Military

The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy, and the Sri
Lanka Air Force, come under the purview of the Ministry of Defence.[245] The total strength of the
three services is around 346,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.[246] Sri Lanka has not
enforced military conscription.[247] Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil
Security Force, and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard.[248][249]
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security,
crushing three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 26-year-long conflict
with the LTTE. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.
[250][251]
 The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations
since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN
peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon, and Haiti.[252]

Economy
Main article: Economy of Sri Lanka
See also: Agriculture in Sri Lanka, Tea production in Sri Lanka, Tourism in Sri Lanka,
and Transport in Sri Lanka

Development of real GDP per capita, 1820 to 2018

A proportional representation of Sri Lanka exports, 2019

According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's GDP in terms of purchasing power
parity is the second highest in the South Asian region in terms of per capita income. In the 19th
and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy famous for its production and export
of cinnamon, rubber, and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export.
[253]
 The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the
island as a centre of trade.[254] From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's
economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised, and
a welfare state established. In 1977, the free market economy was introduced to the country,
incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.[134]
The Colombo World Trade Center in Colombo. Presidential Secretariat, Bank of Ceylon and Galadhari
Hotel are also visible in the image.
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain
important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles,
telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export,
clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors,
overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign
exchange.[255]
As of 2020, the service sector makes up 59.7% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.2%, and the
agriculture sector 8.4%.[256] The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.[257] China, India
and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.[258] Economic disparities exist
between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the
Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.[259] With
the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.[260]

Sri Lanka's most widely known export, Ceylon tea, which ISO considers the cleanest tea in the world in
terms of pesticide residues. Sri Lanka is also the world's 2nd largest exporter of tea.[261]
The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.[262] During the same period,
poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, market
capitalisation of the Colombo Stock Exchange quadrupled, and the budget deficit doubled.
[255]
 99% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified; 93.2% of the population have access to
safe drinking water; and 53.1% have access to pipe-borne water.[256] Income inequality has also
dropped in recent years, indicated by a Gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010.[263]
The 2011 Global Competitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum, described
Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage
and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness.[264] Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri
Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in
innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in the World
Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[265] In
2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.[266] S&P Dow
Jones Indices classifies Sri Lanka as a frontier market as of 2018.[267] Sri Lanka ranks well above
other South Asian countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) with an index of 0.750.
By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near
bankruptcy which required a bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF).[268] The IMF had
agreed to provide a US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of
criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to
be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and
this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and
external debt by 25%.[269] In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was
larger than US$150 million originally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The
agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the
program, the Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic
fuel pricing formula which was noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail
out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to
2021.[270][271][272]
In September 2021, Sri Lanka declared a major economic crisis.[273] The Chief of its Central Bank
has stepped down amid the crisis.[274] The Parliament has declared emergency regulations due to
the crisis, seeking to ban "food hoarding".[275][276]
Tourism, which provided the economy with an input of foreign currency, has crashed during the
COVID-19 pandemic.[277]

Transport

Provinces
Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until
1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after
several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the government.[219] Each
provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its
functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and
statutory authorities,[219] but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial
councils.[220][221] Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily
merged to form the North-East Province.[222][223] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the
provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial
times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:

Flag Lion Flag

Emblem Gold Lion Passant

Anthem "Sri Lanka Matha"

Butterfly Sri Lankan birdwing

Animal Grizzled giant squirrel

Bird Sri Lanka junglefowl

Flower Blue water lily

Tree Ceylon ironwood (nā)

Sport Volleyball
Culture

Hindu devotees engaging in Kavadi at a temple in Vavuniya

The culture of Sri Lanka is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[354] Sri Lanka is the
home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and
the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the
early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinguishable.[355] Ancient Sri
Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture. The British colonial
culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan
cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high
literacy rate.[356]

Food and festivals

Main articles: Sri Lankan cuisine and Festivals in Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan rice and curry

Dishes include rice and curry, pittu, kiribath, wholemeal roti, string hoppers, wattalapam (a rich
pudding of Malay origin made with coconut milk, jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including
cinnamon and nutmeg), kottu, and appam.[357] Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally
food is served on a plantain leaf or lotus leaf. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found
in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's
Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as lamprais (rice
cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), breudher (Dutch holiday biscuit), and bolo fiado
(Portuguese-style layer cake).
In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu new year festivals.[358] Esala Perahera is a
symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July
and August.[359] Fire dances, whip dances, Kandyan dances and various other cultural dances are
integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate Christmas on 25 December to celebrate the
birth of Jesus Christ and Easter to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate Thai
Pongal and Maha Shivaratri, and Muslims celebrate Hajj and Ramadan.

Visual, literary and performing arts

Main articles: Cinema of Sri Lanka, Music of Sri Lanka, Dances of Sri Lanka, Theatre of Sri
Lanka, and Sri Lankan literature

Female dancers in traditional Kandyan dress

The Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre was constructed as a major venue for the performing arts
The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken Promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra
Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of
Treasures) marked the transition of cinema from black-and-white to colour. In recent years,
movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of
conflict between the military and the LTTE.[360] The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar
to Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high but has been in a
steady decline since then.[361]
An influential filmmaker is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led
to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of Destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The Changing Village,
1964), Nidhanaya (The Treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold Heart, 1968).[362] Sri Lankan-
Canadian poet Rienzi Crusz, is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is
published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised Canadian Michael Ondaatje is well known for his
English-language novels and three films.
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such
as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam.[363] Traditional music instruments such
as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first music
album, Nurthi, recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters
like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D.
Amaradeva, Victor Ratnayake, Nanda Malini and Clarence Wijewardene have contributed much
towards the progression of Sri Lankan music.[364] Baila originated among Kaffirs or the Afro-
Sinhalese community.[365]

A Low Country drummer playing the traditional Yak Béra

There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances, low
country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is
a sophisticated form of dance[366] that consists of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi
dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18 Vannam.[367] An elaborate headdress is worn by the
male dancers, and a drum called Geta Béraya is used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.[368]
The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd
century BCE.[369] The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing
of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have a description of
various paintings in relic chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residences.
Theatre came to the country when a Parsi theatre company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a
blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th
century.[367] The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname,
a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956.[370] It was followed by a series of popular
dramas like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.
Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as
embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda.[371] The Pāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in
the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist
council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BCE.[372] Chronicles such as
the Mahāvaṃsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties.
According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on
Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary).[371] The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-
Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century CE.[371] The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka
include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (parrot message), Hansa
Sandeshaya (swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (myna message). Poetry
including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (Diadem of Poetry) and proses such as Saddharma-
Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of Nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable works of this period,
which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.[371] The first modern-day
novel, Meena by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905[367] and was followed by several revolutionary
literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure
of Sri Lankan literature.[373]

Sport
Main article: Sport in Sri Lanka

R. Premadasa Stadium in Colombo.
While the national sport is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket.
[374]
 Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity,[375] as do association football, netball and tennis.
Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing[376] and scuba diving attract many
Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka: Cheena
di and Angampora.[377]
The Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s,
rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup.[378] They also won the 2014
ICC World Twenty20 played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka
became the runners-up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007[379] and 2011,[380] and of the ICC World
Twenty20 in 2009 and 2012.[381] Former Sri Lankan off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan has been
rated as the greatest test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack,[382] and four Sri
Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd (Sangakkara), 4th (Jayasuriya), 5th (Jayawardene) and 11th
(Dilshan) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. Sri Lanka has
won the Asia Cup in 1986,[383] 1997,[384] 2004,[385] 2008[386] and 2014.[387] Sri Lanka once held the
highest team score in all three formats of cricket.[388] The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup
in 1996 and 2011 and hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20.
Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games: one silver, by Duncan White at the 1948
London Olympics for men's 400 metres hurdles;[389] and one silver by Susanthika Jayasinghe at
the 2000 Sydney Olympics for women's 200 metres.[390] In 1973, Muhammad Lafir won the World
Billiards Championship, the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport.[391] Sri Lanka has also
won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012, 2016[392] and 2018, the men's team
becoming champions and the women's team winning second place.