FROM INDEPENDENT CHIEFDOMS TO ABYSSINIAN SUBJECTS: THE AARI INTERPRETATION OF

CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION

Author(s): Alexander Naty
Source: Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell’Istituto italiano per l’Africa
e l’Oriente, Anno 49, No. 4 (Dicembre 1994), pp. 498-515
Published by: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO)
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Africa,XUX, 4, 1994, pp. 49S-515

FROM INDEPENDENT CHIEFDOMS

TO ABYSSINIAN SUBJECTS:
THE AARI INTERPRETATIONOF
CONQUEST AND COLONIZATION

by AlexanderNaty(*)

You tried to kill me in order to become the ritual king.You were

supposed to succeed to the kingshiponlywhen I die of naturalcauses.
As a punishmentforyourattemptto kill me, I curse the country:after
my death,crops will not grow and livestockwill not reproduce.In the
past,I used to ward offinvadingforcesby sendingthemelephanttusks
and
as tribute.Aftermydeath,the door will be open forthe butterflies
wasps.

Thiswas thecurseofMassa,theritualkingof theAaripeoplein

theformer Baakachiefdom whenhissonAnno,Mugjobaiso, andDiksa
attempted theirfatherto killhimin orderto inherit
to strangle the
kingship.The reasonfordoingthis,Aariinformants reported,was that
Massa had livedfora longperiodand becomeveryold. His toe and
fingernailswereverylongand sharpas a knife. His sonswantedhim
to die,so theyattemptedto killhim,although he didnotdie right away.
He wokeup and calleda girlwhohad notreachedtheage ofpuberty
and requestedthatthe girlbringhimsorghumand milk.Whenshe
brought thesetwoingredients, he mixedthemtogether andpouredthe
mixture ontothe groundpronouncing the curse.Afterthisprophetic
pronouncement, he died.After thedeathof Massa,hissonAnnoruled
untiltheadventof theconquestby theimperialAbyssinian army. The
storyabove may havebeen a that
myth emerged at a latertime in order
to explainthe domination thatthe Aari had experienced afterthe
conquest.

(*) Ph. D. in Social Anthropology.

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 FROMINDEPENDENTCHIEFDOMS,ETC. 499

Drawing on Aari oral historyand on information fromthe few

scatteredwritten this
sources, paperpresentsan account of theconquest
of the Aari people in the formerBaaka chiefdomby the imperial
Abyssinianarmyduringthe late nineteenthcentury 0). The dramatic
defeatof the Aari was a basis forthe establishment of unequal power
relationsbetween the local populationsand the imperialAbyssinian
The conquest resultedin the enslavementof the Aari
soldier-settlers.
people and theexplorationoftheAarilandand otherneighboring region
for ivory.I shall discuss both the Aari and the Abyssinianstate
interpretationof conquestand colonization.Withrespectto the former,
I shall conducta semanticanalysisof the wordswhichare containedin
Massai curse.
The Aaripeople in theformerBaaka chiefdomviewtheirconquest
by the imperialAbyssinianarmyas a consequenceof the curseof king
Massa. The reignof Massa is oftenconceivedof as a goldenage in Baaka
political history,duringwhich accordingto Aari oral history,crops
ripened,livestockand humanbeings reproduced.In contrastto other
Aari chiefdom,the Baaka chiefdomwas militarilystronger,which
enabled the Baaka to wage wars and annex the territories of their
neighboringShangaama chiefdom. The Baaka fought also againstthe
Maale chiefdomand annexedtheirterritories. The warfarebetweenthe
Baaka and the Maale people is also mentionedin Maale oral history
(Donham 1986:81).Withtheconquest,theera ofgrandeurfortheBaaka
polityended and a period of subjugationbegan.

SpearsagainstGuns

Accordingto Aari oral historyas well as writtensources, the

differentAari chiefdomwere conquered by the armyof ras Welde-
Giorghis(2).The Aarifoughtagainstthearmyof rasWelde-Giorghis
with

(1) This paper is based on field researchamong the Aari people of southwestEthiopia
between 1988-1990.The fieldworkwas generously funded by a Rockefeller Foundation
AfricanDissertationInternship(RF 87001, #19). The archivalresearchin Rome was funded
by the Istitutoítalo-Africano.I wrote this paper with support froma Social Science Research
Council-MacArthurFoundation Postdoctoral Fellowship while I was a postdoctoral fellow
affiliatedwith the Programin AgrarianStudies, Yale University.I thankthese institutionsfor
theirsupport.
(2) Ras is a commanderof the army.The word literallymeans head . This titlewas
the highesttitlebelow the emperor (negus).For biographical informationabout ras Welde-
Giorghis Abboye, referto Mahateme-SellasieWelde-Meskel (1961:71). Ras Welde-Giorghis
was an older brotherof dejazmachsBashah and Lemma Abboye. Both Bashah and Lemma

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500 ALEXANDERNATY

spears and shields(3), but the Abyssiniansoldiers had guns.Aari

informants referredto these guns as wojigiraMoskob. Apparently, the
guns has been givenby the Russians(referredto as to
Moskob) Emperor
Menelik.It is also to be noted that some European militaryexperts
participatedin the conquest of the various peoples of southernand
southwestern Ethiopia (Jesman1958:93).For example,Russianofficers
such as Colonel Artamov,LieutenantA.K. Bulatovitch,and Count
NicholasLeontievaccompaniedexpeditionsthatMenelikdespatchedfor
the conquest of the south and southwest. For their services these
individualsweregiventitlesand sharesfromthe spoils of the conquest.
The direction from which the imperial army came remains
ambiguous.Aari elders say that soldierscame throughthe Maaleland.
Butone northern settler{neft'ennya)
informant pointedout thatthearmy
came from Maji after conquering the Kaffa kingdom.From the
perspectiveof thisinformant, the conquestof Aari occurredpriorto the
conquest Wolaytakingdomwhichtook place in 1894.
of
Accordingto Aari oral history, the imperialarmythatconquered
the Aari chiefdomswas led by dejazmachTesemmaNadew who was in
turnunderrasWelde-Giorghis(4). Writtensourcesalso confirmthatthe
army that conquered the southern regions(whichcomprisedthe Aari
area) was led by dejazmachTesemmaNadew:
Menelikhad dispatchedthreearmiesinJanuary1897 underthecommand
of ras Weldegiorghis, dejazmachDemise Nesibu and dejazmachTesemma
Nadew. The armyunderdej. Demise had conqueredSidamo and Konso
by April 1897 as dej. Tesemma'sarmyencircledthe southernterritories.
It was Tesemma Nadew who was assignedto guide the French under
Charlesde Bonchampsto the Nile (Prouty1986:204).

Jesman(1958:119) reportedthat therewere two thousandEthiopian

cavalryand infantry underdejazmachTesemmaNadew (5). Accordingto
Prouty (1986:199), the campaignof Tesemmawas bloodlessin contrast
to the atrocitiescommittedagainstthe Kaffapeople by the armyof
Welde-Giorghis. From
This statementrunscounterto Aari oral history.

were reputedto be warriors,and indeed, Bashah died in the battleof Adua (Prouty1976:177);
Gebre-Sellasie (1959:266).
(3) The Aari did not know about guns prior to the conquest. Therefore,they were
confused when theircomrades were shot by bullets when they foughtagainst the imperial
Ethiopian armyof Welde-Giorghis.The Aari termfor a gun is puula, a word which derived
according to Aari informants, fromthe sound of the firingof a gun.
(4) Dejazmach is a militarytitlebelow ras. Literallyit means commanderor the gate .
(5) Both oral informationand the writtensources confirmthat dejazmach Tesemma
Nadew is a cousin of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia.

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 FROMINDEPENDENTCHIEFDOMS,ETC. 501

the point of view of Aari informants,manypeople were killed during

the campaignof ras Welde-Giorghis.
It is believed that the campaignof Welde-Giorghisagainstthe
Baaka people came in threewaves.The firstwave was thatof Tesemma
Nadew.One neft'ennya informant pointed out that accompanyingthe
armyof Tesemmawere also soldiersfromJimma,an Oromo kingdom
thathad been conqueredby the imperialAbyssinianarmypriorto the
conquestof the Aari chiefdoms. The soldiersfromJimmawere led by
Abba Fogge and Simel.The imperialEthiopianarmyapproachedthe
Baaka by beatingthe ceremonialdrum{negarit) (6) which,accordingto
informants, sounded "tew! tew! gebir!gebir!" "Do not fight!Do not
fight!Submitand pay tribute!"The Baaka blew theirhorn trumpets
(shoora)and preparedthemselvesto confrontthe invadingarmy.With
the beatingof the war drum and blowingof horns,the confrontation
betweenspearsand gunshad begun.The Baaka warriorsfoughtthearmy
of Tesemmain threebattles.The firstbattlewas around Boshkoroin
Maaleland; the second battle took place around Waati (which later
becamea customscheckpointknownas kellalocally).The thirdfighting
took place in Bakko (then known as Adir)(7). The Aari lost all three
battles.Many Aari fightersdied in these battles:some were taken to
Addis Ababa as captives,amongthemShinki,son of ritualkingAnno.
Informants reportedthatimperialAbyssiniansoldiersseveredthe
genitalsof the Aari fighterswho fellin the battle.One elder in Sinigal
toldthefollowing storyregardinghisfather's
brotherwhosegenitalswere
cut offby the soldiers:

(6) A negaritis a big drumwhichwas carriedon a horse'sor mule'sback duringwar

timesby imperialEthiopiansoldiers.Therewereexpertswho beat thedrum.The drumwas
beatenduringtimesof war in orderto boostthemoraleof thesoldiers.A soldierwho ran
awaywhenthe drumwas beatenwas not givenanygebbar.A negaritwas beatenalso for
important ceremoniesand on occasionssuch as banquets.Duringthe periodof imperial
administration,
onlyhighranking officialsreceivedit. Duringa banquet,a governor witha
enteredfirstintothehall.It is said thatdejazmach
negarit MeridHabte-Mariam was givena
neoarit'somesayit was givenby EmperorMenelik,otherssayby regentYasu.
(7) Withtheconquestand settlement ofthenorthern in Aariland,
settlers certainplaces
weregivennewnames:Adirwas calledBakko,Gaylreferred to as Gelila,Argenwas named
Debre-Tsehai.Moreover, withtheconquest,theAaripeoplein thedifferent formerchiefdoms
werecalledby thegenericname "Ye BakkoShank'ilia". It is to be notedthatinitially, the
termShank'illareferred not onlyto the Aaribut also to ethnicgroupssuch as theBanna,
Maale,Hamar,ArboreandDassanetch.Thisis clearlynoticeablein thewritings ofEuropeans,
forexample,ArnoldHodson (1927).The termShank'illameansblack.Accordingto one
northerner,thewordsank'illaderivedfrom"shank'o"which,amongtheAmhara,refers to a
blackhorse.

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502 ALEXANDERNATY

Bergi was the youngerbrotherof my father.During the campaignof

Welde-Giorghis, Bergiwas wounded,and his genitalswerecut offby the
Amharasoldiers.Afterthe armyleft,my fatherlooked forhis brother.
He foundhimin theforestin Bakko.When Bergiwas broughthome,the
goodimiadvisedmyfatherthatBergimustdie. This was because a person
whosegenitalshad been cut offwas believedto be an impure{mingii)in
our society.In Aari society,such a personcannoteat or drinktogether
withotherfamilymembers.Because of this,Bergi was locked inside a
house.He died thereby inhalingsmoke(8).

The Baaka people did nothave moderninstruments such as a radar

to monitorthe coming of the Abyssinianforces. Nonetheless,they
slaughteredsheep and consultedthe intestineoracle.The entrailswere
consultedby the religiousleaders{goodimi)afterthe armyof rasWelde-
Giorghisleft.Accordingto Aari informants, the oracle indicatedthat
therewere morecampaignsto come againstthe Baaka. And aftersome
time,anotherinvasiontook place.
Accordingto Aari oral history, the second campaignwas led by
fitaurariDamtew(9). thisis correct,thenthe second campaignmust
If
have takenplace before1896 because Damtew died duringthisyearin
the battle of Adua. The writtensources do not mentionDamtews
campaignagainsttheAarichiefdoms,however.Informants reportedthat
the captiveswho had been takenaway duringthe campaignof Welde-
Giorghiswere broughtback to Baaka by fitaurariDamtew(10).These
captiveswere sentto Ashti(the residenceof ritualkingsof the Baaka)
in orderto tellthe ritualkingto surrender.
It is said thatthe ritualking
(some say he was Mugjobaiso,otherssay Anno) refusedto give up,
announcingthathe would not surrender to menwho shavedtheirheads
like women. (It is to be noted that,traditionally,only women shaved

December8, 1988 in Sinigal.

(8) Interview,
(9) FitaunDamtewKetemais ratheror rasDesta Damtewand MajorGeneralAbebe
Damtev.Damtevwas fromtheAdigesfamily in Shewa.Fitaurari Damtewdied in thebattle
of Adua.SeveralwrittensourcesreportthatDamtewvisitedRussia and otherEuropean
countries.For example,Gebre-Sellasie
(1959:223)reported thatDamtewand Genemevisited
RussiawithCountLeontiev.Accordingto SeifuAbawello(1953:35),DamtewvisitedItaly,
France,GreatBritainand Russiaon a diplomaticmissionduringthe reignof Emperor
Menelik.Accordingto the genealogypresentedby Seifu,Damtewis a maternaluncle of
dejazmach BirruHaile-Mariamwholaterbecamegovernor ofBakko.Prouty(1976:170)reports
thatDamtewvisitedRussia togetherwithGenemeon April28, 1895. Similarly, Zervos
(1936:486)tellsus thatbothfitaurariDamtewand k'ennyazmach GenemevisitedRussiain
1895.Italianarchivalsourcesalso indicatethatDamtewvisitedRussiatogether withCount
Leontiev.
(10) Commander of thevanguard. This titleis belowdejazmach.

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 FROMINDEPENDENTCHIEFDOMS,ETC. 503

their heads among the Aari.Therefore,the Aari considered the

Abyssiniansoldiersto be women).
The Baaka people foughtagainstthe armyof Damtew,but they
were defeated.The ritual king, Mugjobaiso togetherwith his two
brothers(i.e. Anno and Diksa) died in the battle.(See Figure1 forthe
genealogyofBaaka ritualkings).Some informants saythattheritualking
and his two brothersdied in the firstcampaign.Accordingto these
informants, the threebrothersdied in a battlein what is now Bakko.
AnotherversionsuggestedthatMugjobaiso was killed in Ashtiin his
royalcompound,whereasAnno and Diksa died in Bakko.(It seems to
me likelythatMugjobaisodied duringthe second campaign.Moreover,
given the fact that Baaka ritualkings oftenstayedinside theirroyal
compounds,it is mostprobablethatMugjobaisowas killedin the royal
residencein Ashti).

Figure1: Genealogyof theRitual Kingsof Baaka

Sarsar
ι
Massa (d. 1880)

I I I
Anno Mugjobaiso (d. 1896) Diksa (d. 1898)
I I
Guri (d. 1937) Banzi (usurper,d. 1930)

Γ" Γ Ι
Magmi Shei Mari

Tilahun

The thirdcampaignwas led by dejazmachBirruHaile-Mariamto

whomthe Baaka surrendered withoutfighting
(n). Afterthe surrender,
the Aari people were told to presenttheirritualking to BirruHaile-
Mariam.Accordingly,they presented Banzi as their local leader
{balabbat),but Banzi should not have been presentedbecause he was
not the son of Anno who was the ritualkingof the Baaka at the time

(11) According to Mahateme-SellasieWelde-Meskel (1961:37) dejazmachBirru Haile-

Mariam was son of ras Mekonen's older brother.It is said that Birru also traveledtwice to
Europe. As a resultof these trips,he favoredthe modernizationof Ethiopia.

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504 ALEXANDERNATY

of the conquest.Banzi was the son of Mugjobaiso, Anno's younger

brother;Guri was the actualsuccessorto the ritualkingshipbecause he
was theson ofAnno.The Baaka eldersin consultation withthereligious
leaders{goodimi)fromthegalshiim,wobori,and woniiclansdecidednot
to presentGuri to Birrubecause theyfearedthathe would eitherbe
killedor takenaway by the Abyssiniansin revenge.In any case, when
Banzi was presented,Birrugave him a horse and some guns as gifts.
AlthoughBanzi was introducedas a leader,the Aari believedthatwas
Guri theiractual ritualking.Indeed, Guri lived in the royalcompound
in Ashti,whereasBanzi lived in Beriwak.That the Aari continuedto
considerGuri as theirritualkinginfuriated Banzi. Consequently, conflict
arose betweenBanzi and Guri; Banzi chased Guri awayfromthe royal
residenceso thatGuri took refugein a place called Alga. (It is not quite
clearwhetheror not Alga had become a gultland offitaurariMetaferia
at thattime(12).If so, Banzi would not have been able to touch Guri
therebecause of the fear of repercussionsfromthe gult owner.Guri
livedin Alga untiltheBaaka people rebelledagainstBanzi and reinstalled
Guri to the ritualkingship.
My informants pointedout thatthereignof Banzi was notgood for
the Aari people.All of a sudden,Banzi acted like soldier-settler,selling
Aarichildrento soldier-settlers.
Moreover,duringhis reigntherewas no
rain,and consequently, theBaaka people rebelledagainstBanzi.Guriwas
brought from exile in Alga and presentedto Birru(13).The Baaka told
the governorthatGuri was theirreal leader and thatthe rainswould
comewiththeinstallation of Guri.(Accordingto informants, because of
the drought,the horsesand mules of the soldiers-settlers were dying).
Birruagreedto the proposal and appointedGuri.With the installation
of Guri, the rainpoured down so heavilythatsoldiersreturning from
accompaying Guri to Ashti the
during day of theinstallationhad difficulty
in crossingthe Pochto streamwhich was located betweenAshti and
Bakkowas so delightedthathe gave Guri a horseand some guns.Later,
Guri was taken to Addis Ababa where he was given the title of
barambaras(lA).In Addis Ababa, Guri was also given a kind of robe
knownas lamdiwhichhe wore onlyduringthe funeralof the galshiim,
woboriand woniireligiousleaders {goodimi).(By usingthe termlamdi,
myinformants wereapparently to lemd,whichis a typeofcape).
referring
in
Guri ruleduntilhis death 1937 (Jensen1959:34).

(12) Land grantedto the aristocracyby the emperor.

(13) Gun was broughtfromAlga on top of a shield. This carryingof Gun on a shield
was as sign of respectfor the ritualking.
(14) Barambarasis an administrativetitlewhich means commanderof a fortress.

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 FROMINDEPENDENTCHIEFDOMS,ETC. 505

When Banzi was expelledfromthe leadership,he wentto live in

Boshkoro (in Maaleland) with his wife.It is said that before his
expulsion,Banzi had severalwives and many children,but afterhis
expulsion,all his childrenand wives with the exceptionof one were
takenas domesticslavesby soldiers-settlers because Banzi was accused
of havingdebts to the soldiers-settlers.Banzi's remainingwife died in
Boshkoro.Afterthe death of his wife,Banzi groundgrainand cooked
forhimself,like a woman as one informant put it. In any case, Banzi
lived a miserablelifeuntilhis deathin the early1930s.
Althoughtheactwas motivatedbyfearof revenge,thepresentation
of Banzi as a local leader to governorBirruHaile-Mariambecame an
unintendedfoundationfortheseparationofpoliticalfromreligiousroles
in Aari society.While Guri was responsibleforreligiousaspects,Banzi
assumedthepoliticaland administrative role (at leastbeforethe conflict
betweenBanzi and Guri). To put it differently, Guri was the ritualking
(baabi) whereas Banzi was a politicaladministrator (balabbat)untilthe
period of his expulsion.It appears that afterthe overthrowof Banzi,
Guri retainedboth the religiousand the politicalroles untilthe period
of the Italianoccupation.The separationof religiousand politicalroles
was not unique to Aari society;such a divisionhas been also reported
in othersocietiesin southernEthiopia. For instance,Jacques Bureau
(1980) reportedsueh a separationof the traditionalritualleaders (kao)
fromthe role of politicaladministrators amongthe Gamo people.
The divisionbetweenthese two roles was not clearlyestablished
untiltheperiodoftheItalianoccupation.The Italiansrequestedthehelp
of ritualkingGuri in theiradministration, but Guri told themthathe
was old and could not assist them. Instead, Guri appointed his son
Magmi to workwiththe Italians.Duringthe period of the occupation,
Magmilived in Bakko whichwas the administrative center.AfterGuri's
death,his son Shei became the ritualkingwhereasMagmicontinuedas
thepoliticaladministrator.
AfterthedeathofShei,hisbrotherMariacted
as a ritualkingon behalfof Shei's son Tilahunwho was a policeman
and lived in anotherreignof Ethiopia.Magmi however,continuedto
maintainhis politicalrole.This divisionprevailedthroughout the post-
1941 period.It was onlywiththe adventof the Ethiopianrevolutionin
1974 thatboth the politicaland the religiousroles were abolishedby
the socialistregime.Afterthe revolution, the peasantassociationleaders
assumedthe politicalleadershipwhereasthe religiousroleof theformer
ritualkingswas abolished(althoughit continuedto functionsecretely).
Guri opposed the abductionof Aari womenand childrenas slaves
by soldiers-settlers.
Togetherwithsome AarimenfromBaaka Guri went

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506 ALEXANDERNATY

to Addis Ababa in orderto protestto the courtof EmperorMenelik

the issue of slavery.
Beforetheysaw Menelik,theymet withfitaurari
Habte-Giorghis who promisedto take themto the emperors courtthe
followingday.But the next day a man named Kidane-Mariamwho was
a customscontroller(negadras)in Bakko happened to be in Addis
Ababa. He heardthatsome Aari fromBakko led by Guri had come to
protestslaveryat the courtof the emperor.Kidane-Mariamwas furious
about thisand intimidated the delegationby sayingthatthe ritualking
and the Aari people themselveswere responsiblefor selling their
children.He told themthatthe individualswho came to appeal to the
emperorscourtcould end up in jail fortheirinvolvement in the slave
trade.Frightenedby this,some fromthe groupleftAddis Ababa. Only
Guri and his aides who accompaniedhim remainedto see emperor
Menelik.Afterhearingthe appeal, Menelikpromisedthatslaverywould
be abolished.

Table 1: Chronology
of the Governorsof Bakko,1904-1937
Governor's
Name YearsofAdministration

BirruHaile-Mariam & Wolentieff 1904-1910

MeridHabte-Mariam 1910-1928
BeyeneMerid 1928-1933
Abebe Damtew 1933-1935
Periodof Italianoccupation 1935-1940
BezabihSileshi 1940-1943
GeresuDuki 1943-1944
Abebe Awraris 1944-1945
ShiferawWondim-Agegnehu 1945-1947
Kidane-Mariam Welde-Yohannis 1947-1954
AsfawGebre-Amanuel 1954-1957

The administrationof BirruHaile-Mariamwas a formative period

of serfdom{gebbarsirat)in Baaka(15). This period
for the institution
marked the beginningof the introductionof imperial Ethiopian
Bakko became the garrisontown (ketema)of the soldiers-
institutions.
(See Table 1 forthe
settlersand the centerof imperialadministration.
chronology of governorsof Bakko)(16).

(15) For a discussionof the workingsof the gebbarsiratin Aariland,see Naty (1992).
U6) Kas lesemma Madew and fitaurariJJamteware absent from the list or the
governorsof Bakko because theydid not staylong in the region.Accordingto Aari informants,

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 FROMINDEPENDENTCHIEFDOMS,ETC. 507

Duringthegovernorship of BirruHaile-Mariam,theAariweretold
to bringgrainto the marketin Bakko in exchangefor cartridgesthat
The payingof cartridges
were latergivenas tributeto soldiers-settlers.
as tributewas later abolishedwith the introductionof Maria Theresa
talers.It was also duringthe administrationof BirruthatAari families
wereassignedas tribute-paying peasants{gebbar)to the soldiers-settlers.

ElephantHuntingin Aariland

The historicimageryof the Aari locale called Sinigal is often

associatedwiththe settlement of Count Nicolai Leontiev(referred to as
Wolentiefflocally) and his Senegalese riflemen (17). Leontiev was a
Russianmilitary adviserto EmperorMenelikII of Ethiopia.The name
"Sinigal"was connected withthesettlement of Senegalesesoldiers(from
in
Senegalproper West Africa) in a locale previouslyknownas Baasa.
Afterthe settlementof the Senegalesesoldiers,Baasa was referred to as
"FortSenegal".The soldierswerebroughtto Aarilandso thattheycould
huntelephantsforivory.It is reported(Jesman1958:116) thatLeontiev
was given threehundredSenegalese riflemenby the French Colonial
Office.The Senegalesesoldierswere led by Captain H. Leymarie(18).
Count Leontiev was given the title of dejazmachby Emperor
Menelik (Rosenfeld1976:189).Moreover,Leontievwas appointedas a
governorto rulewhatwas thenknownas the EquatorialProvince.This
was clearlyexplicatedin a letterwrittenin 1898 by EmperorMenelik:

theactualadministration of thelocal populations by theimperialEthiopianstatebeganonly

duringthegovernorship ofdejazmach BirruHaile-Mariam. It is to be notedthatstartingfrom
the governorship of MeridHabate-Mariam until1945,Bakkoand Gofa wereadministered
together.In 1945, the two regionswere separated. During the latter phase of the
administration ofshalek'aAsfawGebre-Amanuel, Bakkowas abandonedas an administrative
center. Duringthisperiod,Hamerbecamethecenterof government administration.
(17) For furtherinformation regardingcount Leontievand his activitiesin the
EquatorialProvincereferto the following works:Jesman(1958), Work (1935), Leontiev
(1900).In addition,referto BritishForeignOfficerecordsdespatchesnumber1/34,9, 14,
21, 28, 29, 30, 41 and 50. The Archivio Storicoe Diplomático (asmai)of theItalianMinistry
ofForeignAffairs alsocontains information regarding Leontiev.See "AzioneRussa"(posizione
39/4,fascicolo49), "Leontieff e il Principed'Orléans"(posizione39/4,fascicolo36), "Azione
Russa-Missione Leontieffe difficoltà di rapport!col patriarcacopto" (posizione39/3).
(18) CaptainH. Leymarie wrotea book titledOn Dieppoisen Abyssinie (1898),which
is a diaryof his travelsfromSenegal(WestAfrica)to Addis Ababa,and laterfromAddis
Ababa to Lake Rudolf.It recordedthenumberof Baaka porterswho died on thejourney
fromBakkotoLake Rudolf, someofthemkilledbywhatLeymarie labeled"savages",referring
perhapsto ethnicgroupswho livedaroundLake Rudolf.

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508 ALEXANDERNATY

May it reachCount Leontiev.Peace be withYou. I knowthatup to now

you have servedmy countrywithfriendship. Because of thiswhen you
accomplishwhat we have talkedabout and come back, you will be my
servantand accordingto the customsof mycountryI will make you the
governorof theland thatyou colonized.I let you knowabout thismatter
in thisletter.In orderforyou to pay yourexpenses,I will allow you to
exploittheland freeof chargeforup to fiveyears.Afterfiveyears,ifyou
discovergold or silveror ivory,you willpay tributeto me likethenobles
ofmycountry. The land thatI willbe givingyouwillbe a frontier
territory
(dar ager) in southernEthiopia (ForeignOfficeRecordsReel No. 18, p.
50, April30, 1898).
Rosenfeld(1976:184)reportedthatLeontievmistranscribed the
originalletterof emperorMenelik. It is notclearwhether the letterabove
was theoriginal or themistranslated one.
The nameEquatorialProvincethatwas oftenmentioned in the
diplomatic correspondences of the French,British, and the Italians
corresponds to Menelik'sreference to the frontierland in southern
Ethiopia. In theletterabove,emperor Menelikreferred to thisterritory
withthe term"frontier" (dar ager). The boundariesof Equatorial
Provinces werevague.Roughly, itcomprised from
territories whatis now
and
Uganda,Kenya,Ethiopia, parts of Somalia.ErnestWork (1935:261)
reported that thisprovince "constituted the in
territory southwest of
Ethiopiaextending to the south beyondany claimhitherto set up by
Menelik".(See Map 1 forhowthelocationoftheEquatorialProvince).
It is notknownexactly forhowmanyyearsCountLeontievlived
in Sinigal.Some informants reported thatthe Countcameto Sinigal
during theadministration ofBirruHaile-Mariam; otherspointedoutthat
Leontievcamewithdejazmach GenemeafterBirruhadbeentransferred
fromBakkoto Majiin 1910(19).It is likelythatLeontievcamein during
thegovernorship of Birruwhen,as I indicatedearlier, Banziwas the

(19) Aari informantsdid not know the name of Geneme's father.Most likely,theywere
referring to Geneme Dilnesaw. Dejazmach Geneme Dilnesaw was also fromShewa. According
to Mahateme-SellasieWelde-Meskel (1961:89), formerly Geneme had been officerin the army
of ras Gobena. During the reignof Emperor Menelik II, Geneme became a fitaurariin the
armyunderfitaurariHabte-Giorghis.This armywas known as ye sanadiryaiand was stationed
in Gamo. Geneme became a dejazmach during the regencyof Yasu. During this period, he
ruled Kambata region.Later Geneme became a Ministerof Interior.But Geneme was accused
of collaboratingwith Yasu, and consequently,he was banished. He died in June, 1921.
Mahateme-Sellasiedid not mention that Geneme ruled Bako or Gofa. But Aari informants
told me thathe ruled Bakko. One neft'ennyareportedthatGeneme was transferred to Bakko,
but for reasons that he did not know, Geneme did not come to Bakko. Two relativesof
dejazmach Geneme whom I interviewedin Addis Ababa, told me that Geneme died in
Garamulettain Harar. Accordingto them,Geneme was also a governorof Illubabor.

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 FROMINDEPENDENT ETC.
CHIEFDOMS, 509

-»·£ is' e.

J ' Tripoli'
Ljöo. '

'4v » ^O Ο

Mapl: EquatorialProvince

A Pawn in EuropeanDiplomacy,
Source:Ethiopian, ErnestWork(1935:263).
Publishedby ErnestWork,New Concord,Ohio.

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510 ALEXANDERNATY

local leader of the Baaka. In Leontiev's book, ProvinceEquatoriale

d'Abyssiniepublishedin 1900, he describesobjects (a leatherbelt and
two harps)thathe claimedbelongedto ritualkingBanzi. This perhaps
suggeststhatBanzi was the local leaderwhen Leontievlived in Sinigal.
It appearsthatLeontievlivedin Sinigalon and offfrom1897/8to 1900.
Leontievwas deprivedof EquatorialProvincein January1900 (Jesman
1958:123).The same sourcepointedout thatLeontievwas orderedout
of Ethiopianin January1902(20).
The Senegalesesoldiershuntedelephantsin the Baaka, Kuree,and
Kaaro regions.Aari informants in Sinigaland Kuree indicatedthatin
the past therewere manyelephantsin these areas, but the elephants
were exterminated by the Senegalese riflemen. The Aari referto the
Senegaleseby the phrase "Black Arabs". Informants reportedthatsome
of the Senegaleseriflemen were Muslim(21).Many of the soldiersdied
due to insectbiteswhileon huntingexpeditions.Similarly, informantsin
Kuree pointedout thatseveralSenegalesehad died and were buriedin
Melka, southernKuree.Some Senegalesesoldiersremainedin Aariland
when Count LeontievleftSinigal.Duringthe period of myfielwork,I
came acrossseveralof theirdescendantsin the Baaka and Kuree areas.
Aariinformants did not knowthe reasonswhythe soldiersremainedin
Aariland.(Perhapstheywereattractedby the economicopportunities of
the Aari regions).
Count Leontiev sent the ivoryfromAariland and neighboring
regions to Addis Ababa. One informantin Sinigal who was
approximately ten yearsold at the time that Leontievwas in Baaka,
recalledLeontievloading elephanttusksto be takento Addis Ababa.
This was the same elderlyman who showedme the gravesof the three
Senegalesesoldiers,the settlement site of Leontiev,and the eucalyptus
treesthatLeontievplantedin Sinigal(22).Writtensourcesalso reported
Leontiev'sacquisitionof ivoryas the followingpassage shows:

(20) Jesman(1958:123) wrote that in May 1902, Menelik issued a circularletterto all
foreignlegations in Addis Ababa informingthem that Count Leontiev had made false
statements in France, Great Britain, and Belgium regarding his alleged gold mining
concessions.When he was expelled fromEthiopia,Leontiev did not returnto Russia. He lived
in, and died in Paris around 1911 (Jesman1958: 125).
(21) During the period of myfieldwork,one descendantof a Senegalese soldierin Jinka
did not want to be identifiedas a descendant of black Arabs due to the experience he had
encounteredin the 1960s when the Arabs were orderd to leave Ethiopia. During this time,
therewas a rumorthat the descendants of the Senegalese were also to be deported.But in
realitythis did not happen.
(22) Also note thaton pags 45 and 49 in Leontiev's book mentionedearlier,thereare
picturesof ivorythat local people gave as tributeand loaded on muleback.

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 FROM INDEPENDENT CHIEFDOMS, ETC. 511

With referenceto Your Lordship'sDespatch No. 31 of the 4th ultimo

forwardingme the report of Monsieur Leontieff s company for the
exploitationoftheEquatorialProvinceofAbyssinia, I have communicated
a summaryof the contentsto king Menelik.As regardsthe 18 tons of
ivorysaid to be in course of transitto Antwerp,His Majestyremarked
thatall the ivorybroughtby MonsieurLeontiefffromhis Provincewas
threemule loads (at the outsidethiswould be about 775 pounds), half
of whichthe kingwas paid for,and the otherivorytakenby Monsieur
Leontieff,in amountunderfaraslas(sic), (37500 pounds) was purchased
fromhim at the rate of 162 dollarsper faraslaswhen othermerchants
could only offer120 dollars per farasla.His Majesty said he owed
MonsieurLentieffmoneyforammunition, & c, whichno doubt he had
been made to pay heavilyfor,and he was glad to get such a priceforhis
ivory. From another source which I believe is reliable, Monsieur
Leontieffs last year's purchase of ivorywere 600 faraslas.Since his
departurenone has been purchasedon his account(Harrington1900,FO
RecordsReel No. 28, p. 158).

According to Powell-Cotton(1902:85) cited in Jesman (1958:121),

Leontievraidedvillagesforivory.
It is reported(Hughes le Roux 1903 cited in Jesman1958: 121)
thatsome membersof the expeditionled by Count Leontievengagedin
the slave trade.It is not clear whetherthis statementrefersto the
Europeans(i.e. Frenchand Russians),Senegalese,or Ethiopianmembers
of the expedition.In a letterwrittenon June 1, 1900 Lord Harrington
(who was a Britishnationalin Addis Ababa) mentionedthatLeontiev
raidedcattleand thathalfof the cattlethathe raided fromEquatorial
Provinceweredead whenhe took themto Addis Ababa. The remaining
cattle were sold by a man named Seljan who was an employeeof
Leontiev.When I asked Aari informants whetherLeontievengagedin
the slave trade,theyrepliedin the negative.However,one informant in
Sinigal reportedthat his grandfather was killed by the soldiers of
Mabicho,a whitemanwho came to SinigalwithLeontiev.(By usingthe
name "Mabicho",the informant was perhapsreferring to Babichevwho
was a Russiancolleagueof Leontiev).
Aari informantsin Sinigal indicated that the inhabitantsof
Duunamer,Kaysa, Arkisha,and Selmamerwere assignedas gebbarto
Leontiev.The people of thesevillagesbuilthousesforLeontievand the
Senegalesesoldiers.Informants reportedthatLeontievbroughtpigs and
the local people were requestedto build a large compoundforthem.
The Aari people in the aforementionedvillages also assisted the
Senegaleseriflemen in theirhuntingexpeditionsto Kaaroland.Somewho
accompanied the Senegalesesoldiersdied in Kaaroland due to malaria.
One elderwhomI interviewed in Sinigalmentionedthata personnamed

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5 12 ALEXANDERNATY

Ganabulo B'eedo (fromDuunamer) who accompaniedthe Senegalese

soldierswas killedby a crocodilewhilehe was drawingwaterfromthe
RiverOmo.

of Conquestand Colonization
Interpretation
In contrastto the conqueredpopulations,the northernsettlersin
Aarilandholda different interpretationoftheconquestoftheAaripolities
by the imperialAbyssinianarmy. Their understanding of the conquestis
based on economicand legal explanationssuch as are containedin the
idea of colonization(agermak'nat).It is believedthattheobjectiveof the
conquest was to promote economic interactionsthrough market
exchanges,to facilitatesocial interactionsthroughinterethnic marriages;
and to keep law and orderamongthe local populations.One informant
articulatedthe aimsof colonizationas follows:
Colonization{agermak'nat)means to develop the land, to settlepeople
in a land thathas not been settledby populations.When colonization
takes place, markets are established therebypromotingcommerce.
Moreover,law and order are introducedamong the local people. With
colonization,differentethnic groups relate to one another through
(23).
intermarriages
The settlers'perceptionof colonizationemanated from a particular
ideologyofcenter-periphery it had to do with
relations.More specifically,
the notionof a civilizedcenterand a backwardperiphery. The center
was viewed as havinga developed systemof economic exchange,law,
and order.The frontier,in contrast,lacked advanced economic
institutions,law and order.The view thatthe frontiers lacked law and
orderwas based on the assumptionthatsuch regionsand the people
who inhabitthemare wild.
The settlers'view of colonizationhas certainpaternalisticand
"civilizing mission" implications.The introductionof oxen plow
agriculture and marketsamong the conquered populationsare often
mentionedas instancesof their"civilizingmission".Inasmuchas these
practices were promoted, the settlersbragged of their "civilizing
mission's"accomplishments.
The Baaka explain the conquest of theirsocietyby the imperial
armyin termsof the curse of ritualkingMassa. As I indicatedearlier,
the reasonsforthe cursewas the attemptof the threesons of Massa to

(23) Interview,May 7, 1989 in Addis Ababa.

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 FROMINDEPENDENTCHIEFDOMS,ETC. 5 13

strangle their father.Aari elders in Sinigal often blamed Anno,

Mugjobaiso, and Diksa for theirbehaviorwhich broughtabout the
invadingarmy and theeventual loss of communalsplendorfortheBaaka
people.
To appreciatethe Baaka interpretation of the conquestrequiresan
understanding ofthe symbols metaphorswhichare embeddedwithin
and
the propheticcurseof ritualkingMassa quoted at the beginningof this
paper.What do the termsbutterflies, wasps, locusts,fleas and worms
represent?What does themixingof sorghumand milksignify? Whydid
kingMassa pour the mixtureof sorghumand the milkon the ground?
These are the questionsthatI shall attemptto addressbrieflythrough
a semanticanalysisof the terms.
From the perspectiveof Aari informants, the termsbutterflies
and
{ambarchad) wasps (saadaa), referto Abyssiniansoldiers.Some elders
used thewordlocustsinsteadof butterflies and wasps. Stillsome others
used the termsfleasand worms.Accordingto informants, the imperial
soldiers who invaded the Baaka chiefdom were as numerous as
locusts,wasps, fleas,or worms.Therefore,the use of these
butterflies,
termsin Massa's curse refersto number.Secondly,the armyof Welde-
Giorghisinflicteddamageson Aari societyin the same way thatsome
of these insects would damage crops. Drawing parallels between
Abyssiniansoldiersand locusts in termsof numberand damage, one
informant remarked:
The soldiersof ras Welde-Giorghiswho came to invade us were very
many.Theywerelike hairsand locusts.When locustsinvadefields,they
eat all the crops.Theywillnot leave the fieldsuntiltheyfinishthe crops.
The soldiersof Welde-Giorghisdid similardamageto us. Theykilledus.
They took manyAari people as slaves.Prior to the conquest,our land
was verydenselypopulated.Our people were taken as slaves to Addis
Ababa by the soldier-settlers
(24).

Referringto Massa s pouringof the mixtureof sorghumand milk

on the ground,one elder commentedthatsuch an act symbolizedthe
end ofan era of abundanceand prosperity. As pointedout earlier,during
the reignof Massa, crops ripened,sheep reproduced,and womenbore
children.Similarly,it is believedthat the Baaka people stayedhealthy
because there were no diseases.The reignof Massa is oftenviewedas a
goldenage in thepoliticalhistory of theAaripeople in theformerBaaka
chiefdom.In the opinion of the Aari informants, the pouringof the

(24) Interview,November 14, 1988 in Sinigal.

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5 14 ALEXANDERNATY

mixtureof sorghumand milksignified a reversalof thegoldenage. With

the conquestby theimperialAbyssinianarmyduringthelate nineteenth
century,indeed, the Aari people experienceda reversalof the golden
age. The conquestresultedin slaveryand economicexploitation.
Alexander Naty

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52 und 1954-56,Stuttgart,
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WORK ERNEST, Ethiopia, a Pawn in European Diplomacy, New York, The MacMillan
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 FROMINDEPENDENTCHIEFDOMS,ETC. 515

RIASSUNTO

L'articoloè basatosullatradizione dallescarseinformazioni

orale,integrata dellefon-
ti scritteperaltrodi difficile
reperibilità.
Esso analizzail processodi incorporazione del regnoautónomodi Baaka nellaparti-
colareinterpretazione ehe di questodannole popolazioniAari.La tradizionevuoleehe la so-
cietàsia statasottomessa per effettodellamaledizionedel sovranodella quale l'autoreeffet-
tua ancheun'accurataanalisisemântica.

RESUME

L'articlese base sur la tradition oraleintégréepar les raresinformations

des sources
écritesd'ailleurstrèsdifficiles
à trouver.L'auteuranalysele procèsd'incorporation
du royau-
me autonomede Baaka selonl'interprétation que de ce procèsdonnentles populationsAa-
ri.D'après la traditionla sociétéa été soumisepar effetde la malédiction
du roide laquelle
l'auteurdonneaussiune analysesémantique détaillée.

IKIIX/FD CO RIVISTABIMESTRALE
Wlvl If LflvV DELL'ISTITUTOGEOGRÁFICOMILITARE

resp.: Gen.Costantino
Direttore MAGLIO Redattore
capo:Magg.Antonio
FINIZIO

Direzione e Redazione:
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