6/19/23, 4:14 PM Ch 4

Chapter 4
CONCURRENT & PARALLEL FORCES

The purpose of this is to give quick reference to information or to use in an emergency (like if
your text has accidentally been left under your desk at school).

This is NOT intended to replace reading the text with its excellent photographs, diagrams, charts,
and tables.

COMPOSITION OF FORCES

4.1 Describing Forces In Chapter 3, we studied the relationship between forces and motion.
Now we shall take a look at some other characteristics of forces, and see how these
characteristics are used in solving force problems.

When you push a door shut with your hand, your hand exerts a force on the door. The door also
exerts a force on your hand. When you sit in a chair, you push on the chair and the chair pushes
on you. In both of these cases, there is physical contact between the objects that are exerting
forces on each other.

Forces can also be exerted without such physical contact. While an object is falling toward the
earth, the earth exerts a gravitational force on the object and the object exerts a gravitational
force on the earth. Yet there is no physical contact between the earth and the falling object.

These examples illustrate several important characteristics of forces:

1 . A net force will change the state of motion of an object. The door moved because the force
exerted by your hand was sufficient to overcome friction and other forces acting on the door. An
object falls because a force is pulling it toward the earth. As we saw in Chapter 3, the application
of a net force to an object always produces an acceleration.

2. Forces can be exerted through long distances. Gravitational and magnetic forces have this
characteristic.

3. Forces always occur in pairs. When one object pushes or pulls on another object, there is a
force on each of the two objects. In the given examples, the two objects were your hand and the
door, you and the chair, and the falling object and the earth.

4. In each pair of forces, the two forces act in exactly opposite directions. You pushed on the
door, and the door pushed back. You pushed down, and the chair pushed up. The earth pulled the
falling object toward the earth's center, and the object pulled the earth toward the object's center.

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Now let us see how the magnitudes of forces are measured. (You will remember from Chapter 3
that forces are vector quantities and have both magnitude and direction.)

When an object is suspended from a spring, it is pulled toward the earth by the force of
gravitation. The spring stretches until the restoring force of the spring is equal to the force of
gravitation on the object. Another object having the same weight stretches the spring by the same
amount. Both objects together stretch the spring twice as far, and an object with three times the
weight stretches it three times as far, etc.

This characteristic of coiled springs, that the amount of stretch is proportional to the force
pulling on the spring, means that we may use the amount of stretch to measure the size of a
force. A device that measures forces in this way is called a spring balance. Forces may also be
measured with devices other than spring balances. The results of such measurements can always
be expressed in terms of newtons.

4.2 Combining Force Vectors Since forces have both magnitude and direction, they are vector
quantities. When a vector is used to represent a force, the magnitude of the force is represented
by the length of the arrow. The direction of the force may be deduced from the physical situation.
For example, suppose a barge is being towed through still water by a tugboat. The tugboat
applies a force of 10,000 n to the barge through the towline. The length of the arrow representing
the force is proportional to the magnitude of the force, 10,000 n.

The point of application of the force is the point at which the rope is attached to the barge. A long
rope can transmit only a pull in a direction along its length. It cannot transmit a push or a
sideways force. The rope is in the direction of the force. The arrow shows this direction.

Do NOT forget to put heads on your arrows !!!

Force vectors are treated like velocity vectors. For example, suppose two tugboats are attached to
the same barge. Tugboat A is pulling with a force of 10,000 n and tugboat B is pulling with a
force of 7,500 n in the same direction.

Figures 4-3 & 4 represents this situation with vectors.

The resultant force vector is 17,500 n in the direction of the towline. Figure 4-4 shows a vector
diagram representing two tugboats pulling in opposite directions on a barge. Even though the
forces act on extended objects such as opposite ends of the barge, the vectors may be considered
as acting at the same point. The resultant force vector is 2,500 n in the direction of tugboat A.

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When two or more forces act on the same point at the same time they are called concurrent
forces. A resultant force is a single force that has the same effect as two or move concurrent
forces. When two forces act concurrently in the same or in opposite directions, the resultant has a
magnitude equal to the algebraic sum of the forces and acts in the direction of the greater force.

When two forces act concurrently at an angle other than Oo or 180o, the resultant can be found
by the parallelogram method, as in the velocity vector problems in Chapter 3.

Suppose one force of 10.0 n acts eastward upon an object. Another force of 15.0 n acts
southward upon the same point. Since these forces act concurrently upon the same point, the
vector diagram is constructed with the tails of both vectors at O, See Figure 4-5. FE tends to
move the object eastward. FS tends to move the object southward.

When the forces act simultaneously, the object tends to move along the diagonal of the
parallelogram of which the two forces are sides. This is the vector FR.

The resultant force vector of two forces acting at an angle upon a given point is equal to the
diagonal of a parallelogram of which the two force vectors are sides.

Do NOT forget to put heads on your arrows !!!

The graphic solution of the magnitude and direction of a resultant force consists of a diagram
constructed to scale.

The trigonometric solution makes use of the facts that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are
equal and that the diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two congruent triangles. If the two
forces act at right angles, the magnitude and direction of the resultant FR are found as shown in
the example.

The angle between two forces acting on the same point is often not a right angle. Figure 4-6
represents the vectors for the two forces 10.0 n east and 15.0 n 40.0o east of south acting on
point O. The parallelogram is completed as shown. Observe that the diagonal vector representing
the resultant is drawn from the point on which the two original forces are acting since the
resultant will also act on this point. The magnitude of FR is found graphically to be 23 n. The
direction is 30o south of east.

Figure 4-6

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The resultant is very different if the angle between the two forces is 140.0o. The parallelogram is
constructed to scale in the same manner. The force vectors are the sides and the angle between
them 140.0o. This parallelogram is shown in Figure 4-7. The diagonal must be drawn from O the
point at which the two forces act. The graphic solution for FR yields 10 n 8o west of south.

The resultant of two forces acting at an acute or obtuse angle can also be found trigonometrically
by means of the law of sines and the law of cosines.

4.3 The Equilibrant Force Equilibrium is the state of a body in which there is no change in its
motion. A body in equilibrium is either at rest or moving at constant speed in a straight line.

In this section we shall discuss the conditions for equilibrium of bodies at rest. The same
conditions hold for the equilibrium of bodies that are in motion. Examples of these conditions
will be discussed in Chapter 5.

A body at rest must be in both translational and rotational equilibrium. The first condition of
equilibrium is that there are no unbalanced (net) forces acting on a body. The second condition
of equilibrium deals with rotation. It will be discussed in Section 4.12.

When there are no unbalanced forces acting on a body, the vector sum of all the forces acting on
the body is zero. For example, if a person pulls on a rope with a force of 80 n and another person
pulls on the same rope in the opposite direction with a force of 80 n, the vector sum of the two
forces is zero and the system is in equilibrium.

We can say also that each force is the equilibrant of the other. To find the equilibrant of two
concurrent forces, we first find their resultant. Then, since the equilibrant must balance the effect
of this resultant, it must have the same magnitude but act in the opposite direction.

See Figure 4-8. The equilibrant of three or more concurrent forces can be found in a similar way.
First find the resultant by vector addition. Then the equilibrant is graphically drawn from the
origin of the forces so that it is equal in magnitude to the resultant but extends in the opposite
direction. When two or more forces act concurrently at a paint, the equilibrant force is that single
force that if applied at the same point would produce equilibrium.
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RESOLUTION OF FORCES

4.4 Components of Force Vectors Frequently a force acts on a body in a direction in which the
body cannot move. For example, gravitational force pulls vertically downward on a wagon on an
incline, but the wagon can move only along the incline. Finding the magnitude of the force that
is pulling the wagon along the incline is an example of resolution of forces.

Instead of a single force, two forces acting together can have the same effect as the original
single force. One of the forces can be parallel to the surface of the incline and can pull the wagon
along the incline. The other can be perpendicular to the surface of the incline. This force does not
contribute to the force along the incline. These forces are at right angles to each other.

As we saw in Section 2.11, two vectors that have the same effect as a single vector are called the
components of the original vector. This procedure of finding component forces is called
resolution of forces. See Fig 4-9.

Most of the examples we shall consider involve resolving a force into components that are at
right angles to each other.

4.5 Resolving Gravitational Forces An object placed on an inclined plane is attracted by the
earth. The force of attraction is the weight of the object. See Figure 4-10. The plane prevents the
motion of the object in the direction of Fw, the direction in which the earth's attraction acts.

The vector representing the force of attraction may, however, be resolved into two components.
One component acts in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the plane. In physics, the term
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normal is often used to mean perpendicular. Hence we label the normal component FN. The
other component, Fp, acts parallel to the plane. We choose these two components because they
have physical significance.

The vector FN represents the force exerted by the object perpendicular to the incline or the
amount of the object's weight supported by the incline. The vector Fp represents the component
that tends to move the object down the incline. (The plane is assumed to be frictionless.) See
Figure 4-10.

Using FW as the diagonal, we can construct the parallelogram ODEF and find the relative values
of the sides Fp and FN by plotting to scale. We can also express these values trigonometrically.

Since right triangles ABC and OED have mutually perpendicular, or parallel, sides, the triangles
are similar.

Making the plane steeper increases the component Fp and decreases the component FN. The
vector Fa which is equal and opposite to Fp represents the applied force needed to keep the
object from sliding down the plane. The steeper the plane, the greater this force becomes. It
should be noted that the normal force that the plane exerts on the object in reaction to force FN is
not shown, since it is not involved in the calculations for finding Fa.

FRICTION

4.6 The Nature of Friction In Section 4.5 we discussed the resolution of the weight of an object
resting on an incline. One of the components of the weight tends to pull the object down the
incline. As the angle of the incline increases, this component also increases. The slightest angle
of incline will produce the component that pulls the object down the incline if there is no
restraining force on the object.

However, in performing experiments of this type, we find that the object does not begin to slide
until the component parallel to the incline reaches a certain value. This means that forces must
exist between the object and the incline that prevent the object from sliding. These forces are
called forces of friction, or simply friction. Friction is a force that resists motion. It involves
objects that are in contact with each other.

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The cause of friction is not simple. Some scientists believe that friction is caused mainly by the
uneven surfaces of the touching objects. As the surfaces are rubbed together, they tend to
interlock and thus offer resistance to being moved over each other. It has been shown that tiny
particles are actually torn from one surface and become imbedded in the other.

From this theory of friction one would expect that if the two surfaces are carefully polished,
sliding friction between them would be lessened. Experiments have shown, however, that there
is a limit to the amount by which friction may be reduced by polishing the surfaces. If they are
made very smooth, the friction between them actually increases.

This observation has led to the theory that some cases of sliding friction may be caused by the
forces of attraction between the molecules of substances.

In many instances, friction is very desirable. We would be unable to walk if there were no
friction behveen the soles of our shoes and the ground. There must be friction between the tires
of an automobile and the road before the automobile can move. When we apply the brakes on the
automobile, the friction between the brake linings and the brake drums, or disks, slows down the
wheels. Friction between the tires and the road brings the car to a stop.

In a less obvious way, friction holds screws and nails in place and it keeps dishes from sliding off
a table if the table is not perfectly level. On the other hand, friction can also be a disadvantage, as
it is when we try to move a heavy piece of furniture by sliding it across the floor.

4.7 Measuring Friction Friction experiments are not difficult to perform but the results are not
always easy to express as equations or laws. The following statements, therefore, should be
understood as approximate descriptions only. Furthermore, they deal exclusively with solid
objects. Frictional forces involving liquids and gases are beyond the scope of this book.

Also, our discussion is restricted to starting and sliding friction. Starting friction is the maximum
frictional force between stationary objects. Sliding friction is the frictional force between objects
that are sliding with respect to one another.

1. Friction acts parallel to the surfaces that are in contact and in the direction opposite to the
motion of the object or to the net force tending to produce such motion.

2. Friction depends on the nature of the materials in contact and the smoothness of their
surfaces. The friction between two pieces of wood is different from the friction between wood
and metal.

3. Sliding friction is less than or equal to starting friction. Starting friction prevents motion until
the surfaces begin to slide. When the object begins to slide, less force is required to keep it
sliding than was to start it sliding.

4. Friction is practically independent of the area of contact. The force needed to slide a block
along a table is almost the same whether the block lies on its side or on its end. The surfaces are
in contact in more places when the area of contact is large, but the pressure is greater when the
area is small.

5. Starting or sliding friction is directly proportional to the force pressing the two surfaces
together. It does not require as much force to slide an empty chair across the floor as it does to
slide the same chair when a person is sitting on it. The reason for this is that the extra force
actually deforms the surfaces to some extent and thus increases the friction.
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A simple way to measure starting and sliding friction is with a spring balance. Blocks of the
same substance, but with different sizes and shapes, are pulled along a smooth surface. If the
surfaces in contact are consistently smooth, the ratio between the force of sliding friction and the
weight of the block is the same in each trial.

The ratio depends only on the substances used and not on the area of contact or the weight of the
block. This ratio is called the coefficient of sliding friction.

It may be defined as the ratio of the force of sliding friction to the normal (perpendicular) force
pressing the surfaces together.

4.8 Changing Friction In winter we sand icy sidewalks and streets in order to increase friction.
Tire chains and snow tires are used for the same reason. In baseball, pitchers often use rosin to
get more friction between their fingers and the ball. Many more examples could be given in
which friction is purposely increased by changing the nature of the surfaces that are in contact.

The most common method of reducing sliding friction is by lubrication. A skier applies a layer of
wax to the skis to reduce friction. A thin film of oil between rubbing surfaces reduces friction.
The lesser friction between a liquid and a solid has replaced the greater friction between two
solids.

Alloys have also been developed that are in effect self-lubricating. For example, when steel
slides over an alloy of lead and antimony, the coefficient of friction is less than when steel slides
over steel. Bearings lined with such an alloy reduce friction. From Table 4-1 it is also obvious
that if a bearing is coated with a plastic such as teflon there is very little friction. Such bearings
are used in electric motors where the use of a liquid lubricant is undesirable.

Friction may also be greatly reduced through the use of ball bearings or roller bearings. Sliding
friction is changed to rolling friction, which has a much lower coefficient. Using steel cylinders
to roll a heavy box along the floor is another example of changing sliding to rolling friction.

4.9 Solving Friction Problems The force required to slide an object along a level surface can be
computed easily from the weight of the object and the coefficient of sliding friction between the
two surfaces. However, when the force applied to the object is not applied in the direction of the
motion, it is necessary to resolve forces in the calculation. This resolution of forces is illustrated
in the following example. Ah yaz, vectors in action.

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PARALLEL FORCES

4.10 Center of Gravity Thus far in our study of forces, we have been treating all the forces acting
on a body as if they were acting at a single point. However, there may be many forces, each
acting at a different point on the object.

Consider a stone lying on the ground. Since every part of the stone has mass, every part is
attracted to the center of the earth. Because of the large size of the earth, all the downward forces
exerted on the stone are virtually parallel. The weight of the stone can be thought of as a force
vector that is the vector sum, or resultant, of all these parallel force vectors.

Parallel forces act in the same or in opposite directions at different points on an object. The
resultant of parallel forces has a magnitude equal to the algebraic sum of all the forces. The
resultant acts in the direction of this net force.

But where in the stone is this resultant force acting? Experiments show that if the proper point of
application is chosen, the stone can be lifted without producing rotation. The equilibrant lifting
force vector is then in line with the resultant (weight) vector of the stone.

In other words, the stone acts as if all its weight were located at one point, which is called the
center of gravity. The center of gravity of any object is that point at which all of its weight can
be considered to be concentrated. r.

Consider a beam in balance. In this condition the beam is in both translational and rotational
equilibrium. This expression means that the beam is not accelerating and its rotation (if any) is
uniform.

4.11 Torques The two forces represented in the beam are parallel. They do not act on the same
point as did the concurrent forces we studied earlier in this chapter.

To measure the rotating effect, or torque, of such parallel forces in a given plane, it is first
necessary to choose a stationary reference point for the measurements. We shall refer to this
stationary reference point as the pivot point.

Sometimes, as in the case of a seesaw, there is a "natural" point about which the rotating effects
can be measured. However, such a pivot point is "natural" only when the seesaw is in motion.
When it is motionless there is no "natural" pivot point. Any point on the seesaw, or even beyond
it, may be chosen.

Once a suitable pivot point is chosen, a perpendicular line is drawn on the vector diagram from it
to each of the lines along which force vectors act on the object.

Each such line is called a torque arm. In some cases, the force vectors must be extended in order
to meet the perpendicular. Torque, T, is the product of a force and the length af its torque arm.
The unit of torque is the meter-newton.

To identify a torque as clockwise or counterclockwise, imagine that the beam is free to rotate
around a stationary pivot point. Further imagine that the force producing the torque is the only
force acting on the beam. The direction in which the beam would rotate is the direction of the
torque.

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4.12 Rotational Equilibrium In Section 4.3 we discussed the conditions necessary for the
translational equilibrium of an object. These conditions, however, do not prevent the rotary
motion of an object that is subjected to torques.

To prevent rotation in a given plane a second condition of equilibrium must be met.

The second condition of equilibrium in a given plane is that the sum of all the clockwise torques
equals the sum of all the counterclockwise torques about any pivot point.

4.13 Coupled Forces The conditions of equilibrium hold true no matter how many forces are
involved. An interesting example is one in which two forces of equal magnitude act in opposite
directions in the same plane, but not same point. Such a pair of forces is called a couple.

A good example of a couple is the pair of forces acting on the opposite poles of a compass
needle when the needle is not pointing north and south.

A couple cannot be balanced by a single force since this single force would be unbalanced and
would produce linear motion where it was applied. The only way to balance a couple is with
another couple; the torques of the two couples must have equal magnitudes but opposite
directions.

Solving problems of equilibrium:

The clockwise torques must equal the counterclockwise torques.

The total of upward forces must be equal to the total of downward forces.

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SUMMARY

Forces are vector quantities. A net force will change the state of motion of an object. Forces can
be exerted over long distances. Every force is opposed by an equal and opposite force.

A resultant force is a single force that produces the same effect as several forces acting along
lines that pass through the same point. The equilibrant force is the single force that produces
equilibrium when applied at a point at which two or more concurrent forces are acting.

A single force may be resolved into two components, usually acting at right angles to each other.
Resultant and component forces are found by the parallelogram method.

Friction is a force that resists the motion of objects that are in contact with each other. It acts
parallel to the surfaces that are in contact, depends on the nature and smoothness of the surfaces,
is independent of the area of contact, and is directly proportional to the force pressing the
surfaces together. Starting friction is usually greater than sliding friction. The coefficient of
friction is the ratio of the force of friction to the perpendicular force pressing the surfaces
together.

Parallel forces act in the same or in opposite direction. The center of gravity of an object is that
point at which all the object's weight can be considered be concentrated.

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A stationary object is in translational and rotational equilibrium. The torque produced by a force
is the product of the force and the length of torque arm on which it acts.

To produce equilibrium in parallel forces, the sums the forces in opposite directions must be
equal and the sum of all the clockwise torques must equal the sum of all the counterclockwise
torques about a pivot point. Two forces of equal magnitude act in opposite directions but not
along the same line are called a couple.

VOCABULARY

center of gravity, coefficient of sliding friction, concurrent forces, couple, equilibrant force,
equilibrium, friction, parallel forces, resolution of forces, resultant force, rotational equilibrium,
torque, torque arm, translational equilibrium.

Ah Yaz Indeed!

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