Air Transport and Airports Lecture 4

Air Transport & Airport Part 6: Air Traffic
Design / Luftverkehr Management

Winter Term 2022/2023
Dr. Kay Plötner Munich, October 2022
I 283 I © Bauhaus Luftfahrt e. V. I I
Part 6: Air Traffic Management
6.1 Elements of an ATM System
6.2 Airspace and ATM Authorities
6.3 ATM Operations
Lessons Learned Part 4
What are main elements of ATM/ATC?

What is ILS and ADS-B?
What is Ground, Local Control, Terminal and En-route Control?
I 285 I © Bauhaus Luftfahrt e. V. I WS2022/23 I Air Transport & Airport Design / Luftverkehr
6.3 ATM Operations
Elements of an ATM System
Any Air Traffic Management (ATM)* or Air Traffic Control (ATC)* System
consists of the elements shown below.
Communication
Navigation
Surveillance
Air Traffic Control
* These two expressions are usually employed interchangeably.

Navigation Systems
Two fundamentally different system types:

Navigational Aids
for Civil Flight Operations
En-Route Navigational Aids Approach Navigational Aids
En-Route Navigation Systems (1)
VOR (VHF omnidirectional range)

system
 consists of ground-based transmitters
 allow aircraft to navigate on specific “radials”
to an from VOR stations
 Some VORs are additionally equipped with
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
allowing to measure the distance between the
aircraft and the VOR station
 VOR systems are limited to the “line of sight”
> a network of VOR stations is required in
extended regions
En-Route Navigation Systems (2): Air Routes
Air Route “Y161” and

Air Route “L173”
VOR Station “Maisach” between MAH VOR and MUN VOR
Source: skyvector.com
Approach Navigation Systems
In general, two classes of runways are defined:

Airport Runway System
Non-instrument (visual) Instrument

Runway Runway
Intended for the operation of aircraft using Permits instrument approach procedures in
only visual approach procedures low-visibility conditions
Non-precision Precision
Approach Approach
Approach Navigation Systems: Precision Approach (1)
For precision approaches, the Instrument Landing System (ILS) is the basic
system used at the major airports worldwide.
ILS Approach: Required Airport Infrastructure
Localizer Antennas (Hannover Airport) Glideslope Antennas (Hannover Airport)
ILS Approach: Flight Deck Instrumentation (Example: Airbus A320, Primary
Flight Display) Receiving glideslope signal Receiving localizer signal
Localizer (vertical line)

Glideslope (horizontal line)
Glideslope
indication
ILS information
Localizer indication
(here: no DME signal available)
There are several ILS categories depending on precision. The higher the
category is, the more demanding are the requirements to the airport
infrastructure AND aircraft equipment (AND pilot certification).
Decision height Visibility or Runway Visual Range
Category
(above ground) (RVR)
Vis: 800 m (0.5 mile)
I 60 m (200 ft)
or RVR: 550 m (1,800 ft)
II 30 m (100 ft) RVR: 350 m (1,200 ft)
III-A 0m RVR: 200 m (700 ft)
III-B 0m RVR: 50 m (150 ft)
III-C 0m RVR: 0 m
Surveillance Systems
The surveillance system is the means by which the controllers monitor the
air traffic situation. The system is critical for all ATC operations other than at
control towers in good visibility, when the controller can directly observe
the air traffic. Several options available:
1) Position Reporting: flight crew communicates its position, altitude, and

intent information through radio communications to ATC.
 Position reports are the primary means of surveillance when no other surveillance
system is available (e.g., oceanic airspace, remote and developing regions)
Surveillance Systems
2) Radar Systems: fundamental aircraft surveillance system

 Primary Radar: measures distance between radar station and aircraft
 Secondary Radar (ATC Radar Beacon System ATCRBS): requires that aircraft be
equipped with a transponder
A transponder receives and retransmits an interrogation pulse along with an

identification code (“squawk”) for the responding aircraft and other aircraft
data.
Locating an aircraft with a radar
The aircraft’s direction is determined

by the direction the antenna is
pointing to when the aircraft is
detected.
The aircraft’s altitude is not directly

measured by ATC radars, but is
reported through the ATCRBS
transponder reply.
Locating an aircraft with ADSB
The ADS is an surveillance approach

whereby aircraft automatically transmit
position reports and intent data.
 automated version of the manual position
reporting approach mentioned before
Several ADS systems exist:

 ADS-A (Addressed)
 ADS-B (Broadcast)
 ADS-C (Contract)
Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS)
ADS-A (Addressed): transmits position reports to the ground when
requested by ATC
ADS-B (Broadcast): transmits aircraft position and state information at high
update rates (1 Hz) in signals that can be received by other equipped aircraft
in the area and by ATC
 High quality of surveillance information, high update rate, low costs of ADS-B ground
stations (everyone can buy one, see: https://de.flightaware.com/adsb/)
 Attractive alternative to conventional ATC surveillance
 May enable more efficient flight procedures through Cockpit Display of Traffic Information
ADS-C (Contract): transmits position reports to ATC at defined periodic
intervals or upon the occurrence of specific conditions (e.g., crossing a
reporting point)
6.3 ATM Operations
Airspace Structure (1)
Civilian Airspace
Controlled Uncontrolled
Airspace Airspace
 Air Traffic is managed and supervised by ATC  Aircraft are not directly managed by ATC
 Aircraft may operate in low-visibility  This type of airspace is normally restricted to
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) low altitudes and remote regions where traffic
density is low.
ATM Authorities (1) Clearance Delivery Office
“Clearance Delivery”
 Before an Instrument Departure can actually
start its flight mission, it has to receive a
clearance from ATC including the air route Ground Control at MUC
clearance, a squawk code, and sometimes an

initial altitude clearance.
“Ground” & “Apron”

 At airports, Ground Control manages aircraft
and other vehicles on the airport surface as
they taxi to/from the runway from/to the apron
areas.
ATM Authorities (2)
Local Control at Munich Airport
Tower”
 Local Control is responsible for aircraft taking
off and landing. The tower controls the
active runways and the local maneuvering
airspace as far as a radius of approx. 5 miles
from the airport and up to 2,500 or 3,000 ft
above the airport surface. Donaueschingen Airfield
 For some busy airports, Local Control may be

split into sectors with different controllers
managing each runway or sets of runways.
 Many small airports do not have an active
control tower and rely on procedural rules
for managing traffic.
ATM Authorities (3): Terminal Control
“Approach” & “Departure”

 these two authorities manage aircraft in the
initial approach phases and during the
phases of departure and climb-out from
major airports. Zurich Airspace Controllers (Source: Skyguide)
 USA: Terminal Radar Approach Control

(TRACON) typically extends 50 miles from
and up to 18,000 ft above the central airport.
 These dimensions are also typical of the
terminal airspace at major airports around
the world.
ATM Authorities (4)
En-Route Control: “Center”

Lower and Upper FIRs
 This authority is responsible for traffic above (Source: Eurocontrol)
and between terminal airspace.
 Area Control Centers (ACC) manage air
traffic in the lower Flight Information Regions
(FIRs) below FL245.
 Upper Area Control Centers (UACC)
manage air traffic in the upper FIRs (i.e.,
above FL245)
ATM Authorities (5) North Atlantic FIR boundaries, Source Gaudet (2008)
The control of aircraft in international

airspace between countries and over
Oceanic regions is coordinated by the
ICAO that assigns control
responsibility through a structure of
FIRs.
6.3 ATM Operations
Aircraft Separation
The precision of ATC is constrained by the performance of the surveillance
system and the limitations of the ATC control loop.
Reasons:
 Slow update rates of radar screens
 Uncertainty about actual aircraft position in radar-based systems *Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM)
 Communication delays Horizontal Separation Vertical Separation
 Variability in pilot response Terminal Area En-Route Airspace ≤ FL290 > FL290
In USA, EU, North
Atlantic
Consequence: 3 miles 5 miles 1,000 ft 2,000 ft 1,000 ft at all altitudes*
 Separation minima have to be ensured carefully (“Minimum separation standards”).

 They limit the capacity of the overall ATC system.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) (1)
SOPs specify the normal operating procedures,
as well as standard routings and communications
procedures. Holding Pattern
Example 1: Standard Altitude for Flights

 Aircraft flying westbound are assigned to cruise altitudes
in even thousands of feet (e.g., FL320), while aircraft
with eastbound headings are assigned to odd altitudes.
Example 2: Holding Pattern
 Racetrack-like trajectory around a reference point, which
can be used to delay aircraft in the air when it is not
possible to hand off the aircraft into the next sector (e.g.,
due to weather).
Standard Operating Procedures (2)
Standard Instrument Departure (SID)

 A SID specifies the trajectory of the aircraft
after take-off.
 Once assigned to a flight by Clearance
Delivery, the pilots knows exactly what to do
once airborne.
 The Departure Controller does not have to
continuously monitor the flight track of the
aircraft: reduction of workload.
Source: Jeppesen
 SIDs define how the aircraft is supposed to
join the en-route network of air routes.
Standard Arrival (STAR)

A STAR specifies the trajectory of the aircraft when
approaching the airport.
 Usually, the approach controller assigns a distinct
IAF
STAR to an aircraft,
depending on the direction from which the aircraft approaches
the airport,
depending on the active runway or set of runway at the airport.
 A STAR defines the transition from the en-route network of
Source: Jeppesen
air routes to the final approach routes used for precision
approaches or non-precision approaches (> Initial Approach
Fix: IAF).
En-Route Trajectories
 Normally, an aircraft cannot follow the shortest track from its origin airport to its
destination (i.e., the great-circle distance).
 In order to handle the overall traffic flow, the lower and upper FIRs are composed of
airways.
 Airways are the connections between waypoints (e.g., VORs, NDBs, Intersections)
 Nevertheless, pilots frequently request shortcuts with ATC to reduce the flying track.
Source: SkyVector
Airspace Capacity
Three major aspects limit the capacity of a specific airspace:
 Aircraft en-route separation minima
 Restrictions on downstream sectors (other airspace sectors and airports)
 Controller workload
 Complexity of air traffic patterns/operations
Typical maximum traffic in individual en-route sectors:
 10 ~ 20 simultaneously present aircraft
Airspace capacity is a major determinant for a reliable air transport system.
 The management of capacity and delays has become one of the most important tasks
of ATC (especially in high-demand regions).
 This task is called: Traffic Flow Management
Air Transport & Airport Part 7: Environmental
Design / Luftverkehr Impact of Aviation
Lessons Learned Part 7
What is a LTO cycle?

What are the main sources of aircraft noise during take-off and landing?
What are operational noise restrictions options at airports?
What is the contribution of aviation on global CO2 emissions?
What emissions are produced by an aircraft?
What is meant by non-CO2 effects and why is so specific to aviation?
Overview: Environmental impact of aviation
Aviation
Noise Emissions
local local global
Health of population Local air quality Climate change
Environmental impact
Regulations, Charges, external costs

Part 7: Environmental Impact of
Aviation
7.1 Aircraft Noise
7.2 Aircraft Exhaust Emissions
Aviation
7.1 Aircraft Noise
Definitions (1)
Sound waves are oscillations of the air that can be heard by the human ear
or measured by a physical device.
Sound progresses as a periodic oscillation of the air density through
longitudinal waves.
Sound waves are characterized by a local speed of sound and a local sound
pressure.
The sound pressure amplitude ‘p’ of the sound wave can be used to
measure the loudness:
 Lowest audible pressure: 2·10-5 Pa
 Pain starts at: 2·102 Pa
Definitions (2)
The human hearing system respond to wide range of frequencies (20 to 20 K

Hz) and tolerates tremendous range of fluctuating sound pressure levels
Human beings do not enjoy uniform response to sounds of the same

intensity generated at different frequencies
Most annoyed by 2-4 k Hz noise and receptive to protrusive discreet tones
Aircraft noise has wide ranging and variable spectral character and transient
intensity time relationship
Definitions (3)
A metric that varies both with intensity and frequency of noise is needed to
express human response to either loudness or annoyance (also called
perceived noisiness)
ICAO Noise Certification Workshop, 2006
Noise metrics: Overview
SPL Sound Pressure Level
LA PNL
Weighted
Sound Pressure Level
PNLT
Metrics for
SEL LAmax EPNL single events
DENL LAeq Ke NEF CNR
CNEL DNL ANEF NNI

WECPNL
Metrics for multiple
events (long term)
NA
Supplementary
PEI AIE noise metrics
TA Consideration of the
local population density
Noise certification: Positioning of the microphones
For aircraft noise certification, the sound pressure is measured at three

positions:
 Approach: 2km from the runway threshold under the approach flight path
 Sideline: the highest noise measurement recorded at any point 450m from the runway axis
during take-off
 Fly-over: 6.5km from the brake-release point under the take-off flight path
At each point of measurement, maximum allowable sound levels are defined.
Example noise levels
Source: aircraftnoise.com.au
Regulations and restrictions
Two fundamental categories of regulations and restrictions can be

distinguished:
 Noise certification of aircraft according to ICAO Annex 16
 Operational restrictions at airports
Noise-related laws and impacts
Time Day Night
Criterion Constant sound level (Leq, DNL, …) Constant sound level and single events
• Hearing impairment at Leq > 75dB(A) • Disturbances during sleep or while falling asleep
• Increasing risk of heart attack • Waking up at levels LAmax = 42dB(A)
Impacts • Communication disturbances at Leq > 40dB(A), • Constant sound level: disturbed sleep at levels Leq >
LAmax = 55dB(A) 32dB(A) within sleeping room
For existing airports: Authorized maximum (existing airports):

• Leq = 60-65dB(A): Protection zone 2 • Single events: 6 x 57db(A) interior
Laws • Leq > 65dB(A): Protection zone 1 • Constant sound level: Leq < 55 dB(A) exterior
(Germany) (for new or expanding airports, values are reduced by (for new or expanding airports 6 x 53
5dB) dB or 50dB, respectively)
History of ICAO Noise Standards
Sources of sound emissions at the aircraft
Wing tips
Slats
Flaps
Engines: Fan
Engines: Exhaust Gases
During takeoff, the engine-related noise is predominant.

During landing, the aircraft structure-related noise plays the most important
role.
Source noise component contributions
Noise emissions: Noise carpets
An aircraft does not emit noise into all
directions equally.
Every aircraft features a characteristic
noise contour (lines of equal dB-
values)
Boeing 747-400 vs. Airbus A380-800: Takeoff LAmax 85 dB(A) contours
Boeing 777 vs. Airbus A340: Takeoff 85 dB(A) contours
Overview of operational noise restrictions at airports
Night curfews: Quota regulations:
 Predominant at European airports  Maximum number of flights per airline or per
 Application cases: only one runway closed / time interval and slot allocation according to
operating hours according to maximum noise aircraft noise characteristics
levels / general night curfew Noise-reducing flight procedures /
Limitation of noise level: Noise abatement procedures:
 Flying ban when a certain noise level is  Vertical and horizontal noise abatement
exceeded procedures
 Penalty charges when a certain noise level is  Direct noise reduction through ‘Thrust
exceeded Cutback’
Noise charges:  Steep departing and approach procedures
help reduce ground noise considerably
 Factors involved are the noise level, the time
of departure and arrival, and the season
Growth in airport noise restrictions
Overview:
https://www.boeing.com/commercial/noise/list.page
Aviation
7.1 Aircraft Noise
Exhaust emissions produced when burning jet fuel
For 1 kg of jet fuel (kerosene), approx. 4.4 kg of exhaust emissions are produced (stoichiometric
combustion)
1 kg fuel
3.4 kg O2 1.23 kg H2O Greenhouse

3.16 kg CO2 gases
Variable quantities of exhaust emissions: generates / destroys ozone O3

Nitrogen oxides NOx ~ 4 - 40g
Sulphur oxides SOx ~ 0.6 - 1g destroys methane CH4
Soot ~ 0.01 - 0.03g  ozone and methane are
Carbon monoxide CO greenhouse gases
Unburned Hydrocarbons UHC
Traces of OH, methane, lubricating oils, water vapor (contrails)
The emission index is used to indicate the quantity of a specific pollutant per kilogram
of jet fuel burned. Emission Index EI [g/kg fuel]
The ICAO Landing & Takeoff (LTO) Cycle
The LTO cycle was defined in the 1970s.

 This reference cycle captures aircraft emissions from MSL to an altitude of up to 3,000
ft. All emissions that are produced below this altitude contribute to the local air quality in
the airport vicinity.
 When a new engine is being certified, all emissions measurements are referenced to
the LTO cycle at MSL and the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA).
 The LTO cycle is applicable for simple estimation calculations. It is not appropriate for
detailed emissions studies.
 The LTO cycle is a model cycle and therefore does not capture actual pilot behavior,
flight profiles, aircraft performance, and atmospheric conditions
Important emission producers at an airport
Source: Munich Airport
Airside ground
traffic Fuel
stations
APU
De-Icing
Central
energy GPU
production
Ground
handling
Car parks
Landside
ground traffic Aircraft engines
Fuel
storages Engine test runs
Health effects of air pollutants
 Ozone: Lung function impairment, effects on exercise performance, increased airway
responsiveness, increased to respiratory infection, increased hospital admissions and
emergency room visits, and pulmonary inflammation, lung structure damage.
 Carbon Monoxide: Cardiovascular effects, especially in those persons with heart
conditions (e.g., decreased time to onset of exercise-induced angina).
 Nitrogen Oxides: Lung irritation and lower resistance to respiratory infections
 Particulate Matter: Premature mortality, aggravation of respiratory and cardiovascular
disease, changes in lung function and increased respiratory symptoms, changes to
lung tissues and structure, and altered respiratory defense mechanisms.
 Volatile Organic Compounds: Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches,
dizziness, visual disorders, and memory impairment.
Environmental effects of air pollutants
 Ozone: Crop damage, damage to trees and decreased resistance to disease for both
crops and other plants.
 Carbon Monoxide: Similar health effects on animals as on humans.
 Nitrogen Oxides: Acid rain, visibility degradation, particle formation, contribution
towards ozone formation.
 Particulate Matter: Visibility degradation and monument and building soiling, safety
effects for aircraft from reduced visibility.
 Volatile Organic Compounds: Contribution towards ozone formation, odors, and some
direct effect on buildings and plants.
Aviation’s contribution to global CO2 emissions
12%
2%
Source: ICAO (2010)

2018 Values according to ATAG
Effect of greenhouse gases
Reference layer
-> Tropopause Sun Earth
0.1 1 10 100
Wave length (µm)
Troposphere Stratosphere
• “Weather layer” • Stable layers
• High humidity • Low humidity
• Horizontal and • Horizontal winds
vertical winds
Radiative Forcing (RF)

RF  ΔRadiation  RadiationSun - RadiationEarth
Climate-related metrics based on radiative forcing
Radiative Forcing RF: W/m²/kg
Integration: GWPAbsolute   RF(t) dt
Horizon
(Metrics of the
Global Warming Potential: J/m²/kg
Kyoto Protocol)
Taking into account the
earth’s heat capacity
Global Temp. Change Pot.: K/kg
Estimation of emission quantities
Global Temperature Change: K
Empirical model for durable gases (aviation: only CO 2)

ΔTemp    RF
Sources:
Disadvantage: Value of  depending on the model and on the gas!

Shine et al., 2005
Berntsen et al., 2005
Schumann et al., 2002
Aircraft emissions and climate change
Aircraft emissions and climate change
Effect of clouds depending on the altitude
Cirrus formation induced by contrails
 The figure shows the formation of

contrails in supersaturated air at an
outside air temperature of below -40°C
 these are conditions that occur

frequently in typical cruising altitudes of
commercial transport aircraft (10 – 13
km)
Image source: DLR
Aviation radiative forcing components (2020)
Means of environmental protection – Overview
 Limiting values for aircraft engine certification according to ICAO Annex 16 Vol. II for
NOx, CO, HC, and soot. Since 1986, the limiting values have become more stringent in
several steps.
 Emissions-depending landings fees in some European countries (i.e., Germany, UK,
Denmark, Switzerland, Sweden as of 2012)
 Sweden is considering the introduction of emission fees in addition to the already
existing landing fees
 Environmental charge per passenger introduced in the Netherlands
 Airlines suggest voluntary CO2-compensation charges to passengers
 Integration of commercial aviation into the European Emissions Trading System (EU-
ETS) since 2012
 Repeating political discussion about an introduction of a kerosene tax
Aviation industry’s climate target: net zero GHG emission by 2050
ATAG Scenario 1: Pushing technology and operations
Net-zero carbon emissions require:

 Improved technological and operational
efficiency to limit fuel demand
 Transition to renewable energy carriers
Full climate impact of aviation

 Non-CO2 impact needs to be addressed via:
 Clean fuels, novel combustion technology and
adapted operational procedures
Sources: ATAG – Air Transport Action Group, Waypoint 2050;
D.S. Lee et al, The contribution of global aviation to anthropogenic climate
forcing for 2000 to 2018, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2020.117834
Transition Scenarios: Residual GHG emission intensity matters
Additional emission mitigation

Residual emissions options
can lead to sub-
Sustainable aviation fuel
stantial emission with 75% average GHG
emission reduction
overshoot Emission overshoot
Sustainable aviation fuel

with 95% average GHG
emission reduction
Emission overshoot
Source: Habersetzer, The long journey to climate neutrality and synthetic jet fuels, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T3uMJXrlhJ4
Air Transport & Airport
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Air Transport & Airport Part 6: Air Traffic

Design / Luftverkehr Management

What are main elements of ATM/ATC?

Air Traffic Control

* These two expressions are usually employed interchangeably.

Two fundamentally different system types:

En-Route Navigational Aids Approach Navigational Aids

VOR (VHF omnidirectional range)

Air Route “Y161” and

In general, two classes of runways are defined:

Non-instrument (visual) Instrument

Localizer Antennas (Hannover Airport) Glideslope Antennas (Hannover Airport)

Localizer (vertical line)

III-A 0m RVR: 200 m (700 ft)

III-B 0m RVR: 50 m (150 ft)

1) Position Reporting: flight crew communicates its position, altitude, and

2) Radar Systems: fundamental aircraft surveillance system

A transponder receives and retransmits an interrogation pulse along with an

The aircraft’s direction is determined

The aircraft’s altitude is not directly

The ADS is an surveillance approach

Several ADS systems exist:

clearance, a squawk code, and sometimes an

“Ground” & “Apron”

 For some busy airports, Local Control may be

“Approach” & “Departure”

 USA: Terminal Radar Approach Control

En-Route Control: “Center”

The control of aircraft in international

 Communication delays Horizontal Separation Vertical Separation

Consequence: 3 miles 5 miles 1,000 ft 2,000 ft 1,000 ft at all altitudes*

 Separation minima have to be ensured carefully (“Minimum separation standards”).

Example 1: Standard Altitude for Flights

Standard Instrument Departure (SID)

Standard Arrival (STAR)

What is a LTO cycle?

local local global

Health of population Local air quality Climate change

Regulations, Charges, external costs

The human hearing system respond to wide range of frequencies (20 to 20 K

Human beings do not enjoy uniform response to sounds of the same

Most annoyed by 2-4 k Hz noise and receptive to protrusive discreet tones

ICAO Noise Certification Workshop, 2006

DENL LAeq Ke NEF CNR

CNEL DNL ANEF NNI

For aircraft noise certification, the sound pressure is measured at three

Two fundamental categories of regulations and restrictions can be

 Noise certification of aircraft according to ICAO Annex 16

 Operational restrictions at airports

Time Day Night

For existing airports: Authorized maximum (existing airports):

During takeoff, the engine-related noise is predominant.

Boeing 747-400 vs. Airbus A380-800: Takeoff LAmax 85 dB(A) contours

Boeing 777 vs. Airbus A340: Takeoff 85 dB(A) contours

3.4 kg O2 1.23 kg H2O Greenhouse

Variable quantities of exhaust emissions: generates / destroys ozone O3

The LTO cycle was defined in the 1970s.

Source: ICAO (2010)

Radiative Forcing (RF)

Estimation of emission quantities

Global Temperature Change: K

Empirical model for durable gases (aviation: only CO 2)

Disadvantage: Value of  depending on the model and on the gas!