FIFTH SEMESTER

AGR 310 : CLIMATE CHANGE AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

(1+0)
OBJECTIVES
Acquiring knowledge on ecological principles, concepts, basic
understanding of
climate change and its impact, key concepts of disasters and
practices of mitigation, assessment of hazards and their management.
THEORY
Unit–I : Climate change and its impact
Climate change – Causes – Impact on Agriculture – Mitigation
strategies – Global warming – Sea level rise – Ozone layer depletion – Acid
rains – Pollution – Pollutants – Types.
Unit–II : Resource conservation
Conservation of resources – Agricultural ecology – Ecosystem –
Remediation measures – Manmade disasters.
Unit–III : Natural disasters
Natural disasters – Meaning – Types – floods – Cyclone – Earth
quakes, Tsunami, landslides – Avalanches – Volcanic eruptions – Heat
and cold waves – Nuclear disaster, chemical disasters and biological
disaster.
Unit–IV : Disaster management
Disaster management – Concepts – Efforts to mitigate natural
disasters – National and global levels – Hazards – Risk – Mitigation.
Unit–V : Disaster Rehabilitation
National disaster management frame work – Disaster Response
Mechanisms in India – Financial arrangement – Disaster warning –
Rehabilitation – Bio shields livelihood options – Insurance and
compensation – Emergency operations centers (EOCs). India’s key
hazards and vuluerabities and disaster response mechanism.
THEORY LECTURE SCHEDULE
1) Climate change – definition – concepts – causes – issues.

2) Impact of climate change on Agriculture and mitigation strategies

3) Climate change – global warming, sea level rise, ozone layer

depletion and acid rain
4) Environmental pollution causes, effects and control
 5) Conservation of resources and remediation measures from
different pollutants
6) Basic concepts and principles of Agricultural ecology and environment

7) Manmade disasters and Nuclear disasters

8) Natural disasters – definition – types and effects

9) Mid semester examination

10) Floods, drought, cyclone, earth quakes and Tsunami

11) Landslides, avalanches, volcanic eruptions, Heat and cold waves

12) Disaster management – efforts to mitigate disasters at national and

global levels
13) Disaster response mechanism in India

14) Disaster warning, India’s key hazards, risk and mitigation

15) Financial arrangements – role of NGO’s and other organizations.

16) Rehabilitation – Bio shields livelihood options – insurance and

compensation

17) Prepardness – EOCs

REFERENCE BOOKS
1) Gautam, D.R.2009. Community based Risk Reduction, Mercy
corps, Lalitpur, Nepal.
2) Gupta. H.K.2003. Disaster management. Indian National Science
Academy
Orient Blacksman.

3) Ministry of home affairs 2010. Standard operating procedure for

responding to natural disaster. Ministry of home affairs – Disaster
management Division, New Delhi.
4) Purohit, S.S., Q.J. Shammi and Agarwal. A.K. 2004 –
Environmental
Sciences new Approach. Agrobios, India.

5) Sharma. V.K 2001. Disaster management. National centre for

 Disaster management, India.
E – RESOURCES
1) http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/123456789/458global issues –
formatted.pdf

2) http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/123456789/607Biosafety.pdf

3) http://nsdl.niscair.res.in/123456789/1069environments.ppt

Unit–I : Climate change and its impact

Climate change – Causes – Impact on Agriculture – Mitigation
strategies – Global warming – Sea level rise – Ozone layer depletion – Acid
rains – Pollution – Pollutants – Types.
THEORY LECTURE SCHEDULE
1) Climate change – definition – concepts – causes – issues.

2) Impact of climate change on Agriculture and mitigation strategies

3) Climate change – global warming, sea level rise, ozone layer depletion
and acid rain
4) Environmental pollution causes, effects and control

Lecture 1: Climate change – definition – concepts – causes – issues

Climate change:
According to IPCC (2007) Climate change refers to
statistically variation in either the mean state of the climate
or in its variability persisting for an extended
periods(typically decades or longer). A change in global or
regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent from the
mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the
increased levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use
of fossil fuels.
 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an
intergovernmental body of the United Nations,(195 members. )
dedicated to providing the world with an objective, scientific view of
climate change, its natural, political and economic impacts and risks,
and possible response options.

Concepts of cliamte change

When we talk about climate change, we mean any long-term
change in the average weather patterns in a particular area. Average
weather patterns include average temperature, rainfall, wind
conditions and numerous other climatic conditions.

These changes may take place due to the dynamic processes of the
1. Earth (e.g. volcano eruptions or earthquakes),
2. due to external forces (e.g. changes in the intensity of solar
radiation or fall of large meteorites), or
3. due to human activities (e.g. deforestation, tree burning or the
three types of pollution – land, air and sea),
resulting in an ecological imbalance, the disappearance of certain
animal and plant species.
Scientists expect the Earth’s average surface temperature to rise
by 1.4 to 5.8°C between 1990 and 2100.

This rise could cause numerous environmental changes, such as

1.melting of ice, 2. changing wind movement and 3. occurrence of
hurricanes, floods in certain areas and drought in others, and
tsunami.

Climate change has brought many environmental risks to human

health, such as ozone layer depletion, loss of biodiversity, increased
pressures on food-producing systems and spread of infectious
diseases. The three main categories of climate change impact on human
health are:

(a)   Direct impact (e.g. as a result of heat waves, large-scale air

pollution, natural disasters).

(b)  Impact on ecosystems and environmental relationships (e.g.

damage to agricultural crops, overabundance of mosquitoes, 
depletion of marine species).

(c)   Indirect impact (e.g. poverty, displacement, conflict over

resources such as water, post-disaster epidemics).

Causes of Climate change

1. Agriculture is responsible for an estimated one third of climate

change.
2. It is generally agreed that about 25% of carbon dioxide emissions,
are produced by agricultural sources, mainly deforestation, the
use of fossil fuel-based fertilizers, and the burning of biomass.
3. Most of the methane in the atmosphere comes from domestic
ruminants, forest fires, wetland rice cultivation and waste
products, while conventional tillage and fertilizer use account for
70% of the nitrous oxides.
4. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the
three main causes of the increase in greenhouse gases observed
over the past 250 years have been fossil fuels, land use, and
agriculture.
Impact of Climate change
● Climate change impacts on agriculture are being witnessed all over
the world, but countries like India are more vulnerable in view of
the huge population dependent on agriculture,excessive pressure
on natural resources and poor coping mechanisms.
● The warming trend in India over the past 100 years has indicated on
increase of 0.60°C. The projected impacts are likely to further
aggravate field fluctuations of many crops thus impacting food
security.
● There are already evidences of negative impacts on yield of wheat
and paddy in parts of India due to increased temperature, water
stress and reduction in number of rainy days.
● Significant negative impacts have been projected with medium-term
(2010-2039) climate change, eg. yield reduction by 4.5 to 9%,
depending on the magnitude and distribution of warming.
● Since agriculture makes up roughly 15% of India's GDP, a 4.5 to
9.0% negative impact on production implies cost of climate change
to be roughly at 1.5% of GDP per year.
● Enhancing agricultural productivity, therefore, is critical for
ensuring food and nutritional security for all, particularly the
resource poor small and marginal farmers who would be affected
most.
● In the absence of planned adaptation, the consequences of long-
term climate change could be severe on the livelihood security of
the poor.

Climate change will probably increase the risk of food insecurity for

● S.America may lose 1 -21 % , Africa-1-18 %, Europe 11-17% and

India 20-40%
Lect:2. Impact of climate change on Agriculture and mitigation
strategies

Impact of climatic changes on agriculture

Solar radiation, temperature, and precipitation are the main

drivers of crop growth; therefore agriculture has always been highly
dependent on climate patterns and variations. Since the industrial
revolution, humans have been changing the global climate by emitting
high amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, resulting in
higher global temperatures, affecting hydrological regimes and
increasing climatic variability.

Overall, climate change could result in a variety of impacts on

agriculture.

✔ Changes in production patterns due to higher temperatures

✔ A boost in agricultural productivity due to increased carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere
✔ Changing precipitation patterns
✔ Increased vulnerability of the landless and the poor
✔  India's GDP could decline by up to 9%, due to shifting growing
seasons for major crops such as rice, production of which could
fall by 40%. Around seven million people are projected to be
displaced due to, among other factors, submersion of parts
of Mumbai and Chennai, if global temperatures were to rise by a
mere 2 °C (3.6 °F).
✔ Meghalaya- meaning 'Abode of the Clouds' in Hindi—is home to the
towns of Cherrapunji and Mawsynram, which are credited with
being the wettest places in the world due to their high rainfall. But
scientists state that global climate change is causing these areas
 to experience an increasingly sparse and erratic rainfall pattern
and a lengthened dry season, affecting the livelihoods of
thousands of villagers who cultivate paddy and maize. Some areas
are also facing water shortages.

 Consequences of climate change

Melting of Glaciers and Ice Sheets

              One of the most pronounced effects of climate change has
been melting of masses of ice around the world. Glaciers and ice
sheets are large, slow-moving assemblages of ice that cover about
10% of the world’s land area and exist on every continent except
Australia. They are the world’s largest reservoir of fresh water,
holding approximately 75% .
              One of the best-documented examples of glacial retreat has
been on Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa. It is the tallest peak on the
continent, and so, despite being located in the tropics, it is high
enough so that glacial ice has been present for at least many
centuries. However, over the past century, the volume of Mount
Kilimanjaro’s glacial ice has decreased by about 80% . If this rate
of loss continues, its glaciers will likely disappear within the next
decade . Similar glacial melt backs are occurring in Alaska, the
Himalayas, and the Andes.
Sea Level Rise
              Since the mid-19th century, sea level has been rising,
likely primarily as a result of human-induced climate change.
During the 20th century, sea level rose about 15-20 centimeters
(roughly 1.5 to 2.0 mm/year), with the rate at the end of the century
greater than over the early part of the century . Satellite
measurements taken over the past decade, however, indicate that the
rate of increase has jumped to about 3.1 mm/year, which is
significantly higher than the average rate for the 20th century .
EXTREME WEATHER
Most of the potentially damaging consequences relating to
climate change are associated with extremes- the number of heat
waves, floods, or severe storms. Since extreme weather events
cause loss of life and property, it is important to understand what
impact climate change may have on their occurrence. Global climate
change affects different regions of the earth in different ways.
Although the accuracy of regional climate forecasts is improving, they
are still uncertain. However, we do know that a warmer atmosphere
will result in a greater number of tropical storms, extreme heat
waves, droughts, and floods.
Tropical Storms
Since 1970, tropical cyclone activity has increased in the North
Atlantic. Beginning in 1900 and lasting until around 1930, there was
an average of six tropical cyclones (four hurricanes and two
tropical storms) per year in the Atlantic basin.  During the 1930’s
and early 1940’s, however, the average number of annual cyclones
increased to 10 (five hurricanes and 5 tropical storms). But in the
ten years between 1995 and 2005, the average number per year grew
to 15- eight hurricanes and seven tropical storms.

In the future, it is likely that tropical storm intensity will

continue to strengthen. Model simulations suggest that wind speeds
will increase by 1 to 8% and rainfall rates will increase by 6 to 18%
for every 1°C rise in sea surface temperatures (6). Therefore, as
climate change leads to progressively warmer ocean temperatures,
tropical storm intensity will increase as well.
Heat Waves
The consequence of an overall warmer atmosphere includes greater
numbers of heat waves and fewer periods of extreme cold. This is
because the excess emissions of greenhouse gases by humans
results in both warmer temperatures and a greater variability in the
weather, which can lead to extremes.

According to the WMO, though these severe heat waves are likely
to be found all over the world in the coming century, places in the
western U.S., northern Africa, central Asia, southern Africa, and
Australia are especially vulnerable .One of the most important effects
of a heat wave is the potential effect on human health. Illnesses that
are caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures include
cramps, fainting, and heatstroke, and these can eventually lead to
death. The key to preventing such illnesses is the accessibility of air
conditioning.
Floods and Drought

⮚ An increase in the frequency or intensity of floods would be

catastrophic in many low-lying places around the world. Asian
countries are particularly at risk, as low-lying areas (like river
deltas and small islands) are densely populated.
⮚ In Bangladesh alone, over 17 million people live at an elevation
of less than 3 ft (1 m) above sea level, and millions more inhabit
the flat banks of the Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers.
⮚ Another consideration is that poorer countries like Bangladesh do
not have the financial resources to relocate their citizens to lower
risk areas- nor are they able to create protective barriers.
 ⮚ And while an obvious impact of flooding is its ability to displace
millions of people, there is also the problem of maintaining a
clean water supply.
⮚ Floodwaters can contaminate drinking water, and sea level
rise can lead to the contamination of private wells, leading to
catastrophic results
⮚ While flooding is generally considered to be of greater concern for
poorer, developing countries, wealthier locations face their own set
of problems.
⮚ While average global rainfall is predicted to increase with climate
change, not every location on the planet would experience greater
rainfall.
⮚ Evaporation and precipitation occur at different places, and while
wet regions could receive even more rainfall if the planet warms,
drier regions may experience even more acute shortages of water
as evaporation is accelerated in those areas.
Climate Change Mitigation 

Climate Change Mitigation refers to efforts to reduce or

prevent emission of greenhouse gases. Mitigation can mean using
new technologies and renewable energies, making older equipment
more energy efficient, or changing management practices or
consumer behavior. It can be as complex as a plan for a new city, or as a
simple as improvements to a cook stove design. Efforts underway
around the world range from high-tech subway systems to bicycling
paths and walkways. Protecting natural carbon sinks like forests and
oceans, or creating new sinks through silviculture or green
agriculture are also elements of mitigation. UNEP takes a
multifaceted approach towards climate change mitigation in its efforts to
help countries move towards a low-carbon society.
Building resilience in soil
1. Soil health is the key property that determines the resilience of
crop production under changing climate. A number of interventions
are made to build soil carbon, control soil loss due to erosion and
enhance water holding capacity of soils, all of which build resilience
in soil. Mandatory soil testing is done in all villages to ensure
balanced use of chemical fertilizers. Improved methods of ferlizer
application, matching with crop requirement to reduce nitrous oxide
emission.
2 Adapted cultivars and cropping systems
Farmers in the villages traditionally grow local varieties of
different crops resulting in poor crop productivity due to heat,
droughts or floods. Hence, improved, early duration drought,
heat and flood tolerant varies are introduced for achieving
optimum yields despite climatic stresses.
3 Rainwater harvesting and recycling
Rainwater harvesting and recycling through farm ponds,
restoration of old rainwater harvesting structures in
dryland/rainfed areas, percolation ponds for recharging of open
wells, bore wells and injection wells for recharging ground water
are taken up for enhancing farm level water storage.

4 Water saving technologies Since climate variability manifests in

terms of deficit or excess water, major emphasis was laid on
introduction of water saving technologies like direct seeded rice,
 zero tillage and other resource conservation practices, which
also reduce GHG emissions besides saving of water.
5 Farm machinery (custom hiring) centers
Community managed custom hiring centers are setup in each
village to access farm machinery for timely sowing/planting. This is
an important intervention to deal with variable climate like delay in
monsoon, inadequate rains needing replanting of crops.
6 Crop contingency plans
To cope with climate variability, ICAR/CRIDA has developed
district level contingency plans for more than 400 rural districts in
country. Operationalization of these plans during aberrant monsoon
years through the district/ block level extension station helps
farmers cope with climate variability.
7 Livestock and fishery interventions
Use of community lands for fodder production during
droughts/floods, improved fodder/feed storage methods, feed
supplements, micronutrient use to enhance adaptation to heat
stress, preventive vaccination, improved shelters for reducing
heat/cold stress in livestock, management of fish ponds/tanks
during water scarcity and excess water are some key intervenons in
livestock/fishery sector.
8. Weather based agro advisories
Automatic weather stations at KVK experimental farms and mini-
weather observatories in project villages are established to record real
me weather parameters such as rainfall, temperature and wind speed
etc. both to issue customized agro advisories and improve weather
literacy among farmers.
9 Institutional interventions
 Institutional interventions either by strengthening the existing
ones or training new ones relating to seed bank, fodder bank, commodity
groups, custom hiring centre, collective marketing, introduction of
weather index based insurance and climate literacy through a
village level weather station are introduced to ensure effective
adoption of all other interventions and promote community ownership of
the entire programme.

Climate change mitigation consists of actions to limit the

magnitude or rate of long-term climate change. Climate change
mitigation generally involves reductions in human (anthropogenic)
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs).Mitigation may also be achieved
by increasing the capacity of carbon sinks, e.g.,
through reforestation. Mitigation policies can substantially reduce the
risks associated with human-induced global warming.

Examples of mitigation include switching to low-carbon energy

sources, such as renewable and nuclear energy, and expanding
forests and other "sinks" to remove greater amounts of carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere. Energy efficiency may also play a
role, for example, through improving the insulation of buildings. Another
approach to climate change mitigation is climate engineering.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC). The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilize
atmospheric concentrations of GHGs at a level that would prevent
dangerous human interference of the climate system.  In 2010, Parties
to the UNFCCC agreed that future global warming should be limited to
below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) relative to the pre-industrial level. This may be
revised with a target of limiting global warming to below 1.5 °C relative
to pre-industrial levels.
 Lect :3 .Climate change – global warming, sea level rise, ozone layer depletion
and acid rain
Global warming
⮚ Global warming is a phenomenon of climate change characterized
by a general increase in average temperatures of the Earth, which
modifies the weather balances and ecosystems for a long time. It is
directly linked to the increase of greenhouse gases in our
atmosphere, worsening the greenhouse effect.
⮚ Global warming is the extraordinary increase of Earth's surface
temperature due to the increase of greenhouse gases
concentration on the atmosphere.
⮚ Greenhouse gases are the heat-trapping gases in the atmosphere
(carbondioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and CFC). They are the
fundamental parts of the greenhouse effect,  the role played by the
atmosphere to continually warm the earth, by trapping some
portions of heat that came from the solar energy (sun radiation)
from reflecting back to space --- just like the work of a
greenhouse. 
⮚ Global warming is the increase of earth’s average surface
temperature due to the effect of greenhouse gases. These greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide and methane absorb heat that would
otherwise escape from earth. Global warming has emerged has one of
the biggest environmental issue in the two decades.
⮚ the earth’s temperature has increased by 0.8 degrees Celsius over the
past century. Human activities like burning of fossil
fuels, deforestation, industrialization and pollution are considered as
few of the factors responsible for global warming.
Fact 1: Global warming is the result of increase in the earth’s average
surface temperature due to greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and
methane. These gases are required for the presence of human life on
earth..
Fact 2: Emissions like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and other
greenhouses gases will remain in the atmosphere for many years
making impossible to eliminate global warming for several decades.
Fact 3: According to IPCC 2007 report, sea levels will rise by 7-23
inches by the end of this century due to global warming. The
rising sea levels due to global warming could threaten the lives of
people living along the coastal areas.
Fact 4: Since 1880, the average temperature has risen by 1.4-
Fahrenheitdegrees.
Fact 5: Due to global warming and pollution, coral reefs are
suffering the worst with the highest dying record since 1980.
Fact 6: Global warming that is causing extreme weather changes
has shown it implications in the way of forest fires, heat waves
and severe tropical storms throughout the world.
Fact 7: There has been a tremendous increase of water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane nitrous oxide and especially greenhouse gases due
to polluting substances emitted as a result of industrialization,
pollution, deforestation.
Fact 8: Humans are emitting more carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere, faster  than the absorbing rates of plants and the
oceans.
Fact 9: Around 100 million people live with 3 feet of sea level and
many cities of the world are located near such vulnerable coastal
areas.

Fact 10: Melting of glaciers will cause sea levels to rise on one hand
and water shortages in areas that depend on natural sources of water.
Fact 11: More than 1 million species have become extinct due to
disappearing habitats, ecosystems acidic oceans all caused due to
globalwarming.
Fact 12: Due to industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels like
coal, oil and gas started on a massive scale. This not only increased
greenhouse gases but was also responsible for large scale deaths due
to asthma and other respiratory diseases.
Fact 13: Global warming is causing the colder areas of the world
to become more hot, thereby becoming more vulnerable to
diseases.
Fact 14: Global warming can lead to massive food and water
shortages and has a life threatening impact on the wildlife.
Causes of Global Warming
Ozone layer depletion

Ozone is a particular gas present both in the Earth's upper

atmosphere and at ground level. There are two distinct types of
ozone; the Ground-level Ozone (or “bad” ozone) and the
Stratospheric Ozone (or “good” ozone layer)

Ground-level Ozone (GOL) is located in the troposphere, close

to the Earth's surface. It is the main ingredient of urban smog
that originates in emissions from industrial facilities and
electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and
chemical solvents. Ground level ozone is created by chemical
 reactions between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile
organic compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight.
Ground-level ozone is a harmful pollutant for humans.
Breathing ozone can trigger a variety of health problems
including chest pain, coughing, throat irritation, and
congestion or it can worsen bronchitis, emphysema (lung
infection) and asthma. Another aspect of the GLO is its
detrimental effect on the ecosystem as it can damage crops,
trees and other vegetation. It is responsible for an estimated
$500 million in reduced crop production each year in the
United States.
Natural causes of depletion of ozone layer: 
Ozone layer has been found to be affected by certain natural
phenomena such as Sun-spots and stratospheric winds.
But this has been found to cause not more than 1-2% depletion
of the ozone layer and the effects are also thought to be only
temporary.
Man-made causes of depletion of ozone layer: 
The main cause for the depletion of ozone is determined as

excessive release of chlorine and bromine from man-made

compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons, CH3CCl3 (Methyl
chloroform), CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-
chlorofluorocarbons), hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl
bromide are found to have direct impact on the depletion of the
ozone layer. These are categorized as ozone-depleting substances
(ODS).
 The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is
that they are not washed back in the form of rain on the earth
and in-fact remain in the atmosphere for quite a long time.
With so much stability, they are transported into the
stratosphere. The emission of ODS account for roughly 90% of
total depletion of ozone layer in stratosphere.
These gases are carried to the stratosphere layer of
atmosphere where ultraviolet radiations from the sun break
them to release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl
bromide and halons). The chlorine and bromine free radicals
react with ozone molecule and destroy their molecular structure,
thus depleting the ozone layer.
One chlorine atom can break more than 1, 00,000 molecules
of ozone. Bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more destructive
than chlorine molecules.

Main Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

It’s most extensively utilized ozone-depleting substance

because it attributes to more than 80% of overall ozone
depletion. It was utilized as a coolant in home appliances like
freezers, refrigerators and air conditioners in both buildings and
cars that were manufactured prior to 1995. This substance is
usually contained in dry cleaning agents, hospital sterilants, and
industrial solvents. The substance is also utilized in foam
products like mattresses and cushions and home insulation.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
 Hydrofluorocarbons have over the years served in place of
Chlorofluorocarbons. They are not as harmful as CFCs to ozone
layer.

Halons
It’s especially used in selected fire extinguishers in
scenarios where the equipment or material could be devastated by
water or extinguisher chemicals.
Carbon Tetrachloride
Also used in selected fire extinguishers and solvents.
Methyl Chloroform
Commonly utilized in industries for cold cleaning, vapor
degreasing, chemical processing, adhesives and some aerosols.
Serious Effects of Ozone Depletion
1. Damage to human health
If the ozone layer is depleted, it means humans will be overly
exposed to strong UV light. Overexposure to strong UV light
causes skin cancer, cataracts, sunburns, weakening of immune
system and quick aging.
2. Devastation to environment
Many crops species are vulnerable to strong UV light and
overexposure may well lead to minimal growth, photosynthesis
and flowering. Some of the crop species vulnerable to UV light
include barley, wheat, corn, oats, rice, broccoli, tomatoes,
cauliflower just to name a few. Forests equally bear the brunt of
ozone depletion.
2. Threat to marine life
 Certain marine life, especially planktons, is greatly
impacted by exposure to strong ultraviolet rays. In the aquatic
food chain, planktons appear high up. If planktons decrease in
number due to ozone layer destruction, the marine food chain
would be disrupted in many ways. Also, overexposure of sun rays
could reduce the fortunes of fishers. On top of that, certain
species of marine life have been greatly affected by overexposure
to ultraviolet radiation at their early stage.
3. Effect on animals
In domesticated animals, too much Ultraviolet radiation
could also lead to skin and eye cancer.
4. Impacts certain materials
Materials like plastics, wood, fabrics, rubber are massively
degraded by too much ultraviolet radiation
Solutions to Ozone Depletion
1. Desist from using pesticides
Pesticides are great chemicals to rid your farm of pests and
weeds, but they contribute enormously to ozone layer depletion..
Just weed your farm manually and use alternative eco-
friendly chemicals to alleviate pests.
2. Discourage driving of private vehicles
The easiest technique to minimize ozone depletion is to
limit the number of vehicles on the road. These vehicles emit a
lot of greenhouse gases that eventually form smog, a catalyst in
the depletion of ozone layer.
3. Utilize environmentally friendly cleaning products
Most household cleaning products are loaded with harsh
chemicals that find way to the atmosphere, eventually contributing
to degradation of the ozone layer. Use natural
and environmentally friendly cleaning products to arrest this
situation.
4. Prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide
The Montreal Protocol formed in 1989 helped a lot in the
limitation of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). However, the protocol
never covered nitrous oxide, which is a known harmful chemical
that can destroy the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide is still in use
today. Governments must take action now and outlaw nitrous
oxide use to reduce the rate of ozone depletion.

Acid rain

Acid rain is the kind of precipitation that contains larger

amounts of acid than normal. Rainwater is usually slightly
acidic, with pH level between 5 and 6. Water that evaporates
from earth is neutral (pH 7) and it becomes weak acid when
mixed with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes
any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as
sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the
atmosphere in wet or dry forms.  This can include rain, snow,
fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.  
Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and transported
by wind and air currents.  The SO2 and NOX react with water,
oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids.
These then mix with water and other materials before falling to
the ground.
 Acid rain contains more pH than ordinary. This is caused by
the presence of air pollutants, like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides. They produce acids if combined with water. Acid rain can
occur naturally, from the volcanic eruptions. However we are also
causing this, from the emission of vehicles and of industrial
plants that include the burning of fossil fuels. If we continue to
increase rate of air pollution, we are increasing the risk of acid
rain to happen.
While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid
rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes, most of it comes
from the burning of fossil fuels.  The major sources of SO2 and
NOX in the atmosphere are:
● Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity.  Two thirds of
SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere come from electric
power generators.
● Vehicles and heavy equipment.
● Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

What's the impact of acid rain?

● Deteriorates building that is made of rock
● Acidification of soil and lakes
● Separation of poisonous minerals such as aluminum and

mercury from the surrounding ground, increasing the risk

of contamination to lakes/water sources
● Deteriorates trees and forests.
Lect:4. Environmental pollution causes, effects and control
Environmental pollution is the release of chemical waste that causes
detrimental effects on the environment. Environmental pollution is often
divided into pollution of water supplies, the atmosphere, and the soil.

Pollution
Definition
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an
environment that causes disorder, harm or discomfort to the
ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living organisms. Pollution can
take the form of chemical substances, or energy, such as
noise, heat, or light energy. Pollutants, the elements of
pollution, can be foreign substances or energies, or naturally
occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered
contaminants when they exceed natural levels.

Introduction
There are two types of the cause of pollution, natural and man-
made. Natural pollution occurs naturally and won't cause
excessive harm to our lives due to its regeneration ability.
While the man-made pollution is caused by human activities,
and hard to get rid of. The backbones of man-made pollution are
human population and technology. Naturally human needs
contact to the environment, we get resources from nature. This is
for the sake of living.
Pollution is a growing pain.

Pollution is not a problem that came suddenly from the sky;

it's our fault and has been a part of our life through many
years. There are 6 (six) types of pollution namely air, water,
noise, land, radioactive, and thermal.

Air Pollution
Water Pollution
Land Pollution
Noise Pollution
Radioactive Pollution
Thermal Pollution
Soil pollution
Soil pollution, involves the following mechanism:

⮚ Deposition of solid waste

⮚ Accumulation of non-biodegradable materials

⮚ Toxification of chemicals into poisons

⮚ Alteration of soil chemical composition (imbalance of chemical

equilibrium to soil medium)

⮚ By as much, land pollution of this has a mass globally,

everyday threatening the very foundation and mechanical
support of every matter on earth.

Statistically, it has been shown that:

loss of 6 million hectares of land per year
loss of 24 billion tons of topsoil per year
loss of minimum 15 million acres prime agricultural land to
overuse and mismanagement

The causes for such soil pollution are:

⮚ Unhealthy soil management methods;

⮚ Improper tillage of soil in which excessive tillage result in the
deterioration of soil structure
⮚ Non-maintenance of a proper supply of organic matter in
the soil from the imbalance composition of the reserves of
organic matter
 ⮚ Irregular maintenance of a proper nutrient supply of trace
elements gives rise to the use of excessive synthetic
fertilizers, which are non biodegradable and accumulate in the
soil system which eventually destroys useful organisms such as
bacteria, fungi and other organisms
⮚ Improper irrigation practices;

⮚ Poorly drained soil result in salt deposits leading to high soil

salinity that inhibit plant growth and may lead to crop failure

⮚ Unirrigated land giving rise to stagnation of agriculture

waste products which accumulates and increases land toxicity
and also decreasing

⮚ Irregular irrigation leads to decreasing moisturization of

land for soil medium and replenishments of solvents for
minerals.

Soil and Water Pollution

⮚ Causes cancers including leukaemia

⮚ Lead in soil is especially hazardous for young children causing
developmental damage to the brain
⮚ Mercury can increase the risk of kidney damage; cyclodienes
can lead to liver toxicity
⮚ Causes neuromuscular blockage as well as depression of the
central nervous system
⮚Also causes headaches, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin
rash
⮚Contamination of crops grown in polluted soil brings up problems
with food security

⮚Since it is closely linked to water pollution, many effects of soil

contamination appear to be similar to the ones caused by water
contamination

Agriculture measures to Control of Soil Pollution

1. Use of pesticides should be minimized.

2. Use of fertilizers should be judicious.
3. Cropping techniques should be improved to prevent growth of
weeds.
4. Special pits should be selected for dumping wastes.
5. Controlled grazing and forest management.
6. Wind breaks and wind shield in areas exposed to wind erosion
7. Planning of soil binding grasses along banks and slopes prone to
rapid erosion. 
8. Afforestation and reforestation.

Water pollution

Water pollution is contamination of water by foreign

matter that deteriorates the quality of the water. Water pollution
covers pollutions in liquid forms like ocean pollution and river
pollution. As the term applies, liquid pollution occurs in the
oceans, lakes, streams, rivers, underground water and bays,
in short liquid-containing areas. It involves the release of toxic
substances, pathogenic germs, substances that require much
oxygen to decompose, easy-soluble substances, radioactivity,
etc. that becomes deposited upon the bottom and their
accumulations will interfere with the condition of aquatic
ecosystems. For example, the eutrophication: lack of oxygen in a
water body caused by excessive algae growths because of
enrichment of pollutants.

Water Pollution effects

Cancer, incl. prostate cancer
Hormonal problems that can disrupt reproductive and
developmental processes
Damage to the nervous system
Liver and kidney damage
Damage to the DNA
Exposure to mercury (heavy metal):
In the womb: may cause neurological problems including slower
reflexes, learning deficits, delayed or incomplete mental
development, autism and brain damage
In adults: Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s
disease, heart disease, and even death
Damage to people may be caused by fish foods coming from
polluted water (a well known example is high mercury levels in
fish)

Damage to people may be caused by vegetable crops grown /

washed with polluted water (author’s own conclusion)
Air pollution
Air pollution is indication of disturbances to the composition
of compounds in the atmosphere, as it may be summarized as
shown:
● Excess emission of gases/vapors into atmosphere.
● Saturation of chemical compounds/particulates.
● Rate of dissipation < (smaller than) rate of absorption
through various cycles (i.e. carbon and nitrogen cycle).
● Emergence of new chemical reactions of reactive and non-
biodegradable compounds.
● Global warming, acid rain, smog, ozone depletion are some
effects of air pollution.
These 2 cycles are the most important of all, regulating the
composition of carbon and nitrogen of Earth. motor vehicle
exhaust , heat and power generation facilities, industrial
processes, auto manufacturing, fertilizers plants, building
demolition ,solid waste disposal, solvent evaporation, volcanic
eruption, fuel production, roadway construction, electrical
components manufacturing, extraction of metals, forest fires,
agriculture.

Air Pollution Effects on Humans

Pollution causes not only physical disabilities but also

psychological and behavioral disorders in people.
Reduced lung functioning.
Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat, Asthma attacks.
Respiratory symptoms such as coughing and wheezing.
Increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis
Reduced energy levels, Headaches and dizziness
Disruption of endocrine, reproductive and immune systems
Neurobehavioral disorders, Cardiovascular problems
Cancer, Premature death.
Effects of Air Pollution on Animals

Acid rain (formed in the air) destroys fish life in lakes and
streams.
Excessive ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun through the
ozone layer in the upper atmosphere which is eroded by some air
pollutants, may cause skin cancer in wildlife.
Ozone in the lower atmosphere may damage lung tissues of
animals.
Air Pollution also Effects on Trees and Plants

Impact of Air Pollution and UV Radiation on Human Health

It is estimated that air pollution causes several hundred

thousand deaths a year around the world. Even with the US
Clean Air Act, among the most stringent air quality laws in the
world, as many as fifty thousand Americans annually die
prematurely as a result of air pollution. Perhaps the leading
cause of air pollution related death in both industrialized and
developing countries that cause respiratory failure.

Lead emissions from gasoline have impaired intelligence of

children and this realization has caused many countries to move
toward a phase out of lead in fuels. Sulfur dioxide emissions
may place asthmatics and others with respiratory disease at
risk.