3 Review of Timber Properties 2021

Course: «Timber Engineering»
ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES OF WOOD
Massimo FRAGIACOMO*
*Professor of Structural Engineering, University of
L’Aquila, Italy, Email: massimo.fragiacomo@univaq.it
Engineering properties of wood
OBJECTIVE:
To review the most important engineering

properties of wood such as:
• wood structure
• strength
• stiffness

PREFACE:
Why review the properties of wood?
Because the behaviour of wood is more
complex than other common engineering
materials such as concrete and steel
Concrete:
• macrostructure: homogenous, isotropic
• strength: non-symmetric in compression
(good) and tension (poor)
PREFACE:
Steel:
• macrostructure: homogenous, isotropic
• strength: symmetric in tension and
compression, therefore good in bending
Wood:
• macrostructure: heterogenous, anisotropic
• strength: non symmetric in tension and
compression, good in bending
OUTLINE:
• Physical properties of wood
• The structure of wood:
 microstructure (cells, anisotropy)
 macrostructure (defects, heterogeneity)
• The strength of wood:
 of clear specimens (without defects)
 of sawn timber (with defects)
OUTLINE:
• The strength of wood:
 parallel to the grain
 perpendicular to the grain
• The strength of wood
 in tension
 in compression
 in bending
 in shear Engineering properties of wood
OUTLINE:
• Size effect (dependency of the
strength on the defects)
• Dependency of the strength on the
 moisture content
 load duration
• Other phenomena
 shrinkage/swelling, distortion
 creep, mechano-sorptive creep
THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD
Wood natural, organic cellular solid
Hardwood (oak, beech, etc.)

(deciduous trees)
Types Europe 90% in N.Z.
of wood Softwood (spruce, radiata pine,
douglas fir, etc.) (conifers)
5% in N.Z.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
OF WOOD:
moisture content  [%]
Specific heat [J/kgK]
thermal expansion
durability class
shrinkage (at
density [kg/m3]
(heartwood)
 [W/mK]
620)
[mm/K]
remark
species
rad.tang. rad. tang.
European beech 720 12 0,17 0,36 0,16 V deciduous
European oak 720 15 0,16 0,26 0,16 II deciduous
Silver Fir 0,12 0,27 0,10 1880 20.10-6 35.10-6 IV coniferous
Scotch Pine 460 12 0,15 0,30 0,10 IV coniferous
Oregon Pine (Douglas) 530 14 0,18 0,31 0,10 III coniferous
Edible chestnut 540 12 II deciduous
Larch 590 12 0,10 III coniferous
Norway Spruce 440 12 0,14 0,26 0,10 III coniferous
Steel 7850 50 12.10-6
BIOLOGICAL
PROPERTIES OF WOOD:
Biological resistance
• sapwood
• heartwood
• juvenile wood
• Biological attack
• fungi
• bacteria's
• insects
juvenile
strength
wood
tree
tree diameter
diameter

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD
• Microstructure: refers
to very small specimens
without defects (clear
specimens)
• Macrostructure: refers
to large specimens with
defects used for structural
applications (sawn
timber)
MICROSTRUCTURE OF WOOD
• Microstructure: refers
to very small specimens
without defects (clear
specimens)

MICROSTRUCTURE OF WOOD
Enlargement under the microscope:
Hardwood (oak) Softwood (spruce)

MICROSTRUCTURE OF WOOD:
It consists of long and slender hollow cells oriented in the
direction of the stem made of microfibrils (cellulose)
S2: intermediate layer

of the secondary wall P: primary wall
(microfibrils nearly (microfibrils
vertical) randomly
arranged)
S1, S3: layers of the ML: middle
secondary wall
lamella – glues
(microfibrils less the cells together
inclined)
MICROSTRUCTURE OF WOOD:
THE STRENGTH OF WOOD:
Rectangular coordinate system:

Wood microstructure: may be represented as a
bundle of parallel tubes (P and S walls)
surrounded by a less resistant matrix (ML)

Differences in mechanical properties: mainly
between longitudinal (defined as parallel to the
grain) and any transversal direction 0°
R and T directions have no
appreciable differences and
90° 90°
hence are treated together
and defined as
perpendicular to the grain
Notation: f T  f R  f 90 f L  f0 0°
Clear specimens (without defects):
Tension parallel to the grain: ft,0=80-100 N/mm2
(typical values for European softwood)
Compression parallel to the grain: fc,0=40-50 N/mm2


Why is tensile strength larger than compressive
strength? Buckling
y=ultimate
curve (Eulero)  2 EJ  2 E
compressive stress  max   2
Al 2 
for squat member
l l
fy=ultimate tensile  
i J
stress A
fy=y
Because, in compression, failure occurs by
buckling of slender fibres (the buckling load is
always lower than the failure load under tension)
Compression failure parallel to the grain:
buckling of a row of fibres (shear along a sloping plane)
The collapse is more ductile than in tension
COMPRESSION FAILURE:

Strength perpendicular to the grain: mainly
depends on the properties of the matrix (worse than those
of the longitudinal fibres!) f =2-4 N/mm2
c,90
Compression: better performance than tension (the

fibres are squeezed together) Engineering properties of wood
Tension perpendicular to the grain: strength and

stiffness only depend on the properties of the matrix, which
are poor.
ft,90=1-2 N/mm2

Strength at an Hankinson
f c , 0 f c ,90
f c , 
angle to the grain: f c,0 sin   f cos 
2
formula
c , 90
2
Tension Compression

Important remarks:
Tensile stresses perpendicular to the grain
should be avoided or kept as low as possible in
the design of timber structures!!!
Design improvements should be made in order

to reduce stresses perpendicular to the
grain!!!

ANISOTROPY:
R T
N R L

T
A
L
  arctgE0 T L
R=T 
l
R
l
L
EXCELLENT behaviour para. to grain (dir. L)
VERY BAD behaviour perp. to grain (dir. R, T)
Engineering properties
34
of wood
ANISOTROPY:
Be careful of the connection design

because of anisotropic behaviour!!!

ANISOTROPY:
ANISOTROPY:
Also compression stresses perp. to grain should be

limited!
8000 hinge
25500 31500
57000

ANISOTROPY:
How to prevent squashing of timber perp. to grain? For
example by reinforcing the beam on the support with
self-drilling screws:
Load transfer to
the inner fibres
Load Self drilling screws

perpendicular to
grain
ANISOTROPY:
Splitting

ANISOTROPY:
Beams with notches:
Failure due to combined shear and tension
perpendicular to grain
ANISOTROPY:
Reinforcement: with fully threaded screws, epoxied
rods, or glued-on plates (e.g. plywood)

ANISOTROPY:
Beams with holes:
ANISOTROPY:
Beams with holes:

ANISOTROPY:
ANISOTROPY:

ANISOTROPY:
ANISOTROPY:

ANISOTROPY:
MACROSTRUCTURE OF WOOD
• Macrostructure: refers
to large specimens with
defects used for structural
applications (sawn
timber)
MACROSTRUCTURE OF WOOD:
• Wood is markedly heterogenous

• Wood has important defects, which
significantly affect its mechanical properties:
 grain deviation
 knots
Grain deviation: in trees that grow
in a spiral

Knots: part of the branches embedded

in the main trunk of the tree

Sawn timber
In addition to the anisotropy, the defects (knots
and grain deviation) affect the behaviour of
structural-sized timber members

Effect of grain deviation:
• Reduction in strength (the larger the grain
deviation, the larger the strength reduction)

Effects of knots:
• Reduction in resisting cross-section
• Load eccentricities Higher local stresses
Knot

Effects of knots (cont’d):
• Change of fibre direction around a knot
Stresses perpendicular to the grain
Reduction in local strength
Overall, defects lead to reduction in strentgh

Anisotropy Strength will depend
(microstructure) on the direction
Heterogeneity Strength will depend
(defects) on the size of the
specimen
Strength is also affected by:
• Loading rate (5 min. testing)
• Moisture content (10% - 15%)

Clear spec. Sawn timber
Tension parallel
80-100 10-35 N/mm2
to the grain ft,0:
Tension perpendicular
1-2 0.5-1 N/mm2
to the grain ft,90:
Compression parallel
40-50 25-40 N/mm2
to the grain fc,0:
Compression
perpendicular to the 2-4 2-4 N/mm2
grain fc,90: Engineering properties of wood
SAWN TIMBER
Reduction in strength due to defects:

• more significant in tension (3 to 8 times less)
than in compression (1.2 to 2 times less): the
tensile strength parallel to the grain becomes less
than the compression one for sawn specimens
• more significant parallel to the grain than
perpendicular to the grain
Reduction in Modulus of Elasticity due to
defects: less significant than for strength

Why do defects reduce strength much more in
tension than in compression? Because of:
• the larger effect of grain deviation on tensile
strength
Tension Compression

Why do defects reduce strength much more in
tension than in compression? Because of:
• the larger effect of grain deviation on tensile
strength
• the brittle nature of tension failure
• the size effect
Size effect - Weakest link theory:
“When subjected to tension, a chain made of a brittle
material is as strong as its weakest link” (Pierce,
Tucker, and Weibull (1926 – 1939)).
SIZE EFFECT:
The larger the volume of the member, the larger the

probability of finding a defect, and the lower the
strength (or ultimate stress) of the member.
According to the Eurocode 5, for sawn timber/glulam
members with depth less than 150/600 mm respectively,
the tensile and bending strength can be increased by the
factor:
Glulam
Sawn timber
Engineering Properties of Wood

SIZE EFFECT:
P/2
P/2
Clear wood strength

Moment capacity of
Idealized variation of bending strength
the cross-section
P L
M1   M1
2 2
M1/2
M1 M1 Weak zone strength
 max  f m1  
Wx bd 2
6
3-point bending: bending strength capacity M1,
bending stress fm1 Engineering Properties of Wood
SIZE EFFECT:
Remark: in this case, the failure load P is the same as for the 3-point
bending as the critical defect is in the lateral third of the span:
P/2 P/2
Clear wood strength

Moment capacity of
the cross-section
P L 2
M2    M1
2 3 3
M2
2
M
M2 3 1 2 Weak zone strength
 max  f m 2    f m1
Wx bd 2 3
6
4-point bending: bending strength capacity M2=2/3M1
bending stress fm2=2/3fm1 Engineering Properties of Wood
REMARK:
If the beam had been homogenous, namely without defects, which
differences would have we found?
P1f
bd 2
M R  f mWy  f m
6
Moment capacity of Moment capacity of the homogeneous cross-section

the cross-section MR M1
P1 f L
M1  
2 2 Moment demand due to the load P1f
M R  M1
4
P1 f  MR
L
3-point bending: failure load P1f, bending stress fm
REMARK:
If the beam had been homogenous, namely without defects, which
differences would have we found?
P2f/2 P2f/2
bd 2
M R  f mWy  f m
6
Moment capacity of Moment capacity of the homogeneous cross-section

the cross-section MR M
2
P2 f L
M2  
2 3 Moment demand due to the load P2f
MR  M2
6 3
P2 f  M R  P1 f
L 2
4-point bending: failure load P2f=(3/2)P1f , bending stress fm
SIZE EFFECT:
Clear wood strength

Moment capacity of
the cross-section
M3 Idealized variation of bending strength
Weak zone strength
3-point bending on left half length: bending strength

capacity M3, bending stress fm3
SIZE EFFECT:
Moment capacity of
the cross-section Idealized
Clear wood
variation of
bending
strength
strength
M4
Weak zone strength
3-point bending on right half length: bending

strength capacity M4(<M3), bending stress fm4(<fm3)
SIZE EFFECT:

Moment capacity of Clear wood
strength
the cross-section
M3
M2
M1 Weak zone strength
M4
Different results are obtained for the different load
configurations and different lengths of the beam. The 4-
point bending is more critical – Therefore, the bending
strength fm (or MOR) must be evaluated under 4-point bending
(ISO and EN standards) at constant span-depth ratio (18)
STRENGTH IN BENDING
fm or MOR: very important quantity (design
of flexural members, strength classes)
fm
fm
The strain distribution is triangular under bending: the most stressed parts
are the outermost fibres. Since fc<ft in clear specimens: strictly speaking the
neutral axis does not pass for the geometrical centre of the section. For the sake
of simplicity: fm is defined assuming a neutral axis in the centroid. fm depends
on the load condition and beam length, therefore is determined in standard
conditions (L/d=18, 4-point bending) Engineering properties of wood
STRENGTH IN BENDING
What is the value of the bending strength fm
relative to the tensile ft and compression fc
strength?
fm
fm
fc <fm< ft on clear specimens

fc  fm > ft on medium to low quality structural
timber Engineering properties of wood
STRENGTH IN BENDING
Bending strength fm or MOR for sawn timber:

will depend on the probability to have a defect (a knot) in
the most stressed parts of the cross-sectional area (the
outermost parts). Most stressed compressed zone
fm
fm
Most stressed tensile zone

STRENGTH IN TENSION
The strain distribution is uniform under

tension: the whole cross-sectional area is stressed
to the maximum value
t t
T
Most stressed tensile zone

STRENGTH IN BENDING
Bending strength fm or MOR for sawn timber:

will depend on the probability to have a defect (a knot) in
the most stressed parts of the cross-sectional area (the
outermost parts). This probability is lower than in
member subjected to tension since in the latter case the
whole cross-sectional area is uniformly stressed. This
results in bending strength being generally larger than
tensile strength and lower than compression strength in
structural sized members.

Shear strength fv: three very different types:
vertical shear (larger strength), rolling shear fr
(minimum strength-usually not occurring in
beams) and longitudinal shear (low strength, fv)
Vertical
shear: Shear plane max
Longitudinal
(fv):
Rolling
shear (fr):
R R
R T L T L
T L
Vertical (or Longitudinal (or Rolling

>> >
kinking) shear sliding) shear (fv) shear (fr)
Typical shear crack in timber

beams

How much does the strength and stiffness vary
within a species and grade?
More significantly than for steel and concrete due to
the influence of defects (drawback which discourage
the use of wood): the strongest pieces may be 5 or
more times the strength of the weakest pieces
Need to grade the timber (otherwise: the

characteristic value would be too low due to the
large scatter of experimental results).

Example of scatter of experimental strength
and MOE of New Zealand radiata pine:
88
With only one
strength class
(without grading)
the characteristic
strength (5th
percentile) would
be 16 MPa for all 16
8
the timber
2.5
18.5

Example of scatter of experimental strength
and MOE of New Zealand radiata pine:
By grading the
wood in three
strength classes:
three different 50
values of
characteristic 26
strength can be 12
obtained: 12
(<16), 26 e 50
MPa
GRADING:
(a)
(b)
(c)

Relationship between Bending Strength and

Modulus of Elasticity for Radiata Pine (NZ
Standard): 88
By measuring the
MOE with a non
destructive test, it is
possible to have an
indirect measure of
the strength and
8
assign the board to a
certain strength class 2.5
18.5
(strength grading)
MACHINE GRADING:
23 PL3 12
MOE   
1296  BD 3
Based on the value of MOE calculated via
deflection measurement  due to the applied load P
in non-destructive bending tests
VISUAL GRADING:
Based on size and position of defects (knots,

grain deviation) on the surface of the timber
structural element.
VISUAL GRADING – UNI 11035-1:



(Spaccatura) (Cretto) (Cipollatura)


Spring (Falcatura)
Twist (Svergolamento)



Strength classes of sawn timber (EN 338:2016):

Remarks: fm,k , fc,0,k > ft,0,k > fc,90,k > ft,90,k; E0,mean>>E90,mean


Strength
classes of sawn
timber (EN
384:2016):
Strength
classes of sawn
timber (EN
384:2016):

Contrary to steel and concrete, the strength of
wood is affected by the moisture content m.c.:
weight of water
m.c.  100
weight of dried wood
The m.c. depends on the environmental relative

humidity, seasoning of wood and cross-sectional
area of the wood member
The higher the m.c., the lower the strength and
stiffness, and the greater the creep coefficient
HOW TO MEASURE THE M.C.?
How to measure m.c.?

• by oven dry to 102 °C (most accurate but
not applicable for whole beams):
weight of wood before drying  weight of wood after drying
m.c.  100
weight of wood after drying

• by electric moisture meters (less

accurate but applicable for whole beams):
electric circuit The m.c. will depend upon
the electrical resistance
wood measured between the two
probes. The instrument needs
to be calibrated on different
wood species. It can be used
for 6%<m.c<28%.
Electric moisture
meter

WOOD AND WATER:
The living tree sucks water from the

ground. The water moves into the cell
lumens. m.c.= 40 to 200 %
WOOD AND WATER:
When the tree is cut down: the

amount of water starts decreasing.
free: contained in the cell

lumens
Water
in wood bound: combined with the cell
wall substances (hydrogen
bonds and van der Walls forces)
ENLARGEMENT OF A CELL:
CROSS-SECTION OF A CELL:
Fibre
free saturation
water point: 28%
No shrinkage Shrinkage
bound
bound
water
water
m.c. = 200% 115% 28% 18% 10%
FIBRE SATURATION POINT:
The FSP is the moisture content when the

cell walls are saturated by water (bound
water) but no free water exists in the cell
lumens (usually 28%).
For m.c. above the FSP: wood experiences
no dimensional changes and no variations
in mechanical properties (E, strengths).
FIBRE SATURATION POINT:
If the wood is dried below the FSP: the

bound water reduces and that leads to:
• Shrinkage (reduction in volume)
• Increase in mechanical properties (E,
strengths) and reduction in creep

EQUILIBRIUM M.C.:
Why does the moisture content keep on

changing in time?
Because wood is a hygroscopic material: it
continuously exchanges moisture with the
surrouding environment.
A value of equilibrium moisture content
exists for any value of temperature T and
relative humidity RH of the surrounding
environment.
SORPTION ISOTHERMS:
Example:
For T=21°C
and RH=60%
Wood moves
to equilibrium
at m.c.=11%

EQUILIBRIUM M.C.:
Equilibrium m.c.
as influenced by
temperature and
relative
humidity:
For T=21°C and
RH=60%:
Equil.m.c.=12.5% Engineering properties of wood
EQUILIBRIUM M.C.:
The equilibrium moisture content depends:
• mainly on the relative humidity of the
environment;
• but also on the temperature of the
environment;
• and on the type of wood.

EQUILIBRIUM M.C.:
The equilibrium m.c. can be m.c.=11%

quickly reached in small
pieces of wood. RH=60%
T=21°C
In structural timber: the 11%
equilibrium is quickly
13%
reached only in the external
fibers, while internal fibers 17%
require more time to come 19%
to equilibrium.
EQUILIBRIUM M.C.:
A piece of wood
exchanges moisture
content mostly through
the end sections, in the
direction parallel to the
grain.

EQUILIBRIUM M.C.:
When the tree is cut down: the m.c. will

reduce from 200% to the equilibrium
moisture content for the given T and RH of
the environment (8% to 30% for RH=40% to
100% at T=21°C).
The larger the cross-section, the longer the
drying process.
DEFINITION:
Green: m.c.=25% (worse
mech. prop., high shrinkage)
Timber
Dry: m.c.=16% (better mech.
prop., small shrinkage)
Example: New
Zealand
Standard 3603

SUGGESTED M.C. FOR TIMBER:
Use category Air conditioned Intermittently Unheated

or centrally- heated buildings buildings
heated buildings
Structures inside the 14-18% 14-18% 14-18%
insulation
Flooring exposed to 10-14% 12-16% 14-18%

ground atmosphere
Flooring not exposed 8-12% 10-14% 12-16%
to ground atmosphere
DRYING OF TIMBER:
To attain the suggested value of m.c.:
TIMBER MUST BE DRIED!!!
Air drying
Drying
methods
Kiln drying

DRYING OF TIMBER:
Air drying: timber filleted, stacked and

allowed to dry with the passage of
natural air (may take several weeks).
DRYING OF TIMBER:
Kiln drying: using heat and air flow in a
controlled cycle (conventional: one
week; using high temperature: 24 hours).

SHRINKAGE AND SWELLING
Below the FSP, variations of moisture

content lead to variations of volume in
timber (shrinkage for reduction in m.c.,
swelling for increase in m.c.).
Because of the anisotropy of wood

microstructure, shrinkage takes place
with different magnitudes along
various directions.

LFSP  L12%
Shr  Shrinkage from green to 12% m.c.  100
LFSP
FSP=29% for radiata pine
Tangential: Shr=3.9%
Radial:
Shr=2.1%
L12% Longitudinal: Shr=0.1%

LFSP
Remarks:
• Tangential
shrink. is
greatest
• Longitudinal
shrink. is 3.9
negligible 2.1
• Shrink. is
0.1
linear with the 12
m.c. variation Engineering properties of wood
DISTORTIONS
The difference between tangential and radial
shrink. leads to distortion of the cross-section.
Possible cracks may
also occur during the
drying of timber. In
order to minimize the
distortion: timber
must be dried and
then planed.
CRACKS:
If the log is not sawn:
an extended crack
will form, together
U>30% U<30% with smaller cracks
If the section
contains the pith:
U>30% U<30% a crack will form
X
during drying
100
TRANSVERSE MOVEMENTS
How to calculate shrinkage or swelling of
timber components?
Since the shrinkage-m.c. relationships are
linear, the following formula can be used for
shrinkage perpendicular to the grain:
Average shr
L  Dimensional change   L  u
( FSP  12) 100
where Average shr is the average between
radial and tangential shrinkage.
Why do we use the average between

tangential and radial shrinkage?
Because when we design a beam, we cannot
known in advance how the beam is cut from
the tree (quarter-sawn or flat-sawn).
For radiata pine:
Average shr (3.9  2.1) / 2
 u   0.0017
( FSP  12) 100 (29  12) 100
u is the moisture dilation coefficient.

Then: L   u  L  u
L is the initial dimension of the member;

u is the moisture content variation.
WORKED EXAMPLE No.1
Timber lintel on a blockwork.

Dimensions: L=2000 mm, b=120 mm, d=300
mm.
d
L
WORKED EXAMPLE No.1

If the lintel is installed green (i.e. not dried):
0.01/(100ꞏ(29-12)) negligible
L   u , p  L  u  0.00005  2000  (29  12)  1.7 mm
Important!!!
d   u ,l  d  u  0.0017  300  (29  12)  8.7 mm
Not important
b   u ,l  b  u  0.0017 120  (29  12)  3.5 mm

WORKED EXAMPLE No.2
Installing green joists and plates next to an

existing structure with dry framing:
Possible differential
movement between
new and existing
structures.
WORKED EXAMPLE No.2
h   up   d i  u  0.0017  (200  300  50  50)  (29  12)  17 mm
Bearer Joist Plate

Either this differential
movement should be
allowed for in design,
or the timber should
be dried to the m.c. of
the existing building.
REMARK:
Most shrinkage problems occur when timber

movement is prevented by stiffer elements:
REMARK:
Shrinkage is generally not a problem in
glued laminated and LVL beams, because
the manufacturing process is in a controlled
condition.

REMARK:
However, problems can arise if the wood

product is not protected from the rain after
being manufactured:
Timber products
must be protected
(wrapped in
waterproof paper).
SOME RULES TO AVOID

PROBLEMS:
• use dry timber (always check the m.c. on

the building site using electric moisture
meters)
• protect timber from direct contact with
water (rain)
• allow timber to move due to environmental
variations
Contrary to steel, the strength of wood depends

on the load duration
Type of loading Time-to-failure Stress ratio i/2
1. Impact loading 0.015 seconds 150%
2. Short-term ramp loading 7.5 minutes 100%
3. Long-term loading 156.25 days 69%

Mechanical properties of wood are assessed via
experimental tests lasting usually 5 minutes
If the test was carried out slowlier, the strength
would be greater. f (t)/f (5min)
k k

The dependency of the strength properties of
wood on the load duration and moisture content is
considered in the Eurocode 5 and national
regulations via a tabled modification factor kmod:
Strength property in non-standard conditions
f
kmod 
f ref (m.c.  12%, t  5 min)
Strength property measured in standard
conditions (m.c.=12%, test duration t=5 min)
CREEP BEHAVIOUR:
u, Collapse points
Creep test:
’ ufin,fin
uinst (t , t0 ), inst (t , t0 )

uinst,inst
’
q’ q’,’ t0 Short-term strength f t
f Limit of creep-rupture (kmodf)
u
kmodf
 fin   inst (1  (t , t0 ))
t0 t
u fin  uinst 1  (t , t0 )  Engineering properties of wood
CREEP TEST:
P=850 Kg P=850 Kg
1/3 1/3 1/3
BENDING TEST (SPECIMEN WITHOUT TENDON): side and top view
CREEP TEST:

CREEP BEHAVIOUR:
  (t fin  t0 ) k def  (t fin  t0 )
 is the creep coefficient (viscoelastic behaviour).
The service class depends on the timber moisture content

(1: mc12%, 2: 12%<mc20%, 3: mc>20%)
Creep shall be considered when evaluating the deflection
(Serviceability Limit State): the elastic deflection must be
multiplied by the coefficient kdef Engineering properties of wood
MECHANO-SORPTIVE CREEP:
It is the increase in delayed deformation over
time, under constant load, due to moisture
content variations
’ uinst,inst
 mech-sorpt.
q’
’ creep
u
elastic
This effect is included t
RH
in the coefficient kdef
Environmental Relative Humidity t

MECHANO-SORPTIVE CREEP:
F=P/4 F
v
F
Tests on concrete- F=P/4
timber composite
blocks with stud
connectors
MECHANO-SORPTIVE CREEP
Lever mechanism for the long-term test
on the Tecnaria connector:
P Q
10
Timber beam 20
15
13 172
75 25
Fasteners 12 Q=2.53 kN
Concrete slab P=36.00 kN

25
10 10 10 10 10 30 10
40

Long-term test - Specimens in climate chamber:
Creep coefficient of connection in time:
2.0
ft,t0v-vel/vel
1.6
1.2
Mechano-
0.8
sorptive creep
Specimens
0.4
Average
Creep
t [days]
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
100
80 RH [%]
60 t [days]
40
0 100 200 300 400 500
CREEP AND MECH-SORPT.:
The constitutive law (stress-strain relationships)

becomes an integro-differential equation for
materials with creep and mechano-sorptive creep:
 t
E t0
Linear-elastic materials (steel):   T dT
Thermal
Visco-elastic materials (concrete): variations
Drying
Creep Thermal
shrinkage
variations
t , t0    0 J t , t0    J t,  d    s t , t s     T dT
t t
t0 t0
Hydro-viscoelastic materials (wood): Toratti’s

rheological model Dependency of Young’s
Creep modulus on moisture content
t    J 0 u   d    J c t ,   d      dJ 0 u   
t t t
t0 t0 t0



 c  du  1   
t 


         T dT  
t t t t
 J  1  e
  
 d     b   du     u du   
t0
  t0 t0 t0
Mechano-sorptive creep Shrink./Swell. Thermal

variations
J=J0+Jc: creep function u: moisture content
α=dilation coefficient
How to solve the structural problem?

• using numerical methods (FE models,
Finite difference methods)
• using approximate analytical methods:
Effective Modulus Method

Effective Modulus Method:
A visco-elastic or hydro-viscoelastic material can
be regarded as an elastic material with a reduced
fictitious MOE given by the actual MOE divided by
E
one plus the creep coefficient: E' 
1  (t , t0 )
Example: evaluation of the deflection of a simply supported beam
subjected to a u.d.l. in the long-term (50 years)
5 wl 4 E  is the value of the creep
v with E ' 
384 E ' I 1  (50) coefficient after 50 years
Formulas are provided for the creep coefficient  of concrete. For
timber: the coeff. kdef=(50) is provided by the Eurocode 5.
LITERATURE REFERENCES:
Suggested text books:

Timber Engineering, edited by S.
Thelandersson and H. Larsen
Timber Engineering, Step 1, First Edition,
Centrum Hout, The Netherlands

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Course: «Timber Engineering»

Engineering properties of wood

To review the most important engineering

Engineering properties of wood

THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD

Wood natural, organic cellular solid

Hardwood (oak, beech, etc.)

moisture content  [%]

Specific heat [J/kgK]

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Enlargement under the microscope:

Hardwood (oak) Softwood (spruce)

S2: intermediate layer

Engineering properties of wood

THE STRENGTH OF WOOD:

Rectangular coordinate system:

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

THE STRENGTH OF WOOD:

Compression parallel to the grain: fc,0=40-50 N/mm2

THE STRENGTH OF WOOD:

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Compression: better performance than tension (the

THE STRENGTH OF WOOD:

Tension perpendicular to the grain: strength and

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

THE STRENGTH OF WOOD:

Design improvements should be made in order

Engineering properties of wood

Be careful of the connection design

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Also compression stresses perp. to grain should be

Engineering properties of wood

Load Self drilling screws

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

• Wood is markedly heterogenous

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Knots: part of the branches embedded

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

Engineering properties of wood

THE STRENGTH OF WOOD: