HKS123 - INTRODUCTION TO SPORTS SCIENCE

UNIT 1
Sports Science
Interested in sport and learning more about how the body works? Sports science is an exciting
subject, which could pave the way to a variety of careers....

What is sports science?

Sports science is the application of scientific principles to exercise and sport. It's a rapidly
expanding area and should open the door to a range of jobs in the pharmaceutical, healthcare,
fitness and leisure industries.

What do sports science courses cover?

Most sports sciences courses teach a combination of these subjects:
Biomechanics: exploring the causes and effects of human movement and the way in which the
body interacts with exercise equipment.
Physiology: the branch of the biological sciences that is concerned with the way that the body
responds to exercise and training.
Psychology: the branch of sport and exercise science that seeks to provide answers to
questions about human behaviour in sport and exercise settings.

What is Sports Science?

Sports Science (and Exercise Science) is an academic subject that includes the scientific study of
Physiology, Psychology, Motor Control/Learning, and Biomechanics.
There is as much science in good sport and exercise sciences degrees (undergraduate-courses/)
as there is in good chemistry, biology or psychology degrees.

Sports science: multidisciplinary study of key sciences...

Four main sciences are key to the study of sport science. These are physiology, psychology,
motor control/learning, and biomechanics and they are applied across the spectrum of sport
involvement in most good degree courses. By understanding how humans perform, sport and
exercise scientists can design, monitor and evaluate training programmes to help athletes and
coaches to reach their maximum potential. Alternatively, they may study the physiological
responses to exercise from a health perspective; the psychological benefits and barriers of
exercise in sedentary people, the psychological skills used by Olympic champions, the
movement patterns of a child learning to walk or the movement dynamics of a full-in double-
back somersault in gymnastics. Furthermore, many sports and exercise scientists specialize in
learning how physical activity can help the prevention and treatment of major chronic diseases
such as rheumatoid, arthritis, cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer and
osteoporosis.

What is a good Sports Science course like?

1
Good sports science courses (undergraduate-courses/), and good sports scientists, consider all
the constituent sciences as an integrated discipline. For example, you would not only consider
the biomechanical dynamics of a movement but the physiological and psychological
requirements as well. None of the disciplines can provide the best solution to a problem in
isolation and most advanced sports teams have the full spectrum of sports scientists working
together to support the team.
An essential underlying component of a good sports science degree is its research skills content.
For example, it will include research philosophy, research design and methods, and
computational statistics. Courses throughout the UK vary in terms of the depth they cover in
this area. This directly affects the quality of the research projects that students have the
opportunity to complete in their final years, their ability to interpret critically published work,
as well as the quality of preparation that it provides for post-graduate studies. So, if you're
choosing a degree programme in sport and exercise science, make sure that you will be taught
by a strong research team.

Sports Science - continuing your studies....

Students can continue their studies beyond undergraduate level on an M.Sc. programme, a
taught
Sports M.Sc. programme (m.sc. php.en), a Masters by research (MRes (mres.php.en)/MPhil
(phd.php.en) or a Ph.D. (phd.php.en) at an increasing number of institutions around the UK.
The established Universities such as Bangor have been graduating undergraduates as well as
postgraduates for over 30 years and offer all these degrees. Some of the taught Masters
courses include supervisory experience, currently a fundamental stage for gaining British
Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES) accreditation or are British Psychological
Society (BPS) accredited depending on your chosen discipline.

2
UNIT 2

The Biological Basis of Life

Cell structure
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. The human body is composed of trillions of
cells. They provide structure for the body, take in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients
into energy, and carry out specialized functions. Cells also contain the body's hereditary
material and can make copies of themselves.
Cells have many parts, each with a different function. Some of these parts, called organelles,
are specialized structures that perform certain tasks within the cell. Human cells contain the
following major parts, listed in alphabetical order:

Cytoplasm: Within cells, the cytoplasm is made up of a jelly-like fluid (called the cytosol) and
other structures that surround the nucleus.

Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is a network of long fibres that make up the cell's structural
framework. The cytoskeleton has several critical functions, including determining cell shape,
participating in cell division, and allowing cells to move. It also provides a track-like system that
directs the movement of organelles and other substances within cells.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): This organelle helps process molecules created by the cell. The
endoplasmic reticulum also transports these molecules to their specific destinations either
inside or outside the cell.

Golgi apparatus: The Golgi apparatus packages molecules processed by the endoplasmic
reticulum to be transported out of the cell.

Lysosomes and peroxisomes: These organelles are the recycling center of the cell. They digest
foreign bacteria that invade the cell, rid the cell of toxic substances, and recycle worn-out cell
components.

Mitochondria: Mitochondria are complex organelles that convert energy from food into a form
that the cell can use. They have their own genetic material, separate from the DNA in the
nucleus, and can make copies of themselves.

Nucleus: The nucleus serves as the cell's command center, sending directions to the cell to
grow, mature, divide, or die. It also houses DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the cell's hereditary
material. The nucleus is surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope, which
protects the DNA and separates the nucleus from the rest of the cell.

Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is the outer lining of the cell. It separates the cell
from its environment an allows materials to enter and leave the cell.

3
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are organelles that process the cell's genetic instructions to create
proteins. These organelles can float freely in the cytoplasm or be connected to the endoplasmic
reticulum.

Human Chromosome
Chromosome is derived from two words, 'chroma' which means "colour" and "soms" which
means body. So, chromosome simply means coloured thread-like or filamentous body which
are present in the nucleoplasm of living cells that are in the nucleus of living cells. Basically,
they are carriers of genes and genes are units of heredity that means they help in inheritance or
transmission of characters from one generation to the next. Chromosomes were first observed
in plant cells by Karl Wilhelm VonNageli in 1842 and their behaviour was described first by
Walther Flemming in 1882.

Chromosome:
Chromosome is made up of proteins and nucleic acid (DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid).
Structurally, chromosome is made up of two chromatids, that means two arms, double
stranded DNA and protein, and these two double strands are bound together at the primary
constriction which is called a Centromere.
Therefore, a Centromere usually divides the chromosome into two arms. One of the arms is
comparatively short, another arm maybe comparatively long or maybe equal. But if one arm is
short and the other arm is long, the shorter arm is called P arm and the longer arm is called Q

4
arm. In a chromosome, the P arms are always arranged in a top orientation or position,
whereas the Q arms face downwards.

It is a well-known and established fact that human beings have 46 chromosomes or 23 pairs.
Coming to the human Somatic (body) cells, it has two complete sets of chromosomes, one set
given by each parent. These two sets together constitute the diploid condition represented by
2n that means one n given by mother and the other n by the father constituting 2n in diploid
condition. Therefore, 2n chromosomes in humans are 46 in number.

Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis

Most human cells are frequently reproduced and replaced during the life of an individual.
However, the process varies with the kind of cell. Somatic, or body cells, such as those that
make up skin, hair, and muscle, are duplicated by mitosis. One grows from a single embryonic
cell to a fully-fledged person through mitosis. Even after one has grown, mitosis replaces cells
lost through everyday wear and tear. The constant replenishment of your skin cells, for
example, occurs through mitosis. Mitosis takes place in cells in all parts of our body, keeping
your tissues and organs in good working order.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is quite different. It shuffles the genetic deck, generating daughter
cells that are distinct from one another and from the original parent cell. Although virtually all
of our cells can undergo mitosis, only a few special cells are capable of meiosis: those that will
become eggs in females and sperm in males. So, basically, mitosis is for growth and
maintenance, while meiosis is for sexual reproduction.

Cell division involves the distribution of identical genetic material, DNA, to two daughter cells.
What is most remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed along, without dilution or
error, from one generation to the next.
5
Cell Cycle
All cells are produced by divisions of pre-existing cell. Continuity of life depends on cell division.
A cell born after a division, proceeds to grow by macromolecular synthesis, reaches a species
determined division size and divides. This cycle acts as a unit of biological time and defines life
history of a cell. Cell cycle can be defined as entire sequence of events happening from the end
of one nuclear division to the beginning of the next. The cell cycle involves the following three
cycles;
1. Chromosome cycle
In it, DNA synthesis alternates with mitosis (or karyokinesis or nuclear division). During DNA
synthesis., each double-helical DNA molecule is replicated into two identical daughter DNA
molecules and during mitosis the duplicated copies of the genome are ultimately separated.
2. Cytoplasmic cycle
In it, cell growth alternates with cytokinesis (or cytoplasmic division). During cell growth many
other components of the cell (RNA, proteins and membranes) become double in quantity and
during cytokinesis, cell as a whole divides into two. Usually, the karyokinesis is followed by the
cytokinesis but sometimes the cytokinesis does not follow the karyokinesis and results into the
multinucleate cell, e.g., cleavage of egg in Drosophila.
3. Centrosome Cycle
Both of the above cycles require that the centrosome can be inherited reliably and duplicated
precisely in order to form two poles of the mitotic spindle; thus, centrosome cycle forms the
third component of cell cycle.

Mitosis
Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two daughter cells with the same
genetic component as the parent cell. The term mitosis was introduced by Walther Fleming
(1882).
Chromosomes replicated during the Synthetic phase are divided in such a way as to ensure that
each daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome. In actively dividing animal cells, the
whole process takes about one hour. The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic
apparatus' that aligns them and then separates the sister chromatids to produce an even
partitioning of the genetic material. This separation of the genetic material in a mitotic nuclear
division (known as karyokinesis) is followed by a separation of the cell cytoplasm in a cellular
division (known as cytokinesis) to produce two daughter cells.
Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,
prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. (Greek: pro means before; meta means
middle; ana means back; telo means end).

Meiosis
The term meiosis (Greek: "meioum" means to reduce or to diminish) was coined by J.B. Farmer
in 1905. It is a specialized form of cell division in which the number of chromosomes is reduced
to half. Meiosis produces a total of four haploid cells from each original diploid cell. These
haploid cells either become or give rise to gametes, which through union (fertilization) supports
sexual reproduction and a new generation of diploid organism.
6
Tissues, organs and systems
Tissues
Human cells form tissues, like muscle tissue. A living tissue is made from a group of cells with a
similar structure and function, which all work together to do a particular job. Here are some
examples of tissues: muscle, the lining of the intestine, the lining of the lungs, etc.

Organs
An organ is made from a group of different tissues, which all work together to do a particular
job. Here are some examples of organs: heart, lung, stomach, brain, etc.

Organ systems
An organ system is made from a group of different organs, which all work together to do a
particular job. Here are some examples of organ systems: circulatory system, respiratory
system, digestive system, nervous system, reproductive system, etc.

GENERAL RULES PERTINENT TO PHYSICAL AND MOTOR GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Physical development and growth are influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
For example, malnutrition can delay a child's physical development significantly. On the other
hand, according to the University of Minnesota, the role of some environmental factors, such as
the amount of exercise the child is getting, has a much smaller effect on physical development
than was previously thought.

Genetics
When a child is born, he has a unique set of genetic instructions that influence his physical
growth. According to the University of Minnesota, genetics have a strong effect on rate of
growth, the size of body parts and the onset of growth events. In one study, Dr. Stefan A.
7
Czerwinski and colleagues followed their subjects for thirty years. By using such parental
measurements as height and weight, these scientists were able to predict quite accurately the
approximate height and weight of their subjects at the age of thirty. Other factors found to be
closely linked to their parental values were blood pressure and body fat percentage, as well as
muscle and total body mass. The study was published in the "American Journal of Human
Biology" in September 2007.

Environment
Genetics alone, however, cannot determine the physical development of the child. The
Minnesota Twin Studies have shown, for example, even identical twins who share the same
genes can grow up to be of different height if they are raised in different environments. Such
environmental factors as nutrition can affect physical growth significantly. According to the
United Nations University, malnutrition can delay physical growth and development. It can also
affect the quality and texture of bones and teeth, the size of body parts and delay the
adolescent growth spurt. If the child gets better nutrition later on, she may be able to catch up,
depending on how severe the malnutrition was. Besides diet, other environmental factors such
as climate and toxins can also affect physical development.

Chronic Illnesses
Serious, chronic illness and surgeries have been shown to have a negative effect on a child's
physical development. Dr. M. L. Cepeda and colleagues, for example, studied 30 subjects with
homozygous sickle cell disease from age eight through 19. In their study, published in the
"Journal of the National Medical Association" in January 2000, the authors reported that their
subjects were significantly shorter and of lower weight than their healthy controls. The sexual
development was also delayed in adolescents with sickle cell disease.

PHYSICAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Every child develops at a different rate. Some children can do certain physical tasks before their
peers can, but this can be normal. However, there are physical factors that can influence how a
child develops.

Gross Motor Development

Gross motor development is the child's ability to move about and use the various parts of the
body to achieve physical tasks. Crawling is normally accomplished by 8 to 12 months and
walking and running by 18 months. A child who is physically unable to play, run and jump will
lose tone in his/her muscles, which will cause him/her to become weak. As a result, such child
will be less able to do things that other children of similar age have no difficulty doing.

Fine Motor Development

Fine motor development is a term used to describe more finite movements a child does with
the hands. However, fine motor skills are hard to ascertain in children under 2 years of age.
Holding a pair of scissors and cutting paper is an example of a fine motor skill that a 3-year-old
should be able to do. Without fine motor skills, a child is unable to use the hands and perform
8
tasks, and this can influence how he/she develops. A child with fine motor difficulty may fall
behind other children of similar age and may be unable to keep up in school. He/she may need
special assistance to complete tasks that other children can do with ease, such as using a spoon
and fork properly, copying a circle or drawing a person with a head, which most 3-year-olds can
do.

Vision Problems and Eye-Hand Coordination

A child who suffers from vision problems may have difficulty developing properly. He/she may
have difficulty running and playing with friends, may have difficulty eating, putting clothes on or
tying shoe laces. If a child cannot see properly, he/she is not going to have good eye-hand
coordination. A lack of eye-hand coordination will make a child unable to physically coordinate
the task that his/her eyes see. This can make him/her fall behind classmates, and mental
development may be affected.

GENETIC DETERMINANTS OF PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE

The determinants of human athletic performance have long been a challenging field of study in
sport sciences. Sports performance is an enormously complex phenomenon, and is determined
by numerous intrinsic (e.g., genetics, motor behaviour, physiological and psychological profile)
and extrinsic factors (e.g., training, nutrition, development opportunities and overall health
conditions) as well as by the interaction between them. Although it is impossible to set a unique
formula to make anyone becoming a successful athlete, it is widely accepted that any individual
who is highly committed and dedicated to training is able to improve athletic performance.
Likewise, to be a top-level athlete, several years of dedication to an organized and rigid training
system is indeed a prerequisite, although not a guarantee of success. However, a few athletes
seem to be exceptionally gifted and demonstrate extraordinarily high-performance levels even
before taking part in training programs; some athletes demonstrate better responses to
training than others, or may be able to consistently sustain high levels of performance over
their competitive career.

Despite the awareness of the genetic influences on competitive success, genetics of sports
performance is a quite recent area of investigation. As a consequence, the currently available
knowledge is largely incipient and some authors consider we are at infant stages of the area.
Hence, every effort aiming at improving our understanding on this phenomenon is of great
importance.

High-level sports performance is an extremely complex phenotype and genetic background is

only one of its multiple contributory factors. It is likely that the contribution of heritability to a
particular phenotype will largely depend on the specific sport discipline, among other factors.
Even if only the genetic factors are considered, sports success remains an extremely complex
phenomenon because it is a multi-genic trait.

9
Phenotypic traits are observable characteristics controlled by genes. Thus, a given genotype
affects a given phenotype to some extent. Some traits are controlled by one single gene, and
they are referred to as monogenic traits.
Genetic influences on quantitative traits and sports performance
Sports performance is an extremely complex phenotypic trait, which is in turn influenced,
although not determined, by many other traits, such as muscle fibre type distribution, aerobic
power and capacity, anaerobic power and capacity, and trainability of physical capacities. Most
traits that are relevant to sports performance are quantitative, meaning that they are possible
to be measured and quantified. Some examples of quantitative traits that are relevant to
physical performance are: body composition, aerobic power and muscle strength. In some
cases, the final outcome of sport performance can also be a quantitative trait. For examples,
swimming distance times, running races, jumps, throws and all other sports in which final
performance is quantifiable can be considered quantitative traits. In other cases, however,
sports performance "per se" is not a quantitative trait. This is the case of unpredictable sports,
such as team sports, individual sports that depend on natures' conditions (e.g., surfing and
sailing) and individual sports that depend on opponents' actions (e.g., combat sports).

Theoretically, some performance-relevant quantitative traits are strongly influenced by genetic

factors, which is also the case of some "predictable sports". On the other hand, other traits as
well as "unpredictable sports" are less influenced by genetic factors and, therefore, genotype-
phenotype relationships are less likely to be established.

10
11
UNIT 3
Exercise and Health
Exercise involves engaging in physical activity and increasing the heart rate beyond resting
levels. It is an important part of preserving physical and mental health. Whether people engage
in light exercise, such as going for a walk, or high intensity activities, for example, uphill cycling
or weight training, regular exercise provides a huge range of benefits for the body and mind.
Taking part in exercise of any intensity every day is essential for preventing a range of diseases
and other health issues.

The different types of exercise and their benefits, as well as the considerations for designing a
fitness regime are explained below.

Types and benefits

People divide exercise into four (4) broad categories:
 Aerobic
 Anaerobic
 Agility training
 Stretching and flexibility

Each of these categories are explained below.

Aerobic Exercise
Aerobic exercise aims to improve how the body uses oxygen. Most aerobic exercise takes place
at average levels of intensity over longer periods. An aerobic exercise session involves warming
up, exercising for at least 20 minutes, and then cooling down. Aerobic exercise mostly uses
large muscle groups.

Aerobic exercise provides the following benefits:

 Improves muscle strength in the lungs, heart, and whole body
 Lowers blood pressure
 Improves circulation and blood flow in the muscles
 Increases the red blood cell count to enhance oxygen transportation
 Reduces the risk of diabetes, stroke, and cardiovascular disease (CVD)
 Improves life expectancy and symptoms for people with coronary artery diseases
 Stimulates bone growth and reduces the risk of osteoporosis when at high intensity
 Improves sleep hygiene
 Enhances stamina by increasing the body’s ability to store energy molecules, such as
fats and carbohydrates, within muscle.

Anaerobic Exercise
Anaerobic exercise does not use oxygen for energy. People use this type of exercise to build
power, strength, and muscle mass. These exercises are high-intensity activities that should last

12
no longer than around 2 minutes. Anaerobic exercises include: weightlifting, sprinting, intensive
and fast skipping with a rope, interval training, isometrics, any rapid burst of intense activity.
While all exercise benefits the heart and lungs, anaerobic exercise provides fewer benefits for
cardiovascular health than aerobic exercise and uses fewer calories. However, it is more
effective than aerobic exercise for building muscle and improving strength.
Increasing muscle mass causes the body to burn more fat, even when resting. Muscle is the
most efficient tissue for burning fat in the body.

Agility Training
Agility training aims to improve a person’s ability to maintain control while speeding up,
slowing down, and changing direction. In tennis, for example, agility training helps a player
maintain control over their court positioning through good recovery after each shot. People
who take part in sports that heavily rely on positioning, coordination, speed, and balance need
to engage in agility training regularly.
The following sports are examples of ones that require agility: tennis, American football,
hockey, badminton, volleyball, basketball, soccer, martial arts, boxing, wrestling.

Stretching and Flexibility

Some exercises combine stretching, muscle conditioning, and balance training. A popular and
effective example is yoga.
Yoga movements improve balance, flexibility, posture, and circulation.
The practice originated in India thousands of years ago and aims to unify the mind, body, and
spirit. Modern yoga uses a combination of meditation, posture, and breathing exercises to
achieve the same goals. A yoga practitioner can tailor a course for individual needs.
A person looking to manage arthritis might need gentle stretches to improve mobility and
function. Someone with depression, on the other hand, may need more emphasis on the
relaxation and deep breathing elements of yoga.
Pilates is another stretching option that promotes flexibility and core strength. Tai chi is also an
effective option for exercise that promotes calm stretching rather than intensity.

Risks of not Exercising

A sedentary lifestyle can increase the risk of the following health problems:
 Cardiovascular disease
 Type 2 diabetes
 Cancer
 Osteoporosis
It can also contribute to an increased risk of premature death from all causes, including the
complications of being overweight and obesity.
In many parts of the world, including the United States, the number of overweight and obese
people continues to increase rapidly.
According to the most recent National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, that
researchers did in 2013–2014 across the U.S., more than 2 in 3 adults are overweight or

13
obesity. The same survey found that around 1 in 13 adults have extreme obesity and face an
increased risk of severe health complications.

Finding Time to Exercise

Fitting exercise into a busy schedule can be a roadblock to a successful regime. However,
people do not need to dedicate large amounts of extra time to exercise to see the benefits.
Here are some tips for fitting physical activity in a busy schedule:
 See which car journeys you can replace with walking or cycling. Is driving to work
necessary? If so, try parking half a mile away from the office and walking the final bit.
 People who commute to work by public transport could try getting off their bus or train
a few stops early and walking the rest of the way.
 Consider walking up and down the stairs at your office instead of taking elevators or
escalators.
 Try to think about the amount of time spent watching television and avoid binge-
watching TV shows. While watching television for extended periods, light exercises, such
as stomach crunches or jumping jacks, can help a person include more physical activity
in their day.
 If a person enjoys video games, they could consider playing games that encourage
physical activity, such as exercise routines on a Nintendo Wii.
 Vigorous housework, gardening, and going up and down the stairs while doing chores
also qualify as physical activity and can help people meet the guidelines productively.
 People will likely gain the most benefit from exercises they enjoy that fit their lifestyle.
 Some of the examples below are the easiest to fit into a daily routine:
 Go for a brisk 30-minute walk five times every week.
 Walk your dog more often or go for walks and jogs with friends.
 Try to add swimming to your weekly routine, even if it is not every day.
 Join some exercise classes that are fun, collaborative, and educational.
 Become a member of a martial arts club. Beginner’s sessions can be gentle and fun.

Exercise is sometimes a gradual learning curve. A person should spread sessions across the
week and scale up the intensity slowly.
It is important for people to ensure they drink plenty of water during and after exercise.
Checking with a doctor is a good precaution to take if someone has a health condition or injury
that could impact exercise levels, or that exercise could make worse.
While a combination of aerobic and anaerobic exercise provides the most benefit, any exercise
is better than none for people who currently have an inactive lifestyle.

Guidelines
Current U.S. guidelines recommend that people do one of the following:
 At least 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise a week
 A minimum of 75–150 minutes of vigorous-intensity, aerobic physical activity
 A combination of the two types of exercise

14
Toward these goals, it is worth remembering that even 10-minute bursts of physical activity
during the day provide health benefits.

Tips for starting

Exercise may be difficult to maintain for some people. Consider the following tips to achieve
long-term success:
1. Have a clear goal: Whether for health reasons or otherwise, try to always keep in mind the
reason you started increasing your exercise levels.
2. Work at your own pace: Doing too much too quickly can increase the risk of injury and the
chance to develop a stable routine. Set targets based on the goals you established at the start
of the regimen and celebrate small wins to boost confidence.
3. Enjoy yourself: A regimen is more sustainable if a person enjoys the physical activities that it
involves.
4. Join a club with a friend: If you join a fitness club with a friend, or exercise with a friend, you
may enjoy the sessions more. Some people prefer not to have the stress of someone else
around. This depends on you.
5. Trainers and teachers can be helpful: People just starting a regimen or looking to step up
their routine may benefit from a personal trainer or teacher. They can provide motivation and
guidance, helping people track their goals and stay dedicated.
6. Vary your exercises: Change your exercise program every few weeks. Mixing it up can help a
person work on different muscle groups and increase the range of benefits. If you enjoy one
particular exercise, such as running, try changing the speed and distance of a run, or follow a
different route with more hills.
7. Make it a habit: After a few weeks of regularity, an exercise routine starts to become a habit,
even if you find it difficult or boring at first.
The benefits of regular physical activity are wide-reaching and should form a part of every
person’s day to help them remain healthy.

BIOLOGICAL FITNESS
In everyday life, the term 'fitness' is used in relation to exercise, diet, and overall well-being. In
biology, it refers less to how healthy an individual is, and more to the number of babies he or
she makes.

Definition of Biological Fitness

In nature, fitness does not refer to how many miles someone can run or much he or she can lift,
but rather how many babies he or she can produce in a lifetime. Biological fitness, also
called Darwinian fitness, means the ability to survive to reproductive age, find a mate, and
produce offspring.

Basically, the more offspring an organism produces during its lifetime, the greater its biological
fitness. Given that differences in survival and number of offspring produced depend mainly on

15
an individual's DNA, biological fitness is usually discussed in terms of most and least successful
genes, or characteristics.

Measures of Biological Fitness

Biological fitness is a relative measure. One individual is said to be more fit than another if it
produces more offspring throughout its life. The fitness of a whole population can also be
determined by averaging the fitness of its members. Absolute fitness is the ratio between the
number of individuals with a genotype before selection versus after selection.

Fitness is usually discussed in terms of genotypes, or collection of genes. Genotype fitness is the

average fitness of all individuals in a population that have a specific genotype. The genotype
with the highest absolute fitness has a relative fitness of one. For other, less fit genotypes, the
relative fitness of genotype X equals the absolute fitness of genotype X divided by the absolute
fitness of the most successful genotype.

Examples of Biological Fitness

Large elephant seal males have greater biological fitness than smaller ones. Not only are they
more likely to survive to reproductive age because their size helps them get food, claim
territory, and evade predators, they also produce the most offspring because they dominate
over other males in fights for the females.
On the other hand, a phenotype, or observable genetic trait which has low biological fitness in
the wild, is albinism. In nature, albino individuals, like the bullfrog in the picture, are highly
likely to get eaten by predators before they reach reproductive age because they can't
camouflage. Therefore, they don't often live long enough to produce offspring.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FITNESS AND HEALTH

The Five Basic Principles of Fitness
There are 5 Basic Principles of Physical Fitness. They include:
1. The Overload Principle
2. The FITT Principle
3. The Specificity Principle
4. The Rest and Recovery Principle
5. The Use or Lose Principle

1. The Overload Principle - The Overload Principle is probably the most important principle of
exercise and training. Simply stated, the Overload Principle means that the body will adapt to
the workload placed upon it. The more you do, the more you will be capable of doing. This is
how all the fitness improvements occur when exercising and training. The human body is an
amazing machine.

When you stress the body through lifting a weight that the body is unaccustomed to lifting, the
body will react by causing physiological changes in order to be able to handle that stress the
next time it occurs. This concept is similar in cardiovascular training. If you ask the heart, lungs
16
and endurance muscles to do work not previously done, it will make changes to the body to be
able to handle that task better the next time. This is how people get stronger, bigger, faster and
increase their physical fitness level.

When you are working out, you want to strive to somehow increase the workload you are doing
above what you did on your previous workout so you have overloaded your body to create a
training adaptation. This increase in workout stress can be a very small increase, as many small
increases over time will eventually be a large increase or adaptation.

To determine how to increase the workload of a given workout you need to understanding the
F.I.T.T Principle.

2. The F.I.T.T. Principle - An easy way to get started on developing a personal fitness program is
utilizing the F.I.T.T. principle. This acronym stands for Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type.

These are the areas in which someone could increase or overload in order to improve physical
fitness.

Frequency: This refers to how often you will exercise. After any form of exercise is performed
your body completes a process of rebuilding and repairing. So, determining the frequency of
exercise is important in order to find a balance that provides just enough stress for the body to
adapt and also allows enough rest time for healing.

Intensity: Defined as the amount of effort or work that must be completed in a specific
exercise. This too requires a good balance to ensure that the intensity is hard enough to
overload the body but not so difficult that it results in over training, injury or burnout.

Time: Time is simply how long each individual session should last. This will vary based on the
intensity and type.

Type: What type of exercise will you be doing? Will an exercise session be primarily
cardiovascular, resistance training or a combination of both? What specific exercises will you
perform.

Combining the Overload Principle and the F.I.T.T. Principle

Resistance Training Cardiovascular Training
Frequency Increase the number of workout days Increase the number of workout days
Intensity Increase the resistance/weight Increase pace or % of Max. Heart Rate
Time Increase time involved in exercise or Increase time involved in exercise
Increased repetitions
Type Changing the exercise but still working Changing the workout to a different
the same area of the body cardio exercise

17
3. The Specificity Principle
This principle is just how it sounds...how you exercise should be specific to your goals. If you're
trying to improve your racing times, you should focus on speed workouts. If your main goal is
simply health, fitness and weight management, you should focus on total body strength, cardio
and a healthy diet. Make sure your training matches your goals.

4. The Rest and Recovery Principle

While we often focus on getting in as much exercise as possible, rest and recovery is also
essential for reaching your weight loss and fitness goals. While you can often do cardio every
day (though you may want to rest after very intense workouts) you should have at least a day of
rest between strength training workouts. Make sure you don't work the same muscles two days
in a row to give your body the time it needs to rest and recover.

5. The Use or Lose Principle

The Principle of Use or Lose implies that when it comes to fitness, you "use it or lose it." This
simply means that your muscles build strength (hypertrophy) with use and lose strength
(atrophy) with lack of use. This also explains why we or lose fitness when we stop exercising.

HEALTH BENEFITS OF EXERCISE AND PHYSICAL FITNESS

The Top 10 Benefits of Regular Exercise
Exercise is defined as any movement that makes your muscles work and requires your body to
burn calories. There are many types of physical activity, including swimming, running, jogging,
walking and dancing, to name a few. Being active has been shown to have many health
benefits, both physically and mentally. It may even help you live longer.

Here are the top 10 ways regular exercise benefits your body and brain.
1. It Can Make You Feel Happier
Exercise has been shown to improve your mood and decrease feelings of depression, anxiety
and stress. It produces changes in the parts of the brain that regulate stress and anxiety. It can
also increase brain sensitivity for the hormones, serotonin and norepinephrine, which relieve
feelings of depression.

Additionally, exercise can increase the production of endorphins, which are known to help
produce positive feelings and reduce the perception of pain.

Furthermore, exercise has been shown to reduce symptoms in people suffering from anxiety. It
can also help them be more aware of their mental state and practice distraction from their
fears.
Interestingly, it doesn’t matter how intense your workout is. It seems that your mood can
benefit from exercise no matter the intensity of the physical activity.

18
In fact, a study in 24 women who had been diagnosed with depression showed that exercise of
any intensity significantly decreased feelings of depression. The effects of exercise on mood are
so powerful that choosing to exercise (or not) even makes a difference over short periods.

One study asked 26 healthy men and women who normally exercised regularly to either
continue exercising or stop exercising for two weeks. Those who stopped exercising
experienced increases in negative mood.

Summary:
Exercising regularly can improve your mood and reduce feelings of anxiety and depression.

2. It Can Help with Weight Loss

Some studies have shown that inactivity is a major factor in weight gain and obesity. To
understand the effect of exercise on weight reduction, it is important to understand the
relationship between exercise and energy expenditure. Your body spends energy in three ways:
digesting food, exercising and maintaining body functions like your heartbeat and breathing.
While dieting, a reduced calorie intake will lower your metabolic rate, which will delay weight
loss. On the contrary, regular exercise has been shown to increase your metabolic rate, which
will burn more calories and help you lose weight.

Additionally, studies have shown that combining aerobic exercise with resistance training can
maximize fat loss and muscle mass maintenance, which is essential for keeping the weight off.

Summary:
Exercise is crucial to supporting a fast metabolism and burning more calories per day. It also
helps you maintain your muscle mass and weight loss.

3. It Is Good for Your Muscles and Bones

Exercise plays a vital role in building and maintaining strong muscles and bones. Physical
activity like weight lifting can stimulate muscle building when paired with adequate protein
intake. This is because exercise helps release hormones that promote the ability of your
muscles to absorb amino acids. This helps them grow and reduces their breakdown.

As people age, they tend to lose muscle mass and function, which can lead to injuries and
disabilities. Practicing regular physical activity is essential to reducing muscle loss and
maintaining strength as you age. Also, exercise helps build bone density when you’re younger,
in addition to helping prevent osteoporosis later in life. Interestingly, high-impact exercise, such
as gymnastics or running, or odd-impact sports, such as soccer and basketball, have been
shown to promote a higher bone density than non-impact sports like swimming and cycling.

Summary:
Physical activity helps you build muscles and strong bones. It may also help prevent
osteoporosis.
19
4. It Can Increase Your Energy Levels
Exercise can be a real energy booster for healthy people, as well as those suffering from various
medical conditions. One study found that six weeks of regular exercise reduced feelings of
fatigue for 36 healthy people who had reported persistent fatigue.

Furthermore, exercise can significantly increase energy levels for people suffering from chronic
fatigue syndrome (CFS) and other serious illnesses. In fact, exercise seems to be more effective
at combating CFS than other treatments, including passive therapies like relaxation and
stretching, or no treatment at all.

Additionally, exercise has been shown to increase energy levels in people suffering from
progressive illnesses, such as cancer, HIV/AIDS and multiple sclerosis.

Summary:
Engaging in regular physical activity can increase your energy levels. This is true even in people
with persistent fatigue and those suffering from serious illnesses.

5. It Can Reduce Your Risk of Chronic Disease

Lack of regular physical activity is a primary cause of chronic disease. Regular exercise has been
shown to improve insulin sensitivity, cardiovascular fitness and body composition, yet decrease
blood pressure and blood fat levels.

In contrast, a lack of regular exercise — even in the short term — can lead to significant
increases in belly fat, which increases the risk of type 2 diabetes, heart disease and early death.
Therefore, daily physical activity is recommended to reduce belly fat and decrease the risk of
developing these diseases.

Summary:
Daily physical activity is essential to maintaining a healthy weight and reducing the risk of
chronic disease.

6. It Can Help Skin Health

Your skin can be affected by the amount of oxidative stress in your body. Oxidative stress
occurs when the body’s antioxidant defenses cannot completely repair the damage that free
radicals cause to cells. This can damage their internal structures and deteriorate your skin. Even
though intense and exhaustive physical activity can contribute to oxidative damage, regular
moderate exercise can increase your body’s production of natural antioxidants, which help
protect cells. In the same way, exercise can stimulate blood flow and induce skin cell
adaptations that can help delay the appearance of skin aging.

Summary:

20
Moderate exercise can provide antioxidant protection and promote blood flow, which can
protect your skin and delay signs of aging.
7. It Can Help Your Brain Health and Memory
Exercise can improve brain function and protect memory and thinking skills.
To begin with, it increases your heart rate, which promotes the flow of blood and oxygen to
your brain. It can also stimulate the production of hormones that can enhance the growth of
brain cells. Moreover, the ability of exercise to prevent chronic disease can translate into
benefits for your brain, since its function can be affected by these diseases.

Regular physical activity is especially important in older adults since aging — combined with
oxidative stress and inflammation — promotes changes in brain structure and function. Exercise
has been shown to cause the hippocampus, a part of the brain that’s vital for memory and
learning, to grow in size. This serves to increase mental function in older adults.

Lastly, exercise has been shown to reduce changes in the brain that can cause Alzheimer’s
disease and schizophrenia.

Summary:
Regular exercise improves blood flow to the brain and helps brain health and memory. Among
older adults, it can help protect mental function.

8. It Can Help with Relaxation and Sleep Quality

Regular exercise can help you relax and sleep better. In regards to sleep quality, the energy
depletion that occurs during exercise stimulates recuperative processes during sleep.
Moreover, the increase in body temperature that occurs during exercise is thought to improve
sleep quality by helping it drop during sleep. Many studies on the effects of exercise on sleep
have reached similar conclusions.
One study found that 150 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous activity per week can provide up to
a 65% improvement in sleep quality. Another showed that 16 weeks of physical activity
increased sleep quality and helped 17 people with insomnia sleep longer and more deeply than
the control group. It also helped them feel more energized during the day.

What’s more, engaging in regular exercise seems to be beneficial for the elderly, who tend to
be affected by sleep disorders. You can be flexible with the kind of exercise you choose. It
appears that either aerobic exercise alone or aerobic exercise combined with resistance
training can equally help sleep quality.

Summary:
Regular physical activity, regardless of whether it is aerobic or a combination of aerobic and
resistance training, can help you sleep better and feel more energized during the day.

9. It Can Reduce Pain

21
Chronic pain can be debilitating, but exercise can actually help reduce it. In fact, for many years,
the recommendation for treating chronic pain was rest and inactivity. However, recent studies
show that exercise helps relieve chronic pain.
A review of several studies indicates that exercise helps participants with chronic pain reduce
their pain and improve their quality of life. Several studies show that exercise can help control
pain that’s associated with various health conditions, including chronic low back pain,
fibromyalgia and chronic soft tissue shoulder disorder, to name a few.

Additionally, physical activity can also raise pain tolerance and decrease pain perception.

Summary:
Exercise has favorable effects on the pain that’s associated with various conditions. It can also
increase pain tolerance.

10. It Can Promote a Better Sex Life

Exercise has been proven to boost sex drive. Engaging in regular exercise can strengthen the
cardiovascular system, improve blood circulation, tone muscles and enhance flexibility, all of
which can improve your sex life. Physical activity can improve sexual performance and sexual
pleasure, as well as increase the frequency of sexual activity.

A group of women in their 40s observed that they experienced orgasms more frequently when
they incorporated more strenuous exercise, such as sprints, boot camps and weight training,
into their lifestyles. Also, among a group of 178 healthy men, the men that reported more
exercise hours per week had higher sexual function scores. One study found that a simple
routine of a six-minute walk around the house helped 41 men reduce their erectile dysfunction
symptoms by 71%. Another study performed in 78 sedentary men revealed how 60 minutes of
walking per day (three and a half days per week, on average) improved their sexual behavior,
including frequency, adequate functioning and satisfaction.

What’s more, a study demonstrated that women suffering from polycystic ovary syndrome,
which can reduce sex drive, increased their sex drive with regular resistance training for 16
weeks.

Summary:
Exercise can help improve sexual desire, function and performance in men and women. It can
also help decrease the risk of erectile dysfunction in men.

The Bottom Line

Exercise offers incredible benefits that can improve nearly every aspect of your health from the
inside out. Regular physical activity can increase the production of hormones that make you
feel happier and help you sleep better. It can also improve your skin’s appearance, help you
lose weight and keep it off, lessen the risk of chronic disease and improve your sex life.

22
Whether you practice a specific sport or follow the guideline of 150 minutes of activity per
week, you will inevitably improve your health in many ways.

EFFECTS OF TRAINING ON THE BODY SYSTEM

When a person takes part in exercise the cardiovascular, respiratory, energy and muscular
systems all work together to supply energy to the working muscles and remove waste products.
When the muscles start to work, they need more oxygen so the respiratory system responds by
getting more oxygen into the lungs. The blood carries greater amounts of oxygen and the heart
responds to pump more oxygenated blood around the body. Immediate effects can be visible in
hot, sweaty and red skin.

Immediate effects of exercise on the body systems are shown in the table:
Short term effects of exercise

Cardiovascular Increase in stroke volume (SV); increase in heart rate (HR); increase in
system cardiac output (Q); increase in blood pressure (BP)

Respiratory system Increase in breathing rate; increase in tidal volume

Cardio-respiratory
Increase in oxygen uptake; increase in carbon dioxide removal
system

Energy system Increase in lactate production

Muscular system Increase in temperature of muscles; increased pliability

After exercising, the muscles need to rest, adapt and recover. There is a risk of injury if the body
is not rested for long enough after exercise.

Long Term Effects of Exercise on The Body Systems

Taking part in regular exercise or training around three times per week for six weeks will lead to
adaptation of the body systems that are used or trained. This has the effect of increasing
performance in that type of exercise or sport and is often beneficial to general health and
everyday life.

23
 Long term effects of exercise Type of training

Cardiac hypertrophy; increased stroke volume (SV); decrease

Cardiovascular in resting heart rate (HR); increase in maximum cardiac
Aerobic
system output (Q); capillarization at the lungs and muscles; increase
in number of red blood cells

Respiratory Increased number of functioning alveoli; increased strength

Aerobic
system of the respiratory muscles (intercostals and diaphragm)

Increased production of energy from the aerobic energy Aerobic;

Energy system
system; increased tolerance to lactic acid anaerobic

Muscle hypertrophy; increased strength of tendons;

Muscular system Resistance
increased strength of ligaments

Skeletal system Increase in bone density Resistance

Resistance;
Increase in strength; increase in flexibility; increase in speed;
Fitness stretching;
increase in muscular endurance
interval

FITNESS SUCCESS FORMULA

Even though getting in shape sounds like a long, time-wasting process, the effort put towards
being in shape has many positive effects. If you want to start your journey to having a better
body to feel great, here are some tips or the fitness success formula:

1. Exercise Daily
Exercise daily for at least an hour. You do not have to kill yourself from running, jogging, etc.,
but you should have some sort of moderate physical activity in your everyday life. If you're
looking to shed a few pounds fast, do a higher-level intensity workout. For example, go on a
walk at a brisk pace for an hour. Or, you can jog and set certain intervals to sprint during that
hour. Make sure you're not in severe pain during your workout. Just a warning, your muscles
will ache after a high intensity workout. It may be irritating, but that means your body is
changing for the better. Be sure to stay hydrated, stretch, and eat foods with a decent amount
of protein after each workout. The protein will help keep your muscles, not fat, rebuilding.
2. Eat the Right Foods and Portion Each Meal
No matter how bad your stomach is telling you to go for candy over healthy food, try to stay
away from sweets. Sugar from candy will not help you get in shape. Even if it's just a single
candy bar, one will eventually lead to another. Fruits and vegetables are the best thing to eat
when getting into shape. Apples, for example, do a good job at making the stomach feel full for
24
up to 3 to 4 hours. Green vegetables such as green beans and broccoli keep the digestive
system clean and running.

Also, stick to lean meats like turkey and chicken. Seafood, such as, shrimp, and tilapia are also
great alternatives. These foods are full of protein and healthy nutrients to help keep muscles fit
and ready for workouts. In addition, be sure to portion what you eat. Having a good
metabolism comes from portioning meals. Try to plan out eating six times a day and setting
smaller portions, rather than having three large meals throughout the day. This will also help
you find yourself breathing smoother when working out rather than huffing and puffing for air.
This is because you will have less food in your digestive system, which means more energy is
used toward your exercise.

3. Keep Track of Calories and Food Intake Per Day

Keeping track of how many calories you eat in a day will be helpful in planning out your physical
exercising. Ever wonder why body builders' body masses are so big? That's because they plan
out their meals and take in more (healthy) calories than the average person. On the other hand,
losing weight and striving for a skinnier physique will involve more physical exercise than
calories you ingest.

4. Be Sure to Get Sleep

Even though most of us have eight-hour jobs during the day or night, it is crucial to get enough
sleep to recharge the body's batteries. Six to eight hours of sleep will keep the body going
throughout the day, but if you happen to feel tired at any point after coming home from work,
by all means take a small nap before exercising. You should only nap for about a half hour. This
will prevent you from staying up later in the night.

5. Stay Motivated
An important key to being in shape is to set goals and keep a positive mindset. If you stay
positive, you will be able to push yourself to get that fit body you've always wanted.

DETERRENTS TO FITNESS/PERFORMANCE
Sticking to a regular exercise schedule isn't easy. After all, there are plenty of potential
hindrances — time, boredom, injuries, self-confidence. But these issues don't need to stand in
your way.

Consider practical strategies for overcoming common barriers to fitness.

1. I don't have enough time to exercise
Setting aside time to exercise can be a challenge. Use a little creativity to get the most out of
your time.
 Squeeze in short walks throughout the day. If you don't have time for a full workout,
don't worry about it. Any amount of activity is better than none at all. Shorter bursts of
exercise, such as taking short walk breaks a few times during the day, offer benefits too.
Aim to work your way up to exercising about 30 minutes on most days of the week.
25
  Get up earlier. If your days are packed and the evening hours are busy, get up 30
minutes earlier a few times a week to exercise. Once you've adjusted to early-morning
workouts, add another day or two to the routine.
 Drive less, walk more. Park in the back row of the parking lot or even a few blocks away
and walk to your destination.
 Revamp your rituals. Your weekly Saturday matinee with the kids or your best friend
could be reborn as your weekly Saturday bike ride, rock-climbing lesson or trip to the
pool.

2. I think exercise is boring

It's natural to grow weary of a repetitive workout day after day, especially when you're going it
alone. But exercise doesn't have to be boring.
 Choose activities you enjoy. You'll be more likely to stay interested. Remember,
anything that gets you moving counts.
 Vary the routine. Rotate among several activities — such as walking, swimming and
cycling — to keep you on your toes while conditioning different muscle groups.
 Join forces. Exercise with friends, relatives, neighbors or co-workers. You'll enjoy the
camaraderie and the group's encouragement.
 Explore new options. Learn new skills while getting in a workout. Check out exercise
classes or sports leagues at a recreation center or health club.

3. I'm self-conscious about how I look

 Don't get down on yourself! Remind yourself that you're improving your cardiovascular
health, or focus on how much stronger you feel after a workout.
 Avoid the crowd. If you're uncomfortable exercising around others, go solo at first. Try
an exercise video or an activity-oriented video game. Or consider investing in a
stationary bicycle, treadmill, stair-climbing machine or other piece of home exercise
equipment.
 Focus on the future. Praise yourself for making a commitment to your health. And
remember that as you become fitter and more comfortable exercising, your self-
confidence is likely to improve as well.

4. I'm too tired to exercise after work

No energy to exercise? Without exercise, you'll have no energy. It's a cycle. But breaking the
cycle with physical activity is one of the best gifts you can give yourself. Over time, exercise can
help improve your sleep quality and your energy level.
 Try a morning dose of exercise. Remember the suggestion to get up 30 minutes earlier
to exercise? Hop on the treadmill or stationary bicycle while you listen to the radio or
watch the morning news. Or step outside for a brisk walk.
 Make lunchtime count. Keep a pair of walking shoes at your desk, and take a brisk walk
during your lunch break.
 Be prepared. Make sure you have comfortable shoes and loose-fitting clothes for
exercising. Take them with you to the mall or when you travel.
26
5. I'm too lazy to exercise
If the thought of a morning jog makes you tired, consider several ideas to get moving.
 Set realistic expectations. If you set your goals too high, you might give up without even
trying. Start with a walk around the block. Don't give up if you feel worn out. Take
another walk around the block tomorrow. Keep it up, and eventually you'll no longer
feel worn out.
 Work with your nature, not against it. Plan physical activity for times of the day when
you tend to feel more energetic, or at least not quite so lazy.
 Schedule exercise as you would schedule an important appointment. Block off times in
your calendar for physical activity, and make sure your friends and family are aware of
your commitment. Ask for their encouragement and support.

27
UNIT 4
DRUGS/ERGOGENIC AIDS AND SPORTS PERFORMANCE
The term ergogenic means having the ability to increase work. In the realm of athletics,
ergogenic aids are pills, powders., drinks, bars, gels, etc., that, when consumed, can enhance an
athlete's strength, endurance, recovery, body composition, or energy levels, leading to
improved performance and an advantage over the athlete's competition. Since athletes often
supplement their dietary intake with ergogenic aids, they are also referred to as sports
supplements and in some cases as simply dietary supplements.

Performance enhancing drugs consist of a variety of substances, including medications,

procedures, and even devices that are intended to improve athletic sports performance. Some
of these substances are naturally occurring, easily available and completely legal while others
are manufactured, illegal, or banned by many sporting organizations. Many athletes, coaches,
politicians, and fans feel the use of certain substances is unethical in sports.

Determining which substances are regulated, however, is an area of constant debate. Many
performance enhancing substances classified as supplements are widely marketed as health
aids yet have limited research on their safety or effectiveness. Being classified as a supplement
means the contents of the product and the claims on the label have not been evaluated by the
Food and Drug Administration and may not have any scientific basis.

ln general, performance enhancing drugs and substances (ergogenic aids) can be categorized
into the following areas.

Sports Supplements, Vitamins, and Minerals

Athletes often look for alternative nutrition to perform at their best, and sport supplements are
one way. The following can be found at your local health food stores. Most are not banned but
check with your sports governing body to be sure.
 Protein is a necessary nutrient that everyone needs to function properly. Both athletes
and sedentary individuals need to get adequate protein.
 Glucosamine has been used to treat osteoarthritis and helps stimulates cartilage,
though the results of this are not constant.
 Ribose is a sugar. There is clear evidence that shows an athletic performance benefit
from ribose supplements.
 Creatine started off as a sports supplement but has been found to work in elderly
populations to help maintain muscle mass. For some athletes, creatine supplementation
improves repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise, such as sprinting, weight lifting or
power sports.
 Glutamine (L- Glutamine) is an amino acid and classified as a nutritional supplement.
Most athletes take it to help them recover from exercise.
 B-Vitamins are essential for the body to function properly, but there may be a link
between the B-vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin B-6, B-12, and folate) and
performance in high-level athletes.
28
Banned or Regulated Performance Enhancing Drugs
 Amphetamines are central nervous system stimulant drugs that increase alertness and
self-confidence, improve concentration. decrease appetite, and create a feeling of
increased energy. Amphetamines such as Benzedrine, Adderall, and Dexedrine have a
high potential for addiction and are on the banned substance list of most, if not all,
sports organizations.
 Anabolic Steroids (anabolic-androgenic steroids), are synthetic versions of the male
hormone testosterone. Non-medical use of anabolic steroids is illegal and banned by
most major sports organizations. Still, some athletes continue to use them illegally in an
attempt to improve sports performance, despite evidence that using them can cause
serious health problems, such as hypertension and heart attack. The manufactured
version of DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone) as well as the designer steroids,
Androstenedione (Andro) and Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) are all precursors to
hormones, such as testosterone, and work in a similar manner to anabolic-androgenic
steroids. These are all banned substances by nearly all sports organizations.
 Caffeine is a naturally occurring substance that has been used by endurance athletes for
years as a way to stay alert and improve endurance. While generally not harmful, it does
have side effects and is banned (in high doses) by many sports organizations.
 Ephedrine is a substance found in many cold and flu medications. It is also used to treat
low blood pressure that may occur because of other medications and can improve
breathing. Currently, it is illegal to possess large quantities of it in the US. It once was an
ingredient used in diet drugs until it was found to cause headaches, dizziness, heart
irregularities, seizures, and possibly death.
 Erythropoietin (EPO) is a naturally-occurring hormone, produced by the kidneys, that
stimulates the production of red blood cells. This hormone can also be manufactured
and injected. Most recently EPO has been linked to the professional cycling world.
Although EPO is on the banned substance list, some claim cyclists continue to use it to
boost performance.
 Hem Assist is a class of drug called a Haemoglobin-based Oxygen Carrier (HBOC).
HBOCs are experimental drugs that carry oxygen in the blood for a short period of time.
They are designed to act as blood substitutes for trauma patients. Hem Assist was in the
final stages of clinical trials in 1998 when research was stopped due to safety concerns.

TOBACCO, ALCOHOL AND FITNESS

Tobacco is an agricultural crop, most commonly used to make cigarettes. It is grown all over the
world and supports a billion-dollar industry. The psychoactive ingredient is nicotine, a
stimulant, but more than 4,000 other chemicals (2,000 of which are known to be poisonous)
are present in cigarettes.

Tobacco is a nervous system stimulant that triggers complex biochemical and neurotransmitter
disruptions. It elevates heart rate and blood pressure, constricts blood vessels, irritates lung
tissue, and diminishes your ability to taste and smell.
29
Tobacco can be processed, dried, rolled, and smoked as: Cigarettes, Cigars, Bidis (thin, hand-
rolled cigarettes imported from Southeast Asia), Clove cigarettes, Kreteks (cigarettes imported
from Indonesia that contain cloves and other additives), Loose-leaf tobacco can be smoked in
pipes and hookahs (an Asian smoking pipe with a long tube that passes through an urn of
water). The two most common forms of smokeless tobacco are chewing tobacco and snuff
(finely ground tobacco placed between the gum and lip).

TOBACCO AND FITNESS

What is the connection between smoking and sports performance?
It's a fact that smoking is an expensive and unhealthy habit. Furthermore, it greatly hinders
one's physical performance. Smoking in general causes;
 Narrowed blood vessels
 Lack of blood oxygen
 Increased resting heart rate
 Airway resistance

As we all know, great athletes always try their best, be it a simple routine training or the final
run at the Olympics. All in all, tobacco smoke impedes various physiological processes, which in
turn keep athletes from performing their best. More precisely, the toxic fumes found in tobacco
smoke hinder sufficient amount of oxygen to enter one's bloodstream, lungs, and heart, which
results in shortness of breath, dizziness, and even loss of consciousness. In fact, when any
amount of tobacco fumes is found in one's system, the overall performance of the athlete is
greatly impacted for the worse. As a result, one might think there is a negative connection
between smoking and sports performance.

Overall, the general conclusion is that the majority of athletes try to focus on maintaining a
healthy lifestyle. Many scientists will state that there is a strong relation between smoking and
sports performance. This means avoiding tobacco as much as possible. Whether some are truly
addicted to the substance or simply enjoy inhaling the infamous fumes is up for debate.

Tobacco happens to be one of the unhealthiest habits for an athlete. When harmful fumes,
such as carbon monoxide, nicotine, tar, and many others enter one's system, the body becomes
unable to produce sufficient amount of energy needed for high athletic performance.

Subsequently, many athletes reported having experienced the following side effects due to
their tobacco addiction:
 Less or no benefit from physical training
 Decreased muscular strength and flexibility
 Disturbed sleep patterns
 Shortness of breath
 Low-back pain
 Inability to heal fast after injuries

30
Alcohol Effects on Your Body
Alcohol is a drug that is absorbed into the bloodstream from the stomach and small intestine. It
is broken down by the liver and then eliminated from the body. There are limits to how fast the
liver can break down alcohol and this process cannot be sped up. Until the liver has time to
break down all of the alcohol, the alcohol continues to circulate in the bloodstream, affecting all
of the body's organs, including the brain. In general, the liver can break down the equivalent of
about one drink per hour and nothing can speed this up - including black coffee. As alcohol
reaches the brain, you'll start to "feel" drunk. This feeling varies from one person to the next,
and one situation to the next.

In all situations, alcohol depresses the brain and slows down its ability to control the body and
the mind. This is one reason why alcohol is so dangerous. Alcohol acts like a sedative and slows
down muscle coordination, reflexes, movement, and speech. If you drink too much alcohol,
your breathing or heart rate can reach dangerously low levels or even stop.

The Effects of Alcohol on Fitness

To unwind after a hard workout, many people turn to alcohol in the form of beer, wine or
mixed drinks. But before reaching for a cold one, consider this: excessive drinking has a
negative impact on various aspects of fitness. By learning about the relationship between
alcohol and fitness, you can protect your hard-earned physique while enjoying the benefits of
moderate alcohol consumption.

Athletic Performance
Like other tasks requiring coordination and cognitive precision, the ability to exercise or play
sports may be negatively affected by alcohol. According to Sports Doctor, alcohol impairs
reaction time, balance and hand-eye coordination, all of which you require for optimal athletic
performance.
In addition, alcohol acts as a diuretic by speeding the loss of fluids and electrolytes that your
body needs for proper hydration. By increasing the production of lactic acid, alcohol can worsen
fatigue when exercising. Other effects include dilation of blood vessels, increased sweating and
dehydration.

Weight Gain
Like soda, alcohol contains calories that can contribute to weight gain. Drinking more than two
alcoholic beverages per day may lead to increased belly fat. While the condition is often
referred to as a beer belly, any alcoholic beverage can cause weight gain if you consume them
in excess.
To avoid gaining belly fat, the University of Michigan Integrative Medicine suggests limiting your
intake of alcohol to two or fewer drinks per day and monitoring your overall caloric intake.

Reduced Muscle Growth

Protein synthesis is vital for muscle development and maintenance. Because alcohol impairs
this process, drinking can interfere with your ability to grow and maintain muscle. Binge
31
drinking also causes a drop in testosterone levels while increasing cortisol, a hormone that
destroys muscle. To prevent muscle loss, avoid drinking alcohol shortly before or after hitting
the gym.
Choose hydrating drinks like water or sports drinks instead of alcoholic beverages, and monitor
your overall alcohol intake.

Heart Health
In some cases, moderate alcohol consumption can be beneficial for overall health. An article by
Dr. Sanjay Gupta in "Time" magazine explains that moderate drinking affects the body in a
manner similar to that of exercise, increasing your levels of healthy cholesterol and thereby
reducing the risk of vascular discase. When added to a healthy lifestyle, alcohol compounds the
positive effects of exercise on cardiovascular health. Gupta explains that these positive benefits
likely apply only to people 45 and older. Excessive alcohol consumption is still harmful to overall
fitness, and moderation is the key to a healthy lifestyle.

32
UNIT 5
LIFESTYLE HABITS AND CONTROL
If you treat yourself poorly all the time except when you're exercising, you also won't fully
benefit from the journey. You must take care of your body in all ways. You need to treat your
other daily functions as vitally as your exercise routine. If you take care of your body (and
mind!), they'll take care of you.
The following are some lifestyle habits that we must inculcate into our daily routines amongst
others:

1) Eat the Right Foods

The first habit you need to develop for a long life full of health and fitness is the habit of eating
a proper diet. You have to develop the habit of eating the right foods, in the right proportions,
at the right times. Everyone knows that they should eat a more balanced diet, containing more
fruits, vegetables, and whole grain products. In addition to eating the right foods, you should
develop the habit of eliminating the three white poisons from your diet, which are salt, sugar,
and flour.

2) Get Enough Exercise

The next habit you need to develop is the habit of effective exercise. Many people stop
exercising in their late teens and early twenties, even people who were active in sports when
they were growing up. The human body is meant to be exercised regularly throughout your life.
Develop the habit of articulating and moving every joint in your body, every single day. This
keeps your muscles and joints agile and flexible. Regular exercise assures that you have greater
balance and mobility. It helps to diminish the likelihood of muscle or joint pain or problems.
Develop the habit of exercising 200 minutes each week. If all you did were to go for a walk, 30
minutes per day, seven days per week, you would be one of the fittest people in our society. If
you disciplined yourself to ride an exercise bicycle, work out on a treadmill, swim, jog or engage
in any aerobic exercises that get your lungs and heart pumping, you will dramatically improve
your levels of health and energy in a short period of time.

3) Get Enough Sleep

The third habit that you need for superb all-round health is the habit of proper rest. You need
seven to eight hours of sleep each night for optimal performance. If you get less than six to
seven hours of sleep per night, and you continue to work as hard as you normally do at your
job, you will eventually develop a "sleep deficiency." You can change the way you feel about
yourself, and your performance in your work and personal life, by developing the habit of going
to bed early, by 10:00 pm each night and getting a good night's sleep every night of the week.

4) Standing Up Straight
Whether you're meditating or standing in line at the bank, if you stand up tall, you not only feel
more confident, but you can also unkink" your energy channels and let your “chi flow” more
freely. Standing tall doesn't mean maintaining a strained military posture, just keeping a relaxed

33
and spine-straight position. Standing straight makes you think more clearly, focus more easily,
and meditate better.

5) Sticking to A Sane Work Schedule

This busy world sometimes seems to encourage and bless those people who work insane hours,
forgoing family, fun, and freedom. Just say no. Doing so doesn't mean becoming a slouch, it just
means that you know when enough is enough and when to go home or to take a day off. Work
isn't a substitute for other entertainment- you need to go have some non-work-related fun
whether you're the CEO or the gofer. Work is only one part of your life. Balance keeps people
sane.
6) Staying Healthy and Fit
Be sure to foster a well-rounded program of wellness. More stretching, strength-training, or
even aerobic exercise, such as brisk walks, can help you achieve more balanced health. Balance
is everything.

WEIGHT CONTROL
Weight management techniques encompass long-term lifestyle strategies that promote healthy
eating and daily physical activity. Effective weight management strategies consider not only
weight loss toward but also the maintenance of a healthy body weight over time. Moreover,
weight management involves an understanding of meaningful ways to track weight over time
and set ideal body weights for different individuals.

Keeping a healthy weight is crucial. If you are underweight or overweight, or have obesity, you
may have a higher risk of certain health problems.

Achieving a healthy weight can help you control your cholesterol, blood pressure and blood
sugar. It might also help you prevent weight-related diseases, such as heart disease, diabetes,
arthritis and some cancers. Eating too much or not being physically active enough will make you
overweight.

To maintain your weight, the calories you eat must equal the energy you burn. To lose weight,
you must use more calories than you eat. A weight-control strategy might include,
 Choosing low-fat, low-calorie foods
 Eating smaller portions
 Drinking water instead of sugary drinks
 Being physically active

*Eating extra calories within a well-balanced diet can help to add weight.

STRESS/FATIGUE
Imagine holding your arm straight out, grasping a rope. In the beginning, it is easy but the
longer you keep your arm held high and your hand gripping the rope, the harder it becomes.
Your arm will begin to get tired; your fingers will want to let go. As you continue to hold on, you
34
become more and more uncomfortable. Sooner or later the physical act of holding the rope will
be too much to bear. It will take a toll on your muscles and you will need to let go.

So, it goes with stress. Situations that cause temporary stress can be painful but bearable. But
as you live with chronic stress, it begins to take its toll on your body. You can't sleep or maybe
you sleep too much, your digestive system doesn't work the way it used to, you deal with
headaches on a daily basis, you sometimes want to just give up or cry for no reason. All of this is
easily noticeable but chronic stress also impacts you in ways you can't see; when you are
stressed your heart works harder and your immune system may not work as well.

Another manifestation of stress is the continual feeling of fatigue. You are simply tired. The
impact on your body causes fatigue: for example, if you aren't sleeping right because of the
stress in your life you are probably going to feel tired throughout the day. But living with
chronic stress can leave you feeling depressed, worried, irritable and just totally exhausted.

Physical Exhaustion vs. Stress Exhaustion

When we are physically exhausted, it is the result of something we did. You may work a
physically demanding job or have completed a rigorous exercise regimen. Physical exhaustion is
usually a choice we have made. With rest, the proper food and time to relax we can easily
recover from physical exhaustion. In some cases, it may take a few days, such as when you have
exercised to the point of having sore muscles, but with a day or two of taking care of yourself
the physical aspects of your exhaustion are gone and you once again feel refreshed.

When your exhaustion comes from stress, it is different. It is a mental exhaustion, caused by
worrying or the difficulty in coping with a situation in your life. It is a result of thoughts and
feelings rather than physical exertion. You may have lived with stress for so long that you no
longer see the negative consequences. You believe that this is "normal." You may not know
what is wrong with you and have accepted the constant feeling of being tired as part of your
life.

What is Stress Related Fatigue?

Fatigue is different than being tired or feeling drowsy. We normally feel tired or drowsy at the
end of the day, when our body needs sleep to rejuvenate. Although you may feel tired or
drowsy as a result of fatigue, it is a chronic feeling of lack of motivation or energy.
Understanding the difference between physical and stress related fatigue helps you know
whether you should talk with your doctor. As we discussed in the previous section, physical
exhaustion is the result of something we did and is gone after you take the time to sleep or rest.
If you are feeling tired and sleep or rest does not take this feeling away, you may be suffering
from stress related fatigue.

Symptoms of Stress Related Exhaustion

While the main symptoms of fatigue are a general feeling of weariness or being tired or drowsy,
stress related fatigue is usually accompanied by other symptoms:
35
  Sore or aching muscles or feeling of muscle weakness
 Headache
 Moodiness, irritability or easily agitated
 Dizziness and blurred vision
 Loss of appetite
 Difficulties with short term memory
 Inability to concentrate or focus on tasks
 Slowed reflexes or difficulty making decisions
 Feeling as if your actions are useless or that you can't change your situation
 Lack of motivation

Frequently, once your stress has brought you to the level of exhaustion, you feel alone and
isolated. You may want to hide or have the overwhelming feeling of wanting to climb into bed
and not get out. Living with chronic stress often impacts your relationships and your job, leaving
you feeling lonely and inadequate.

What to Do
There are a number of ways you can help to relieve the fatigue you feel from stress.

First, it is important to identify the sources of your stress and take steps to resolve these issues.
For example, if your job is causing stress, it may be time to look for a new job or take some time
off work to take a vacation and relax. If your relationship is causing stress, you may want to
consider steps, such as marriage counseling, to help you work on your marriage. If you are not
sure why you feel stressed all the time or if you are unable to resolve these issues on your own,
it may be beneficial to speak with a therapist or counselor.

Use relaxation techniques each day. Yoga or meditation has been found to be helpful in
reducing overall feelings of stress. Taking 15 minutes each day to relax and take care of you can
help you feel better throughout the day. Add exercise to your daily routine. Daily exercise has
been found to increase feelings of well-being and to reduce symptoms of anxiety and
depression.

Sleep and eat right. When stressed it is hard to sleep, you may not be able to fall asleep or you
may wake up throughout the night. Even so, it is important to go to bed at the same time each
night and to get up at the same time each morning. Make sure to eat a well-balanced diet each
day. The proper nutrients are important to helping you feel better.

If feelings of chronic stress and fatigue don't go away, contact your doctor. He may want to run
some tests to make sure your symptoms aren't being caused by a physical illness.

RELAXATION AND RECREATION

RELAXATION

36
The ability to relax is important in effectively managing stress and anxiety. When we are
stressed, our bodies react with what is called the "fight or flight" response. Our muscles
become tense, our heart and respiration rates increase, and other physiological systems
become taxed. Without the ability to relax, chronic stress or anxiety can lead to burnout, anger,
irritability, depression, medical problems, and more.

Allowing yourself to deeply relax is the exact opposite of the "fight or flight" response. In 1975,
Herbert Benson described what he referred to as the "relaxation response." This is the body's
ability to experience a decrease in heart rate, respiration rate, blood pressure, muscle tension,
and oxygen consumption.

TYPES OF RELAXATION EXERCISES

Relaxation techniques can help reduce emotional and physical sensations of stress, as well as
the worry or stressful thoughts that may accompany them. If you can learn to relax your
breathing and reduce your muscle tension, your mind will follow. Conversely, if you can learn to
ease stressful thoughts and worry, your body will relax as well.

It is highly recommended that you approach learning these exercises as skills that need to be
practiced and developed over time, rather than as something you can do once in a while.
Without practice, these exercises may not be as effective for you at the time you need them
most!

While there are numerous types of relaxation exercises, but we Will explore a few of them
here:

Deep Breathing: When we feel stressed, it is common for our rate of breathing to increase. We
also tend to breath in a shallow manner, more highly in our chest. A deep breathing exercise
allows us to take fuller, slower breaths that reflect a true relaxed state.

Visualization/Imagery: Visualization is a nice way of giving our minds and bodies a "mini
vacation." lt involves using imagery to fully immerse ourselves in a pleasant scene, noticing the
sights, sounds, smells, and tactile sensations.

Meditation: Meditation can be described as "mental exercise" such as concentration on one's

breathing or repetition of a mantra. Various types of meditation that are recognized include
transcendental meditation, prayer, Zen meditation, Taoist meditation, mindfulness meditation,
Buddhist meditation and others. The end goal of all types of meditation lead to a mind that is
quieted and free from stress by the use of quiet contemplation and reflection.

Progressive Muscle Relaxation: This practice involves sequentially tensing and relaxing the
large skeletal muscle groups. Muscle relaxation is achieved by noting the contrast between the
state of tension and relaxation and by increasing discernment of muscle groups that are prone
to carrying tension.
37
38
UNIT 6: NUTRITION AND SUPPLEMENT

Definition of Nutrition.
WHO defines Nutrition as the intake of food, considered in relation to the body's dietary needs.
Good nutrition - an adequate, well balanced diet combined with regular physical activity is a
cornerstone of good health. Poor nutrition can lead to reduced immunity, increased
susceptibility
to disease, impaired physical and mental development, and reduced productivity.

As defined on Wikipedia, Nutrition is the science that interprets the interaction of nutrients and
other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease
of an organism. It includes food intake, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism, and
excretion. The diet of an organism is what it eats, which is largely determined by the availability
and palatability of foods. For humans, a healthy diet includes preparation of food and storage
methods that preserve nutrients from oxidation, heat or leaching, and that reduce risk of food-
borne illnesses.

In humans, an unhealthy diet can cause deficiency-related diseases such as blindness, anemia,
scurvy, preterm birth, still-birth and cretinism, or nutrient excess health- threatening conditions
such as obesity and metabolic syndrome; and such common chronic systemic diseases as
cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Under-nutrition can lead to wasting in acute
cases, and the stunting of marasmus in chronic cases of malnutrition.

Nutrients are molecules in food that all organisms need to make energy, grow, develop, and
reproduce. Nutrients are digested and then broken down into basic parts to be used by the
organism. There are two main types of nutrient, macronutrients and micronutrients. The three
main categories of macronutrients include carbohydrate, protein, and fat. The two types of
micronutrients are vitamins and minerals, and these are extra molecules that cells need to
make
energy. Let's take a look at the three groups of macronutrients mentioned.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a type of macronutrient used for quick energy in cells. The basic unit of
carbohydrates is a monosaccharide. An example of a monosaccharide is glucose or sugar.
Glucose
can be by itself, or assembled into long chains to make things like starch, which can be found in
potatoes.

Have you heard of the athletic term, carbo-loading? Athletes load up on carbohydrates before a
big race to give themselves a store of quick energy. Carbohydrates have gotten a bad rap lately,
but everyone needs carbs! It is important to eat a balanced diet with all the major nutrient
categories. Foods that contain carbohydrates include grains, cereal, bread, pasta, potatoes,
fruits and sweets such as soda and candy.
39
Protein
Proteins are a macronutrient that the cells in your body use for structure. Protein is very
important for building tissues, such as muscle. Muscle is mainly made up of proteins. Think how
bodybuilders are always eating plain chicken and protein bars - they’re trying to build their
muscles by getting lots of protein in their diet!

Proteins are made from smaller monomers called amino acids There are twenty amino acids
that make up all the kinds of protein your body needs. Imagine that amino acids are like Legos.
To build a fancy Lego building, you need all shapes and colors of Legos. But there aren’t infinite
shapes of Legos; you only have so many to work with. The same thing with protein. Your body
can make some of the amino acids you need. but there are nine that you must consume in your
diet. These are called essential amino acids. Meat. fish, beans, and eggs are examples of foods
rich in protein.

Fats
Fats are called lipids and are a macronutrient in your body that stores energy. Fats have long
chains of carbon and hydrogen, which store lots of energy in the chemical bonds. Fats are
important in our body to cushion organs, protect our cells and send signals in the form of
hormones around our body. Foods that are rich in fats are butter and oil.

Micronutrients
Now let's take a look at the two groups of micronutrients; Vitamins and minerals.
Called "micronutrients" because they are needed only in minuscule amounts, these substances
are the “magic wands" that enable the body to produce enzymes, hormones and other
substances essential for proper growth and development. As tiny as the amounts are, however,
the consequences of their absence are severe. Iodine, vitamin A and iron are most important in
global public health terms; their lack represents a major threat to the health and development
of populations over the world, particularly children and pregnant women in low-income
countries.

40
Supplement
Sports supplements represent a multi-million-dollar industry. Active adults and athletes are
often
enticed by effective supplement marketing. The promises of enhanced performance among
other claims are motivating factors to purchase alternative nutrition to achieve results. Lack of
supplement regulation and quality control may mean unreliable and ineffective products are
being used.
It is estimated between 39 and 89 percent of the international supplement market are athletes
with the highest frequency among older and elite athletes.

What Is a Supplement?
Supplements are considered an addition to an already healthy diet. Active adults or athletes
may include supplements to help meet nutritional needs, improve nutrient deficiencies,
enhance athletic performance or achieve personal fitness goals. Without a well-designed
nutrition plan in place, supplementation is said to be rarely effective.

Supplement Regulation and Standards

Dietary supplements have been placed in a special food category and not considered drugs.
Supplements aren't required to be submitted to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for
regulation. Although the FDA has the ability to review ingredients and health claims of
supplements, very few are investigated.
Sport supplement manufacturers are allowed to make health claims with FDA approval as long
as the product statements are true and based on scientific evidence.

Unfortunately, very few supplements claiming ergogenic benefits are supported by clinical
research. This leaves the active adult or athlete without a guarantee of safety, effectiveness,
potency or purity of supplements for dietary or ergogenic purposes.

 Dietary supplements include vitamins, minerals, amino acids, herbs, botanicals, and
extracts or concentrates from plants or foods. They are typically sold as capsules,
41
 tablets, liquids, powders or bars and required to be clearly labeled as a dietary
supplement.
 Ergogenic aids include substances, drugs or techniques used to enhance athletic
performance. They can range from acceptable practices of carbohydrate loading to
"illegal and unsafe approaches such as anabolic-androgenic steroid use."

Supplement use remains controversial and is a personal choice. Common questions asked by
active adults, athletes, and sports nutritionists relate to manufacturing and supplement quality.
Locating evidence-based research information is highly advised before considering sports foods
and supplements. The International Society of Sports Nutrition (1SSN) recommends evaluating
the validity and scientific merit behind supplement claims for enhanced athletic performance.

NUTRITION NEEDS OF ATHLETES

What are the athlete's specific needs?
Carbohydrates are the best fuel source to provide power for your working muscles. Eating
enough carbohydrate before, during and after exercise helps to maintain energy levels, delay
fatigue during exercise and support a more rapid recovery. With carbohydrate or "carbs" as the
main fuel source, you can maintain your activity for a longer period. Carbohydrate foods should
make up more than half your total energy intake. If you are involved in heavy daily exercise,
your carbohydrate needs will be even higher and you should make sure you eat enough
carbohydrate to meet your increased daily requirements.

Proteins are the building blocks of your body's muscles and tissues. Most athletes need only
slightly more protein than non-athletes. You will usually meet your increased requirements
through increased food intake. It is unlikely that you'll need protein supplements. If you are
involved in aesthetic (e.g., gymnastics), weight restriction (e.g., light weight rowing) or
endurance sports (e.g., marathon running), you may have higher protein requirements. Foods
like meats, legumes and dairy products are good sources of protein.

Fat is important in the athlete's diet as it provides energy, fat-soluble vitamins and essential
fatty acids. However, fat should be eaten in moderation. A low-fat diet is a good approach for
everyone athlete and non-athlete alike. Choose "good" fats such as polyunsaturated and
monounsaturated fats which are found in fish, nuts, seeds, canola and olive oils and avocados.

Vitamins and Minerals are the "spark plugs" of physical activity, some help your body use the
energy from carbohydrate, protein and fat. Others help your muscles relax and contract. If you
follow a balanced diel, you will generally take in enough essential vitamins and minerals.
However, if you are trying to lose weight, you may have low levels of some vitamins and
minerals
in your diet. Despite the best intentions, some busy people don't follow a balanced diet, so
watch
your intake of iron, calcium and zinc, which are especially important for physically active
people.
42
Iron is part of hemoglobin, the part of red blood cells that carries oxygen to your body cells.
Oxygen is essential for creating energy in your muscle cells. An iron shortfall, even if it's small,
can affect your physical performance. Female athletes are more prone to low iron levels, as iron
is lost through menstruation. Iron from foods occurs in two forms "haem" iron found in animal
foods and "non-haem" iron found in plant foods. Haem iron is readily absorbed by our bodies.
In contrast, non-haem iron is poorly absorbed. If you are a vegetarian or eat mainly plant-based
foods, you can increase the absorption of iron by adding a vitamin-C rich food (e.g. citrus fruits
and juices, kiwi fruit, red capsicum etc.) to your meals. For a further boost in iron levels, eat
iron-
fortified foods (e.g., breakfast cereal). The recommended dietary intake for iron is 7mg/day for
adult men and 12-16mg/day for adult women.

Calcium combined with weight-bearing activity helps to increase bone density plus build and
maintain strong bones. Adults need a daily intake of 800mg calcium, and the simplest way to
meet your requirements is to eat plenty of dairy products. If you are watching your weight,
choose low fat dairy products which will still give you a calcium boost. Dairy foods are a good
source of carbohydrates as well.

Magnesium is found in dried fruit, nuts and chocolate. It plays a role in energy reactions,
protein production and muscle contraction.

If you would like more information on nutrition for sports performance, the AIS nutrition
booklet "A Winning Diet'" is highly recommended.

DIETARY GOALS AND EATING STRATEGIES

Hundreds of fad diets, weight-loss programs and outright scams promise quick and easy weight
loss. However, the foundation of successful weight loss remains a healthy, calorie-controlled
diet
combined with increased physical activity. For successful, long-term weight loss, you must make
permanent changes in your lifestyle and health habits. Same applies to maintaining a healthy
weight.

How do you make those permanent changes? Consider following these six strategies for weight
loss success and maintaining a healthy weight.

1. Make a commitment
Long-term weight loss takes time and effort and a long-term commitment. Make sure that
you're ready to make permanent changes and that you do so for the right reasons. To stay
committed to your weight loss, you need to be focused. It takes a lot of mental and physical
energy to change your habits.

43
So, as you're planning new weight-loss-related lifestyle changes, make a plan to address other
stresses in your life first, such as financial problems or relationship conflicts. While these
stresses may never go away completely, managing them better should improve your ability to
focus on achieving a healthier lifestyle. Once you're ready to launch your weight-loss or weight
maintenance plan, set a start date and then- start.

2. Find your inner motivation

No one else can make you lose weight or stay fit. You must undertake diet and exercise changes
to please yourself. What's going to give you the burning drive to stick to your weight-loss and
fitness plan?
Make a list of what’s important to you to help stay motivated and focused, whether it's an
upcoming beach vacation or better overall health. Then find a way to make sure that you can
call on your motivational factors during moments of temptation. Perhaps you want to post an
encouraging note to yourself on the pantry door, for instance.

While you have to take responsibility for your own behavior for successful weight loss, it helps
to
have support - of the right kind. Pick people to support you who will encourage you in positive
ways, without shame, embarrassment or sabotage.

Ideally, find people who will listen to your concerns and feelings, spend time exercising with
you or creating healthy menus, and who will share the priority you've placed on developing a
healthier lifestyle. Your support group can also offer accountability, which can be a strong
motivation to stick to your weight-loss goals.

If you prefer to keep your weight-loss plans private, be accountable to yourself by having
regular weigh-ins, recording your diet and exercise progress in a journal, or tracking your
progress using digital tools.
3. Set realistic goals
It may seem obvious to set realistic weight-loss and fitness goals. But do you really know what's
realistic? Over the long term, it's best to aim for losing 1 to 2 pounds (0.5 to I kilogram) a week.
Generally, to lose 1 to 2 pounds a week, you need to burn 500 to 1.000 calories more than you
consume each day, through a lower calorie diet and regular physical activity.

Depending on your weight, 5 percent of your current weight may be a realistic goal. Even this
level of weight loss can help lower your risk for chronic health problems, such as heart disease
and type 2 diabetes. If you're 180 pounds (82 kilograms), that's 9 pounds (4 kilograms).

When you're setting goals, think about both process and outcome goals. "Walk every day for 30
minutes is an example of a process goal. "Lose 10 pounds" is an example of an outcome goal. It
isn't essential that you have an outcome goal, but you should set process goals because
changing your habits is a key to weight loss and staying fit and healthy.

44
4. Enjoy healthier foods
Adopting a new eating style that promotes weight loss must include lowering your total calorie
intake. But decreasing calories need not mean giving up taste, satisfaction or even ease of meal
preparation.

One way you can lower your calorie intake is by eating more plant-based foods - fruits,
vegetables and whole grains. Strive for variety to help you achieve your goals without giving up
taste or nutrition.

 Get your weight loss started with these tips:

 Eat at least four servings of vegetables and three servings of fruits daily.
 Replace refined grains with whole grains.
 Use modest amounts of healthy fats, such as olive Oil, vegetable oils, avocados, nuts,
and nut butters and oils.
 Cut back on sugar.
 Choose low-fat dairy products and lean meat and poultry in limited amounts.

5. Get active, stay active

While you can lose weight without exercise, regular physical activity plus calorie restriction can
help give you the weight-loss edge. Exercise can help burn off the excess calories you can't cut
through diet alone.

Exercise also offers numerous health benefits, including boosting your mood, strengthening
your cardiovascular system and reducing your blood pressure. Exercise can also help in
maintaining weight loss. Studies show that people who maintain their weight loss over the long
term get regular physical activity.

How many calories you burn depends on the frequency, duration and intensity of your
activities. One of the best ways to lose body fat is through steady aerobic exercise such as brisk
walking for at least 30 minutes most days of the week. Some people may require more physical
activity than this to lose weight and maintain that weight loss.

Any extra movement helps burn calories. Think about ways you can increase your physical
activity throughout the day if you can't fit in formal exercise on a given day. For example, make
several trips up and down stairs instead of using the elevator, or park at the far end of the lot
when shopping.

6. Change your perspective

45
It's not enough to eat healthy foods and exercise for only a few weeks or even months if you
want long-term, successful weight loss or fitness. These habits must become a way of life.
Lifestyle changes start with taking an honest look at your eating patterns and daily routine.

After assessing your personal challenges to weight loss and general fitness, try working out a
strategy to gradually change habits and attitudes that have sabotaged your past efforts. You
have to move beyond simply recognizing your challenges you have to plan for how you'll deal
with them if you're going to succeed in losing weight once and for all.

You likely will have an occasional setback. But instead of giving up entirely after a setback,
simply start fresh the next day. Remember that you're planning to change your life. It won't
happen all at once. Stick to your healthy lifestyle and the results will be worth it.

46