Prepared by: Tim Joshua D.

Cañega, MA-CP

LEARNING TO BE A
BETTER STUDENT
FINALS: UTS
Co ve ra ge

Learning Theories
Memory
 e r
S k i nn
. F .
o f B
p h y
g r a
Bi o

Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
 C o n d it io n in g
Skinner (1953)
recognized two kinds of
conditioning, classical
and operant.
 D e fi n it io n
With classical conditioning (which Skinner called
respondent conditioning), a response is drawn
out of the organism by a specific, identifiable
stimulus.
With operant conditioning (also called Skinnerian
conditioning), a behavior is made more likely to
recur when it is immediately reinforced
 D is ti n ct io n

One distinction between classical and operant

conditioning is that, in classical conditioning,
behavior is elicited from the organism, whereas in
operant conditioning, behavior is emitted
 C la ss ic al C od iti on in g
In classical conditioning, a neutral
(conditioned) stimulus is paired
with—that is, immediately precedes—
an unconditioned stimulus a
number of times until it is capable
of bringing about a previously
unconditioned response, now
called the conditioned response
 D e fi n it io n
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): The natural stimulus that reflexively
produces a response without prior learning
• Unconditioned Response (UR): The unlearned, reflexive response
• Neutral Stimulus (NS): stimulus that does not naturally elicit a
response
• Conditioned Stimulus ( CS): The stimulus that is originally neutral
but comes to elicit a reflexive response.
• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned reflexive response to a
previously neutral stimulus
 O pe ra n t C on dt io n in g
The key to operant conditioning is
the immediate reinforcement of a
response. The organism first does
something and then is reinforced
by the environment. Reinforcement,
in turn, increases the probability
that the same behavior will occur
again.
PERSON ENVIRONMENT
REINFORCEMENT
 Sh a p in g

With most cases of operant conditioning, the desired behavior

is too complex to be emitted without first being shaped by the
environment. Shaping is a procedure in which the experimenter
or the environment first rewards gross ­approximations of the
behavior, then closer approximations, and finally the desired
behavior ­itself. Through this process of reinforcing successive
approximations, the ­experimenter or the environment
gradually shapes the final complex set of behaviors (Skinner,
195
 Sh a p in g

Operant behavior always takes place in some environment, and

the environment has a selective role in shaping and
maintaining behavior.
operant discrimination - discrimination is not an ability that we
possess but a consequence of our reinforcement history
stimulus generalization - A response to a similar environment
in the absence of previous reinforcement
 Re in fo rc e m e n t

According to Skinner (1987a), reinforcement has two effects: It

strengthens the behavior and it rewards the person. Any
behavior that increases the probability that the species or the
individual will survive tends to be strengthened. Food, sex, and
parental care are necessary for the survival of the species, and
any behavior that produces these conditions is reinforced.
Injury, disease, and extremes in climate are detrimental to
survival, and any behavior that tends to reduce or avoid these
conditions is likewise reinforced.
 Po si ti ve /N e g a ti ve Re in fo rc e m e n t
Any positive consequence that, when added to a situation, increases
the probability that a given behavior will occur is termed a positive
reinforcer. Food, water, sex, money, social approval, and physical
comfort usually are examples of positive reinforcers.
Subtracting a negative consequence from a situation also increases
the probability that the preceding behavior will occur. This removal
results in negative reinforcement. The reduction or avoidance of loud
noises, shocks, and hunger pangs would be negatively reinforcing
because they strengthen the behavior immediately preceding them
 Po si ti ve /N e g a ti ve Pu n is h m e n t
Punishment is the presentation or addition of a negative, aversive
consequence such as a hefty fine for an able-bodied driver parking in
a handicapped spot (“positive punishment”) or the removal of a
positive one, such as revoking a teenager’s driving privileges for
texting and driving (“negative punishment”).
Ex a m p le
Ex a m p le
Ex a m p le
 Sc h e d u le o f re in fo rc e m e n t
Continous Schedule
The organism is reinforced for every response
There is a high frequency of response but is an
inefficient use of reinforcer
Initermittent Schedule
Make more effecient use of the reinforcer and produce
responses that are resistant to extinction
It is based either on the behavior of the organism or an
elapsed time
 Sc h e d u le o f re in fo rc e m e n t
example:

Jes gets ₱20 every time she Coline gets ₱20 every 5 times
turns off the TV she turns off the TV
Who will learn to turn off the TV faster,
Jes or Coline?
 Sc h e d u le o f re in fo rc e m e n t
example:

Since Jes is getting reinforced every time, he will learn to turn off
the TV faster. Who do you think will be more likely to continue the
behavior once reinforcement stops?
 Sc h e d u le o f re in fo rc e m e n t
example:

Since Coline was not reinforced every time she turned off the TV,
she will not expect to be reinforced and will be more likely to
continue the behavior. In contrast, Jes will expect reinforcement
and be more likely to stop the behavior after not getting paid

Sc h e d u le o f re in fo rc e m e n t
Fixed ratio
the organism is reinforced intermittently according
to the number of responses it makes
e.g. reward a pigeon with a grain pellet for every
fifth peck it makes at a disc
Variable ratio
the organism is reinforced after every nth response
e.g. slot machines

Sc h e d u le o f re in fo rc e m e n t
Fixed Interval
The organism is reinforced for the first response
following a designated period of time
e.g., salary
Variable Interval
The organism is reinforced after the lapse of
random or varied period of time
e.g., pop quiz
 Ex ti n ct io n
Once learned, responses can be lost for at least four reasons
They can simply be forgotten during the passage of time
They can be lost due to the interference of preceding or
subsequent learning
They can disappear due to punishment
The tedency of a previously acquired response to become
progressively weakened upon reinforcement
 r a
a n du
r t B
l b e
A

Social Cognitive Theory

 Le ar n in g
Humans are quiet flexible and
capable of learning a multitude
of attitudes, skills, and
behaviors and that a good bit of
those learnings are a result of
various experiences
 O bs er va tio n al Le ar n in g
People learn through observing
the behavior of other people
Bandura departs from skinner
in his belief that reinforcement
is not essential to learning
Although reinforcemeent
facilitates learning, it is not
necessary condition for it
People can learn by observing
models being reinforced
Tr ia di c Re ci pr oc al C au sa tio n
This system assumes that
human action is a result of an
interaction among three
variables:
 H u m an Ag en cy
Social Cognitive Theory takes an
agentic view of personality:
Humans have the capacity to
exercise control over their own
lives
Human agency is an active
process of exploring,
manipulating, and influencing
the environment in order to
attained desired outcomes
C or e Fe at u re s H u m an Ag en cy
Intentionality: An intention
includes planning but it is also
involves actions
Forethought: It is to set goals, to
anticipate likely outcomes of
their actions, and to select
behaviors that will produce
desired outcomes and avoid
undesirable ones
C or e Fe at u re s H u m an Ag en cy
Self reactiveness: They monitor
their progress toward fulfilling
those choices
Self-reflectiveness: we think
and evaluate our motivations,
values, and the meanings of our
life goals, and can think about
the adequacy of our own
thinking
 Se lf- ef fic ac y
Our beliefs that we are capable of
performing actions that will
produce a desired effect
"believing that you can"
 W h at co n tr ib u te s to se lf- ef fic ac y
Mastery experiences: In general successful performance
raises efficacy expectancies. Failures tends to lower them
Successful performance leads to high self-efficacy in proportionate to the
difficulty of the task
Task successfully accomplished by oneself are more efficacious than those
completed with the help of others
Failure is most likely to decrease efficacy when we know that we put our best
effort
Failure under conditions of high emotional arousal or distress is not as self-
debilitating as failure under maximal conditions
Failure prior to establishing a sense of mastery is more detrimental to feelings
of personal efficacy than later failure
Occasional failure has little effect on efficacy, especially for people with a high
expectancy of sucess
 W h at co n tr ib u te s to se lf- ef fic ac y
Social Modeling: Our self-efficacy is high when we observe the
accomplishments of another person of equal competence but lowered
when we see a peer fail
: when other person is dissimilar to us, social modeling
will have little effect on our self-efficay

Social Persuasion: Encouragement or criticisms from a credible source

have more efficacious power than do those from non-credible source
: boosting self-efficacy through social persuasion wil
be effective only if the actvity one being is encouraged to try is within
one's repertoire of behavior
 W h at co n tr ib u te s to se lf- ef fic ac y
Physical and Emotional States: Strong emotion (acute anxiety, fear)
ordinaly lowers performance
: Emotional arousal, if not too intense, is
associated with increased performance
 Ac tiv ity
Select some behavior you might like to change (stopping excessive eating,
drinking, or smoking; teaching yourself relaxation skills in the face of tense
situations you must encounter; developing a regular program of physical
exercising or meditating, and so forth). Show how you would specifically design,
implement, and evaluate your self-change program. Ideally, you will consider
actually trying out such a program for some behavior changes you want to
make in your everyday life.
■ What specific behavior(s) do you want to change?
■ What specific actions will help you reach this goal?
■ What self-monitoring devices can you use to keep a record of your
progress?
■ What reinforcements (self-rewards) can you use as a way of carrying out
your plans?
■ How well is your plan for change working? What revisions are necessary for
your plan to work more effectively