimulation
• Circulating catecholamines from adrenal medulla
• Ingested protein; part of integrated hormonal
response that maintains stable glucose levels
during feeding
Glucagon Regulation
46
• Following feedback responses are initiated when blood glucose
level decreases (Figure 16.24b):
• Stimulus—blood glucose level decreases below normal range
• Receptor—alpha cells of pancreas detect decreased blood
glucose concentration, as well as presence of ingested protein
• Control center—alpha cells increase glucagon secretion; beta
cells decrease insulin secretion
• Effector/response—glucagon triggers breakdown of glycogen
(glycogenolysis) into glucose and formation of new glucose
(gluconeogenesis)
• Homeostatic range and negative feedback—as blood glucose
level returns to normal range, negative feedback to alpha cells
decreases glucagon secretion
Glucagon Regulation
47
Figure 16.24b Maintaining homeostasis: regulation of
blood glucose concentration by negative feedback
loops.
Endocrine Pancreas 48
Hypoglycemia—blood glucose levels are too low;
can be caused by elevated insulin levels
• Symptoms—weakness, dizziness, rapid breathing, nausea,
and sweating
• Severe hypoglycemia can lead to confusion, hallucinations,
seizures, coma, and death; ensues as brain is deprived of
adequate glucose (primary fuel for its metabolic reactions)
• Leads to glucose and ketones in urine; draws water from
ECF by osmosis
• Causes polyuria (frequent urination) and polydipsia
(excessive thirst) from dehydration
Endocrine Pancreas 49
Hyperglycemia (continued):
• Type II diabetes mellitus (non–insulin‐
dependent diabetes mellitus)—insulin’s
target tissues become insensitive to insulin;
target cells do not initiate proper responses to
increases in blood glucose concentration
(insulin resistance)
• Results in hyperglycemia and accompanying
characteristic signs and symptoms (glucosuria,
polyuria, and polydipsia); unlike individuals with
type 1 diabetes, those with type 2 generally
produce enough insulin to prevent ketoacidosis
• Development of type 2 diabetes is strongly
associated with heredity and obesity
Endocrine Pancreas 50
Chronic hyperglycemia has wide‐ranging
effects:
• Damages blood vessels, particularly those in
heart and lower limbs; results in decreased
circulation to these tissues; increases risk of
heart attack, nonhealing wounds, and
amputation
• Damages peripheral nerves, again particularly
in lower limbs; leads to peripheral neuropathy
(numbness, tingling, and burning pain in
affected areas)
• Other tissues affected include lens of eye and
capillaries of retina and kidneys; possibly
results in blindness and kidney failure
The Endocrine
System
• Pineal gland—primary endocrine; component
of epithalamus (posterior region of
diencephalon of brain):
• Secretes neurohormone melatonin, appears to be
related to light and dark cycles; secretion increases
in dark
• Melatonin’s main target tissues are sleep‐
regulation centers in reticular formation of
brainstem; appears to adjust sleep/wake cycle in
some individuals
The Thymus - Thymopoietin
53
• Thymus—primary endocrine gland in
mediastinum
• Location where T lymphocytes mature
• Secretes hormones thymosin and
thymopoietin; function mainly as paracrine
signals that assist in T lymphocyte
maturation
Adipose Tissue - Leptin
54
• Adipocytes produce protein hormone
leptin; able to cross blood‐brain barrier;
interacts with neurons in hypothalamus, its
main target tissue
• Action of leptin is to induce satiety; prevents
overfeeding
• Leptin production is closely related to
adipose tissue quantity; component in
complex mechanisms that regulate feeding
The Heart – Atrial Natriuretic Peptide 55
Specific cardiac muscle cells contain stretch‐sensitive ion
channels; open more widely when blood volume inside
heart increases; simulates cardiac muscle
cells to secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP):
• Triggers relaxation of smooth muscle cells in blood
vessels; increases vessel diameter (vasodilation)
• Enhances excretion of sodium ions from kidneys
(natriuresis)
• Enhances water excretion from kidneys
• Creates concentration gradient that water
follows into kidney fluid by osmosis
• Both effects, vasodilation and natriuresis,
decrease blood volume and lower blood pressure
The Kidneys - Erythropoietin 56
Kidneys serve roles involving endocrine functions;
specific kidney cells secrete:
• Erythropoietin (EPO)—secreted by specific kidney cells
in response to decreased blood oxygen levels; acts on
red bone marrow to stimulate development of new
erythrocytes (erythropoiesis); increases oxygen‐
carrying capacity of blood
• Renin—converts plasma protein angiotensinogen to
angiotensin I; vital component of renin‐angiotensin‐
aldosterone system, which maintains blood pressure
• Vitamin D—made in response to sunlight in skin;
converted to its active form in kidneys under influence
of parathyroid hormone
Summary 57
Table 16.4 Hormones Produced by Other Endocrine
Organs and Hormone‐Secreting Tissues