The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

CHAPTER 2:
MAJOR THEORIES OF
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
 KEY QUESTIONS

1. What is a theory?

2. What do the different theories of human

development discuss?
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define what a theory is and its relevance in the teaching

profession.

2. Compare the different theories of development and its

implications of these theories to human development.

3. Reflect on the different theories on human development

and assess their own development in writing.
 What is Theory?

A theory is defined as an organized set of ideas

and propositions that the theorist formulates about a
phenomenon based from an extensive study.

According to Salkind (2004), the theory is a group

of logically related statements (for example, formulas,
ideas, and rules) that explains events that happened in
the past and helps to predict future events.
 What is Theory?

There are many theories about child development,

but this chapter will be more focused on the most popular
theories not only in the country but worldwide. The major
theories about child development include the following:

• Biological Theory, Psychoanalytic Theory,

Psychosocial Theory, Social Learning Theory, Piaget's
Cognitive Development Theory, Vygotsky's Sociocultural
Theory, Ecological Theory.
 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Early developmental psychologists explained children's
development in terms of innate biological processes.

According to this perspective, heredity plays a very

important role in the growth and development of the individual.
This perspective shows that many physical characteristics (ex. body
type, the color of hair, skin, and eyes) are inherited.

These are brought about by the hereditary factor called the

genes that carry the traits that were contributed by the parents as
early as conception. These hereditary traits may be classified as
either dominant traits or the recessive traits.
 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

Dominant traits are those traits that are passed on

from generation to generation. Most of the genes are
transmitted in the Mendelian pattern and a few are transmitted
through the non-Mendelian pattern that includes: co-dominance,
sex-linked genes, and polygenes. These genes reside on specific
segments of the Deoxyribonucleic acid, otherwise known as
DNA.
 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

The DNA segments carrying this genetic information are

called genes. Likewise, other DNA sequences have structural
purposes or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic
information. Each gene can be found in the chromosome and
each chromosome is found in the nucleus of the cell.

There are two copies of each gene present in an

individual's body with the exception of eggs and sperms. These
two copies include one copy of the gene from the father and
one copy from the mother. This is the reason that physical traits
are either similar to the father or to the mother.
 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
GREGOR MENDEL
The Father of Genetics has
formulated three laws that
explain how traits are
transferred from generation to
generation. The Mendelian
laws are as follows:

The Law of Dominance, the

Law of Segregation, and
the Law of Independent
Assortment.
 BIOLOGICAL THEORIES

1. Law of Dominance states that the presence of one dominant

gene may mask or prevent the expression of the recessive gene.

2. Law of Segregation proposes that a pair of genes is separated

during the formation of gametes with every independent trait or
characteristics developing.

3. Law of Independent Assortment states that the separation

of gene pairs on a given pair of chromosomes and the distribution
of the genes during meiosis are entirely independent of the
distribution of other gene pairs on the other pair of chromosomes.
Each trait can hence be paired with the other trait in the pair.
 PYSCHOANALYTIC THEORY
SIGMUND FREUD
(1856-1939)

He was the founder of

psychoanalysis and
psychoanalytic theories of
human development. His
theories based on the belief
that developmental changes
are due to influences of
internal drives and emotions on
behavior.
 FREUD'S STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY
Freud discussed that human personality is composed of three important
components. They are as follows:

1. id - the unconscious part that houses the libido. Humans are born with the
instinct anima-like desires that cause a man to pursue sex and be aggressive.

2.ego -the conscious part that develops in the first 2 to 3 years of the life of
an individual. This is also the part of the personality in which the individual is
aware of. It helps to satisfy the need of the id and keeps all of the three
components of personality in harmony.

3. superego - the root of morality. It is the part of the personality that helps
the individual to decide what is right and what is wrong. Its job is to try and
satisfy the id without going against the rules set by the superego.
FREUD'S STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY
Sigmund Freud believed that personality
develops through a series of stages in which seeking
pleasure emanates from erogenous areas of the body.
He called it the id.

This psychosexual energy, also known as

libido, was described as the driving force behind the
behavior. If these psychosexual stages are completed
successfully, and the area of the body is satisfied,
thus, the result is a healthy personality.

What if a person fails to progress through a

stage completely or favorably? If certain issues are not
resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur.
Fixation is the tendency to be stuck at a particular
stage of development.
STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Oral Stage (birth-18 months).

The infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the

mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are
responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense
of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process the

child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation
occurs at this stage, Freud believed that the individual would have
issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in
problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.
 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years).

Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on

controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this
stage is toilet training – the child has to learn to control his or her
bodily needs. Developing this control leads to sense of
accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative

outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an
anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy,
wasteful, or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training
too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the
individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 5 years).

The primary focus of the libido on the phallic stage is on

the genitals. At this age children also begin to discover the
differences between males and females. Freud also believed that
boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother's
affections.

The Oedipus Complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess

the mother and the desire to replace the father.

The term Electra Complex has been used to describe a similar set of
feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead
experience penis envy.
 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

4. Latency Stage (7 to 11 years).

The libido interests on the latency stage are suppressed.

The development of the ego and superego contribute to this
period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children
enter into school and become more concerned with peer
relationships, hobbies, and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is

still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and
social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and
communication skills and self-confidence.
 STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

5. Genital Stage (11 years onwards).

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the

individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
Normally, youths have realized that having sexual desire for
parents is taboo, and so they channeled their sexual interest with
the other members of the opposite sex.

If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual

should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to
establish a balance between the various life areas.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
ERIK ERIKSON
(1902-1994)

Developmental Psychologist Erik

Erikson provided a framework for
understanding children's personal
development.

His theory helps us to understand

the emergence of the self in early
development, the need for self-
sufficiency in the school years,
and the search for identity in
adolescence.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
People progress through a
series of eight psychosocial
stages. Each stage is
characterized by a "conflict or
crisis" that the individual must
successfully resolve in order to
develop a healthy direction. The
individual who fails to resolve
one or more of the life crises is
almost certain to encounter
problems in the succeeding
stages of development or in the
future. In each stage, the
person confronts, and hopefully
masters, new challenges.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY

1. Trust vs. Mistrust. (Birth to 1 year).

The development of trust requires warm, nurturant caregiving. The

positive outcome is a feeling of comfort and minimal fear. Mistrust develops when
infants are treated too negatively or are ignored.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. (1 to 3 years).

After gaining trust in their caregivers, infants begin to discover that their
behavior is their own. They assert their independence and realize their will. If
infants are restrained too much or punished too harshly, they develop a sense of
shame and doubt.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY

3. Initiative vs. Guilt. (3 to 5 years).

Children at this stage are aggressive and vigorous in the exploration of

both their social and their physical environments. Three-year-olds have a
growing sense of initiative, which can be encouraged by parents, caregivers, and
preschool teachers. If they are severely punished for their initiative, they could
feel guilty about their natural urges both during this stage and later in life.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority. (6 to 10 years).

Children's initiative brings them into contact with a wealth of new

experiences. As they move into the elementary years, they direct their energy
toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills. Failure creates a negative
self-image, a sense of inadequacy that may hinder future learning.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion. (10 to 20 years).

At this stage, the adolescents are continually searching for their own
identity; they turn away from their parents and turn toward their peers.
Adolescents need to be allowed to explore different paths to attain a healthy
identity. If adolescents do not adequately explore different roles and don't carve
out a positive future path, they can remain confused about their identity.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation. (20 to 39 years).

This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships. Erikson believed it was vital that people develop
close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this
step will form relationships that are committed and secure. Successful resolution
of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form
lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation. (40 to 64 years).
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career
and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are
contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those
who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

8. Integrity vs. Despair. (65 to death).

This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
life. Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings
of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel
a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with
few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain
wisdom, even when confronting death.
PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY
COGNITIVE THEORIES

Cognitive theories are

concerned with the development
of human thought processes.

Cognitive theorists focus on the

ways children construct their own
understanding of their
environment. Development
occurs through the interplay of
children's emerging capabilities
and their experiences in the
environment.
JEAN PIAGET'S COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

JEAN PIAGET
(1896-1980)

One of the early proponents of

cognitive theories is Jean Piaget
who proposed a theory that
accounts for the steps and
sequences of children’s
intellectual development. Piaget
believed that children think
differently than adults.
 JEAN PIAGET'S COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

He became intrigued by the reasons children gave for their

wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking. He
believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences
between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of

cognitive development and his contributions are very famous because
he had detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a
series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive
abilities.

Before Piaget's work, the common assumption in psychology

was that children are merely less competent thinkers than adults.
 JEAN PIAGET'S COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Piaget showed that young children think in noticeably different

ways compared to adults. Piaget believed that children are born with a
very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on
which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based

The goal of Piaget's theory is to explain the mechanisms and

processes by which the infant, and then the child develops into an
individual who can reason and think using hypotheses. Children
construct an understanding of the world around them, then,
experience discrepancies between what they already know and what
they discover in their environment.
 JEAN PIAGET'S COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

According to Piaget, two major principles guide intellectual

growth and biological development: adaptation and organization.

Organization refers to the mind's natural tendency to organize

information into related, interconnected structures. He suggests that the
mind is organized in complex and integrated ways. The simplest level is
the schema, a mental representation of some physical or mental action
that can be performed on an object, event, or phenomenon.
 JEAN PIAGET'S COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

He viewed intellectual growth as of adaptation (adjustment) to

the world. For individuals to survive in an environment, they must adapt
to physical and mental stimuli. This happens through:

Assimilation. This is the cognitive process of fitting new information into

existing cognitive schemas, or ideas, and understanding. This means that when you
are faced with new information, you make sense of this information by referring to
information you already have information processed and learned previously) and try to
fit the new information into the information you already have.

Accommodation. This involves altering or modifying one’s existing cognitive

schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences in order to adapt
to the new experience. Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: a
person cannot have one without the other. All mental processes involve assimilation or
accommodation.
 JEAN PIAGET'S COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

He believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and
accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration.
As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to
maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation)
and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).
Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought
into the next.

Piaget suggested that children go through four distinct stages in a fixed order
that is universal in all children. He noted that these stages differ not only in the
quantity of information acquired at each but also in the quality of knowledge and
understanding at that stage. In addition, Piaget suggested that movement from one
stage to the next occurred when the child reached an appropriate level of maturation
and was exposed to relevant types of experiences. Without experience, children were
assumed incapable of reaching their highest cognitive ability.
COGNITIVE STAGES
COGNITIVE STAGES
 COGNITIVE STAGES
1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

The first stage from birth to approximately age 2 is when an

infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory
perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor
responses caused by sensory stimuli. Babies utilize skills and abilities
they were born with to learn more about the environment in the form of
looking, sucking, grasping, and listening.

The development of object permanence is one of the highlights

in the sensorimotor stage. Object permanence is a child’s understanding
that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or
heard.
 COGNITIVE STAGES

2. Preoperational Stage (two to seven)

The preoperational stage occurs between the ages two and

seven. Language development is one of the highlights of this period.
Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete
logic, cannot mentally manipulate information and are unable to take
the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.

During the preoperational stage, children also become increasingly adept at

using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and engaging in pretend play.
For example, a child is able to use an object to represent something else, such as
pretending a broom is a horse. Role-playing also becomes important during the
preoperational stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor" and
many other characters.
 COGNITIVE STAGES
Egocentrism.

Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study

the mental abilities of children. One of the famous techniques to
demonstrate egocentrism involved using a three- dimensional display of
a mountain scene. Often referred to as the "Three Mountain Task,"
children are asked to choose a picture that showed the scene they had
observed. Most children are able to do this with little difficulty. Next,
children are asked to select a picture showing what someone else would
have observed when looking at the mountain from a different viewpoint.

Invariably, children almost always choose the showing their own view of the
mountain scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they
are unable to take on another person's perspective.
 COGNITIVE STAGES

Conservation.

In one conservation experiment of Piaget, equal amounts of

liquid are poured into two identical containers. The liquid in one
container is then poured into a differently shaped cup, such as a tall
and thin cup or a short and wide cup. Children are then asked which
cup holds the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were
equal, children almost always choose the cup that appears fuller.

Piaget conducted a number of similar experiments on the conservation of

number, length, mass, weight, volume, and quantity. He found that few children
showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.
 COGNITIVE STAGES

3. Concrete Operations Stage (seven to eleven)

The concrete operational stage begins around age 7 and

continues until approximately age 11. During this time, children gain a
better understanding of mental operations. Children begin to think
logically about concrete events but have difficulty understanding
abstract or hypothetical concepts.

Logic. Piaget determined that children in the concrete operational stage were
fairly good at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific
experience to a general principle. On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty
using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the
outcome of a specific event.
 COGNITIVE STAGES
Classification. It refers to the ability to sort objects or situations according to
their similar characteristics. For example, the child would be able to group objects or
things according to color, size or shape.

Elimination of Egocentrism. The child's ability to view things from another's

perspective.

Reversibility. Reversibility is the child's awareness that actions can be

reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between
mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog
is a Dalmatian, that a Dalmatian is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.

Seriation. It refers to the ability to sort objects or situations according to any

characteristic, such as size, color, shape, or type. For example, the child would be able
to arrange the numbers from the least to greatest.
 COGNITIVE STAGES

4. Formal Operational Stage (11- onwards)

The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve

to and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the ability
to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought,
deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this
stage.

Logic. Piaget believed that deductive logic becomes important during the
formal operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle
to determine a specific outcome. This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations
and is often required in science and mathematics.
 COGNITIVE STAGES

Abstract Thought. While children tend to think very concretely and

specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges
during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences,
children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type
of thinking is important in long-term planning.

Problem-Solving. In earlier stages, children used trial-and- error to solve

problems. During the formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a
problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational
stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach
to solving a problem.
COGNITIVE STAGES
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

LEV VYGOTSKY
(1896-1934)

A Russian psychologist who

looked into the fundamental
role of socio-cultural interaction
in the development of
cognition. He strongly believed
that the community plays a
central role in the process of
"making meaning".
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are

curious and actively involved in their own learning and the
discovery and development of understandings or schema However,
Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the
process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated
discovery.

Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process

of cognitive development. Vygotsky noted that every function in
the child's cultural development appears twice: first on the social
level or between people (interpsychological level) and then inside
the child (intrapsychological level).
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

The people around the child play a very important role in

the child's cognitive development. Vygotsky (1978) maintained
that the child follows the adult's example and gradually develops
the ability to do certain tasks without help or assistance.

He called the difference between what a child can do with

help and what he or she can do without guidance the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance
between a student's ability to perform a task under adult guidance
and/or with peer collaboration and the student's ability in solving
the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning
occurred in this zone.
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

The adult or the people around the child are called the
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The more knowledgeable
other (MKO) supports the child in his learning. The role of
teachers and others in supporting the learner's development and
providing support structures to get to that next stage or level is
called scaffolding.

Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the

sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences
(Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a
culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments.
Initially, children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions-ways to
communicate needs. Vygotsky also believed that the internalization of these
tools led to higher thinking skills.
BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
ALBERT BANDURA
(1925- )

A Psychologist who had the

idea that learning does not
necessarily require
reinforcement. He believed that
an individual can also learn by
observing other people.
Children learn how to behave
by looking at their siblings and
other adults.
 BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Observational Learning refers to learning through watching others,
retaining information of them later copying the behaviors that were
observed. He proposes that new behavior can be acquired through
observation and by imitating others.

Bandura believes that this kind of learning depends on four

processes: attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement
and motivation.

1. Attention. What the learners noticed on the modeled behavior.

2. Retention. What they are able to remember.
3. Motor Reproduction. What they are physically able to copy.
4. Reinforcement and Motivation.
What they continue doing since they are rewarded for doing it.
BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
This came about as a result of a
series of studies formed around the
Bobo doll and a young woman who
would elicit aggressive behavior
towards the Bobo doll.

The reaction of the young woman

towards the Bobo doll was filmed
and was shown to a group of
children, who then proceed to copy
the young woman's behavior. The
change in the children's behavior
was a result of their observation of
the young woman.
BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
The Social Learning Theory further shows
that a person’s behavior is influenced by
the environment and vice versa. It means
that the environment tends to make
changes in the behavior of an individual,
and in return, the behavior of the
individual is also responsible for the
changes in the environment.

This interplay between the individual and

the environment is shown in Bandura's
concept of reciprocal determinism. The
actions are just reactions to what has
already happened. The behavior of the
individual is just a reaction of things that
happened in the past and the environment
also caused or affected such behavior.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY

URIE BRONFEUBRENNER
(1917-2005)

A famous American Psychologists

formulated of developed the Ecological
Systems Theory. The ecological theory
holds that we encounter different
environments throughout our lifespan
that may influence our behavior in
varying degrees. These systems include
the microsystem, the mesosystem, the
exosystem, the macrosystem, and the
chronosystem.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY

The microsystem is the smallest and most immediate

environment in which the individual lives: the family, peers,
neighborhood, and the school. How children react to people in
their microsystem will also influence how they treat the children in
return.

The mesosystem is the relationship between and among

the parts of the microsystem. A very good example is the
relationship existing between the family and the neighborhood,
and the school. Another example is the relationship of an
individual that may be affected by the peer groups who may be in
the neighborhood, or in the school.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY

The exosystem includes the other people and places the

individual may not interact with but still has a large effect. A good
example is the parent's workplace. In the parent is laid off from
work, this may have negative effects such as the provision of
basic necessities.

On the other hand, if the parent receives a promotion and

raises at work a positive effect such as being able to buy the
materials needed in studying and sustaining physical needs may
be created.
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM THEORY

The macrosystem is the largest and most distant set of

people and things to the individual but still has a great influence.
This includes things such as the freedom permitted by the
national government, cultural values, the economy, and so on.
These things can affect the individual either positively or
negatively.

The chronosystem develops as a result of the individual’s

experience in his life. This includes environmental events and
transitions in an individual's life.
THE END
The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

CHAPTER 2:
MAJOR THEORIES OF
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT