Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nebra Disk Cosmology
Nebra Disk Cosmology
7 Harald Meller
posts
The Nebra Sky Disc –
an Early Bronze Age find of exceptional importance
21 Wolfhard Schlosser
On the astronomical interpretation of the Nebra Sky Disc
32 Gerd Seidel
Small monuments in the Burgenland district. A necessary polemic
34 Aribert Weigelt
Old and new long-distance routes in relation to urban planning
Spatial formation in Central Germany
38 Stefan Tebruck
Neuenburg via Freyburg/Unstrut and the Landgraves of
Thuringia in the 12th and 13th centuries
51 Roman Mischker
Mining Archeology in the State Office for Archeology
61 Alfred R. Volker
Geophysics at the service of archaeology
67 Rosemarie Leineweber
Archeology - young at heart. On the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the
association »Young Archaeologists of the Altmark e. V."
73 Wolfgang Donath
La Tène belt hanging from the Pettin vineyard
74 Kurt Klausnitzer
50 years of preservation of historical monuments
Machine Translated by Google
CONTENTS
77 Hans-Joachim Jasiulek
Three decades as a voluntary archaeologist
80 Renate Völker
Late love Archeology - and of all places in the Harz region, which is empty of finds
95 Dieter Kaufman
The State Museum of Prehistory during the Halle Museum Nights
97 Johanna Brabandt
The day of the open monument 2000 and 2001
Find reports 287 excavations, findings, finds and inventoried archaeological monuments
322 publications
323 Personalia
probes. Since then, amateur archaeologists have history Berlin in May 2oo1, the director of the
been roaming through fields and forests to help museum, Wilfried Menghin, showed me more
coincidence with ever more powerful devices3. than a dozen prints of amateur photos, which,
Many well-known archaeological monuments blurred but clearly recognizable, showed one of
became West German as a result of targeted inspections by detectorists
the most spectacular archaeological finds we
lands largely plundered. In East Germany, this had ever seen. Next to two swords, two hatchets
was only possible after the unification of the two and fragments of arm spirals lay a bronze disc
German states and the acquisition of the about 30 cm in size on a terry cloth towel, on
corresponding devices on a larger scale. As in which a concrete depiction of the sun, moon and
most other areas of life, too stars was apparently attached in the form of gold
here the development of the West is followed in plating. After presenting the photos to Wilfried
quick succession. Well-known monuments such Menghin, this find was sold for 1 million in 1999.
as B. the small Gleichberg in Thuringia, despite
numerous arrests by the police as a result of DM has been offered for sale. When he asked
robbery excavations, have always been where the find came from, the providers named
profoundly disturbed (Kapff 2oo2, 4). the town of Sangerhausen in Saxony-Anhalt.
Initially completely unnoticed by experts, in With this clear statement about the place where
1999 two probes succeeded in discovering one it was found, the find could no longer be traded
of those "finds of the century", which were legally, since the Treasury Regulation (§ 12
extremely rare even in the days of metal probes, DenkmSchG) applies in Saxony-Anhalt, according
in a prehistoric rampart in southern Saxony- to which moveable cultural monuments “become
Anhalt not right the property of the state upon discovery” “if they
are of outstanding scientific value have".
Prof. Dr. As a result, W. Menghin rejected the the exact place where it was found and the
purchase offer with reference to the property circumstances of the find, especially the exact
rights of the state of Saxony-Anhalt. Since then, type of finding. The majority of these questions
ie for more than three years, no trace of the have now been clarified, a little over six months later.
unique find has been lost. If the find on the photos
is genuine, its significance for archeology far
The discovery
beyond Germany was so exceptional that the
rightful owner, the state of Saxony-Anhalt, had to
a. Authenticity, togetherness, dating
do everything possible to ensure that the find
went to the responsible state museum for History In addition to the disc itself, the find (Fig. 1)
in Halle came and the public and includes two swords, two edge hatchets, a bent
edge chisel and several fragments
science could be made accessible. of probably originally two arm spirals4. All of
The security authorities were involved in the these finds are made of bronze. Two flat rings
planned repatriation from the outset, since the made of thin sheet gold were used to decorate
acquisition was not based on actual the handles of the swords. There are also two
purchase, but rather, if at all possible, by small folded gold sheets and a small round gold
identifying the current “owners” and securing the sheet, which is clearly the support of the star that
finds. Naturally, these investigations turned out fell off the bronze disc.
to be extremely difficult, not only because of the
time that had elapsed in the meantime, but also The compressed sheets of metal presumably fit
because of the difficulty in establishing the into the torn-out part of the large, round gold
relevant contacts with the current owners, who object on the pane.
were acting very cautiously. Since the finds are not from a scientific
come from one excavation and have passed
It took nine months for the German and Swiss through several hands, the question arose as to
police to gain access to the basement of a Basel their authenticity and whether they belonged together.
hotel The dating of the bronze disc ultimately also
could. During this and a subsequent house depended on this, as this singular find could not
search in Germany, the entire find depicted in the be dated with sufficient accuracy as a single find.
Berlin photos was secured. He was born on the The probability of a forgery of the bronze disc was
1o. March 2oo2 handed over to the State Museum confirmed by the investigations by E. Pernicka at
Fig.1 The bronze find with Him for Prehistory Halle by the District Court of Halle. the TU Freiberg and by C.-H. Wunderlich from the
melsscheibe in uncleaned and State Museum for Vor
unrestored condition immediately
At this point in time, there were numerous history was decidedly negative (see the article by
after being transferred to the State
Museum of Prehistory in March 2002.
questions about the perpetrators, possible fences, Pernicka/ Wunderlich in this volume).
the authenticity and connection between the find and theIn the case of the accompanying finds, there
was hardly any question as to their authenticity,
since the cost of counterfeiting would have
exceeded the potential profit from a sale. With the
same arguments as with the bronze disc, the
originality can also be proven here, supported by
the archaeological investigations.
It is naturally more difficult to prove that the
finds belong together. In principle, it is to be
feared that robber graves or fences will add
additional finds that date to exceptional individual
finds in order to improve their saleability, in order
to increase the value of the overall find. This
practice was introduced to me while researching
impressively described based on the present
find. On gold finds, such as gold bowls, which in
the Bronze Age were repeatedly found without accompanying
occur, one gives "green stuff" - meaning bronze
finds with their characteristic green patina -
because the archaeologists of the buying
museums would be happy about the integration
into a find context.
For several reasons, however, it can be
assumed that this is the case with the present find
is not the case. Rather, everything points to it located on the handles so singularly that it
indicate that the pieces actually originally would hardly be possible for even a dealer with
belonged together. access to the entire "market" to find such rare
The find could already be seen in its current and valuable finds. He would have met with Bei
composition on the first photos known to us, chisels and arm spirals, which occur much
which show the pane in an uncleaned condition more frequently than accompanying finds
with scratches from the excavation equipment. must.
The buyers of the find was at the With proof that the find belongs together, it
The value of the bronze disc is probably not is possible to date the laying of the bronze disc
known due to the heavy soiling. essence relatively precisely. The two swords as well as
It is clear that the finds were only partially hatchets and chisels
cleaned when they were seized. According to belong to the transition from the Early to the
the investigations by W. Lichtenberg and C.-H. Middle Bronze Age, in the so-called stage A 3,
Wunderlich (State Criminal Police Office and and are thus at the end of the 17th and the first
State Museum for Prehistory) so identical that half of the 16th century BC. dated 6th
it must be assumed that they belong together.
Subsequent attachment of the floor for the
b. The bronze disc
purpose of deception is more than improbable
due to the observed extremely strong The diameter of the bronze disc, which is not
connection with the metal surface. exactly round, varies between 31 and 32 cm
(Fig. 2). The thickness increases from about
Archaeological arguments also support the 1.5 mm to about 4.5 mm from the outside
fact that the finds belong together. The inwards. The weight in the current state of the
inventory of finds is chronologically and partial restoration is approx. 2o5o g. 37 gold
historically conclusive5. The swords give us sheets with a thickness of approx . 0.4 mm were exchanged on the disk.
the clearest indication. you are with him They were with their rims in only after that
re inlaid blade decoration and gold on Cast grooves have been driven. About it
in addition, the edge of the disk became circumferential that is, an ideal-typical structure of the night sky
punched at fairly regular intervals from the front has been presented, the conscious emphasis of
with at least 38 holes measuring approx. 2.5 mm. which was on the emphasis on the Pleiades, the
only constellation.
The traces of hammering out after casting are In addition to these clear celestial bodies,
clear on the undecorated reverse side there were probably three stripe-shaped gold
to recognize. In addition, they are recorded here arches on the edge of the disk. One of the two
gold sheets clearly exchanged on the front that was slightly wider than the third edge is
from7. The disc shows considerable damage on missing. The loss is documented by the exact
the edge, on the front and back and on the decoy groove in which it was attached. With
largest sheet of gold. In addition, some of the both wingtips it is obvious that they were
gold plating is covered with fine scratches, which attached later. Under the surviving gold stripe
apparently stem from a modern attempt at
cleaning. As the investigations of C.-H. the relief of two stars emerges. Thereafter
Wunderlich, W. Lichtenberg and the investigations Identification of the X-ray image of these stars at the
by the public prosecutor in Halle showed that Works on the gold bow were removed, it should
the extensive damage mentioned was not be an intentional over
predominantly caused by the robber graves cover stars for mythological or conceptual
during improper salvaging8. During the reasons. This idea is supported by a third star,
"excavation" in the course of the discovery, they which had been moved when the wing tip that is
smashed the edge of the disc and the gold missing today was created, as it would have
attached there fell off. They also damaged the been partially covered by it (see Pernicka /
largest gold plating and scratched the front of Wunderlich contribution, Fig. 5). According to
the disc in particular with a pointed tool, Schlosser's convincing interpretation, both
probably a carpenter's hammer. marginal arcs are horizon symbols that show
At first glance, the gold appliqués on the disc the annual course of the sun along the horizon
are interpreted as sun, moon and stars. line at sunrise and sunset between 21.06 . and
According to the current state of knowledge, the 21.12. mark so that the ends of the arcs on the
representations of the sun and moon can also be disc effectively represent this data.
a full moon or a total or partial eclipse of the sun
and/or moon (on astronomy see the Schlosser
article in this volume). The observation of a clear, The third, slightly tilted between the gold
slightly rippled rim formed by the decoction on arches near the arches of the horizon, has two
Fig.3 The highly stylized ship the Sun could play a role in future interpretation. parallel grooves in the upper half and its more
on the Nebra Sky Disc is The formerly 32 stars are fairly regularly but pronounced curvature. Its decoration
surrounded by a feathering
randomly distributed across the disk. Make an distinguishes it from the other gold sheets.
typical of Bronze Age ship
depiction, exception
probably intended to indicate
rudders. The ship has a seven stars between »Sun« and »Moon«, which
special significance as a The ship
religious symbol because according to Prof. Dr. W. Schlosser (Astronomical
it sails unmanned across the Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum) which Based on numerous archaeological comparisons,
night sky between sunrise this is probably the highly stylized Dar
should be about the Pleiades. What is important
and sunset.
is his recognition that the remaining stars are a position of a ship (Fig. 3). Because of the
»starry sky free of constellations per se«, significant religious-historical significance of
this motif for the following periods of the Bronze
Age, it will be given in more detail here
be treated.
Ships played a central role in the middle and
especially late Bronze Age of Central and
Northern Europe for almost 1,000 years as a
religious symbol alongside horses, waterfowl and
sun disks. They were usually highly stylized and
often unmanned on numerous bronzes - only the
razors are mentioned here, but they are also –,
shown on rock paintings. A characteristic is a
dash or feathering mostly on the top of the ship,
more rarely also on the bottom (Fig. 4)9.
1 2 3 4
Fig.6 The Hungarian neck crest and neck disc younger than our find. Here, too, the ships
axes of the Apa-Hajdúsámson horizon (16th century B.C. are grooved lengthwise and have
Chr.) often have ornaments running parallel to the cutting
edge with rolled-up ends, which Sprockhoff already referred
feathering on the underside, which was
to as depictions of ships. In comparison with the ship of the designed as a row of dots. Based on this
sky disc and the ships of Zajta, this is correct, so that the stylized depiction, it is easy to recognize
origin of our strongly stylized ship is probably to be sought
in this region, from which the ideas for our swords also
two ships on a second sword from the
come. In the examples from Nehoiu (1) and Apa (2) shown same depot find, albeit with bow and stern
here, a ship with bow and stern rolled up is pointing to the bent up (Kemenczei 1991, pl. 3.11; 4.11).
cutting edge, in the examples from Plaÿie¸sti (3) and
Hajdúsám son (4) two are standing facing each other Ships
As we shall see below, the models of
opposite, the dot between the ships in the piece from the two come from the Sky Disc
Plaÿie¸sti could represent the sun (M. 2:3). found swords from Hungarian and
Romanian depot finds, such as Hajdúsámson and
Apa, in which they, together with the
A formally much closer parallel and neckplate axes described here, have ships
above all a chronologically perfect match position were found. In addition to close
are the representations of ships on formal correspondence, there is also a
numerous Danube shaft hole, neck plate correspondence in content and
and neck crest axes (Fig. 6)12. These chronology. In view of the fact that the
illustrations were already referred to as depiction of ships on the disk was
completely
ship motifs by Sprockhoff in 1955 (44; 1o4 Figs. 14.1-5). isolated in Central Europe at
The ships are each highly stylized and this time and that the motif did not
oriented parallel to the ax blades; two develop independently in Central Germany,
ships can face each other, but usually also because of the lack of large bodies
only one ship carries hooked ornaments of water, a derivation from the central
that adorn the sides of the axes. Danube region appears to be due to the
Fig.7 Along the sword blade Like our ship, the ship motifs on these plausible observations. In addition, it
from Zajta, Hungary, axes have parallel longitudinal grooves might be possible to use good arguments
(late 16th/early 15th century
BC) are ten highly stylized ships on
in the ship's hull, the feathering here is in to build a bridge to the later bird sun
Lined up pictured, which is most cases its equivalent in a dot. barques, so that the early grooved ships
one of the
However, in contrast to our boat, the stern actually stand at the beginning of the
best parallels to the depiction
of ships on the Nebra Sky Disc
and bow are strongly curved inwards in religious ship symbolism of Central and Northern Eu
(M. 1:2). the illustrations on the axes. However, since we have a complex
A bow and stern design corresponding pictorial program in front of us on our
to our depiction can be found on ten disc, in contrast to the depictions of the
opposing ship motifs along a sword blade central Danube region, in which a barge
by Zajta (Hungary; Kemenczei 1991, 12), sails across the starry night sky between
which played no role in the previous sunrise and sunset, we have to pursue
discussion of early ship depictions (fig. 7). the ship symbols and depiction a little further .
This sword of Zajta is only immaterial On the one hand, the Bronze Age icon
On the other hand, it is quite possible that Fig. 8 The ships carved in clay on the
the Central European ship symbol of the so-called Cycladic handle scales are
the oldest depictions of ships in
Bronze Age originated in the central Europe (middle of the 3rd
Danube region, but that against the millennium BC). Here, too, the
rudders are only indicated as dashed
background of ideas inherited from the
lines along the hull (without scale).
South happened.
European key find, which ultimately gives us in the late 3rd millennium BC a28 . Due to the
new questions and answers about older finds relatively simple decoration, manufacture in
and features such as e.g. B. Stonehenge, Greece is rather unlikely.
which in its final construction phase also dates The two axes are Rand
back to the 16th century. Bühl-type groin axes with a slight notch, which
can be dated to stage A 3 at the end of the
i.e. Swords, hatchets, chisels and arm spirals Early Bronze Age. The distribution of the axes
The other finds will only be discussed briefly points to the north with a focus on the lower
at this point. Given the importance of the disc, Elbe and Oder area (Rittershofer 1983, 183ff. Fig. 3).
it is easy to overlook the fact that the swords With the bent edge chisel with widened
are also outstanding pieces. This is shown Stock area is a late
most impressively by the ornaments made of Variant which, like the axes, can be dated to
sheet gold on the handles and the decorative the turn of the Early to Middle Bronze Age
technique on the blade and handle. Both (Zich 1996, 214 f. Map 97). Chisels of this type
swords are extremely similar are spread loosely from the northern Harz
lich. They have an approx. 36 cm long blade Mountains to Poland.
and only one handle, which is attached to the Due to the find history and their fragility,
blade with four rivets. Imprints on the back of the arm spirals have mostly broken into
the blade and the undamaged rivets on one numerous pieces in the modern age. Originally
sword show that the second half of the handle it was probably two simple arms
was obviously made of organic material and spirals, which are more common in the
has therefore not been preserved25. special northern Aunetic culture. They are almost
What is striking is that the hilts and blades of exclusively found in hoards. A distribution
our two swords are decorated with inlays (Figs. focus is in Central Germany, so that a native
18 and 19). The lancet-shaped blade inlays are form should be assumed here as well (Zich
accompanied by fine grooves. 1991, 207f. Map 94).
The only exception is a wavy inlay along the
middle of the back of the blade on one of the The location
pieces. The sword hilts contained bone inside,
as evidenced by small amounts of adherent The basis of the official activities on the part
remains. Metric comparisons with other of Saxony-Anhalt was the credible naming of
swords and technical considerations suggest the origin of the find by the sellers in
that the gold application sat directly between Berlin. These indications were confirmed
the handle and the pommel (Fig. 18). during the course of the investigation. However, the exact
Formally, the swords belong to the so-called
Apa swords, which originated in the area
Fig.18 Sword from the Nebra bronze find. Since the golden
between the middle Danube and the Tisza, in
handle decoration was probably between the pommel and
other words today's Hungary and Romania26. the middle part – as reconstructed here – the photo probably
Another focus, albeit imported or reproduced reflects the original impression.
pieces, is in what is now Denmark. Based on Fig.19 The blades of the bronze swords are exchanged
the material known so far, it is not possible to with a copper strip. The origin of this ornament is ultimately
say with certainty where our piece was made. unclear, as it was not common in Central Europe.
excavations to clarify the precise findings. Exact Schlosser discovered the line of sight with
proof of the find spot which, starting from the Mittelberg, the important
succeeded only through the testimony of one of the date of 21.o6. the sunset behind the Brocken in
the Harz can be observed. This is the find, which is sent to t
parties involved. Since the 2o. August headed the state office
Ends of the horizon arches also shows this date, To be seen at the end of 2oo4 as part of a separate
clearly related to the find spot and thus gains the state exhibition. Until then, the extensive scientific
character of a prehistoric observatory with the and necessary archaeological investigations will
associated cult device. be carried out. These are to be published in the
form of a catalog before the exhibition and, above
Proceed further all, in connection with a planned international
congress.
After the find already four weeks after Er
1 First of all, I would like to thank 6 On level A 3: Rittershofer 1983, 19 Knape and Nordstrom 1994; Bünker REMARKS
all those who, through their 139-4o5. For the absolute 1914,
extraordinary commitment, chronology: Innerhofer 2ooo, 241 ff.; 27o 317ff.
ff. 2o Black/Green 1992, sv Solar Disc,
prevented the find briefly 7 On the technique of decoding in Standards, Staves, Scepters of Gods.
presented here from falling into general: La Niece/Craddock 21 For the astronomical ceilings see
the wrong hands. The competent 1993. 8 At a press conference on Lexicon of Egyptology I, 1975, sv
employees of the public prosecutor's September 25, 2002 in Nebra, the Astronomy, 511–514.
office in Halle, the State Criminal public prosecutor's office in 22 Müller-Karpe 198o, plates 96–97;
Police Office in Saxony-Anhalt, Halle gave an initial overview of 1o1; 1o7-1o8; 163; 184; Müller-
the Ministry of Education in the history of the find and sale . Karpe 1974, plate 242; 292; 296;
Saxony-Anhalt and the public prosecutor's
9 Anoffice in Basel,
excellent Prof. of
overview Dr.Central Black/Green 1992 sv Seven Dots.
Reichstein and those employees and Northern European Bronze 23 In summary: Schauer 1984;
of the Saxony-Anhalt State Office Age ship depictions based on showers 1985; Gerloff 1993.
for Archeology who were aware razors can be found in Kaul 1998. 24 Coblenz 1986; Gerloff 1993, 62ff.
of the find. 1o In 25 The other swords of the Apa type
2 A brief insight into the rubric summary: Pfeiffer have either one-piece hilts or
"Circumstances of finds" in the Frohnert 1997, 455ff. full hilts made of two sides. Handle
exhibition catalog "Beauty, Power 11 On the Hittite connection: and blade are more often cast in
and Death" shows this clearly for Schauer 1985, 131 ff. Figs. 5–7. one piece. A construction
the most important Central On domestic production: Kaul comparable to our sword was
German finds: Meller 2oo1, 4o-29o. 1998, 73 ff. found in a mound near Rastorf
3 An excellent overview of the 12 Most clear Vulpe 197o, (Schleswig-Holstein):
Zanier 2oo1. Plate 15,24o; 19,293-294,298; Bokelmann 1977, 9o-99 Fig. 8.1.
55.3o3; 57,238.24o; 58-62; 69,A3-4;
71,A1; 72,A1-3; 73,B7; 74,B1. 26 Bader 1991, 37ff.; Kemenczei
13 Ekschmitt 1993, 58 ff. Fig. 26; 1991, 8 ff.; v. Quillfeldt 1995, 25ff.;
4 So far, the find has been made public Broodbank 1998, 319-337. Hansel 2ooo, 31ff.
presented in two press conferences 14 Müller-Karpe 1974, plates 37o,26; 27 The best-known Early Bronze Age
on 28.02.02 and 25.09.02 as well 378.12; McGrail 2oo1, 112 Figs. exchanged find from Central
as in an exhibition from 4,16; Nilsson 1967, pl. 26, 1.3.5; 12.6; 19.1. Europe is the ax from Thun-
14.-28.04.02 . There were only brief 15 Ekschmitt 1998, 115 Fig. 46; McGrail Renzenbühl. This is a fringe
reports in specialist publications: 2oo1, 116 Fig. 4.2o; 4:21. ax with a copper band with gold
Meller 2oo2, Meller 2oo2a. 16 Müller-Karpe 198o, plate 2; 3-5; 9; pins inserted on both sides of the
5 A find composition from 14; 17; 19; 21; 31; 46–5o; 72; blade: Strahm 1965/66, 321–
Swords/daggers, hatchets and 8o-81; Erman/Ranke 1987, figs. 371 Fig. 1; Strahm 1972, 99-112.
chisels are not uncommon in the 241-248; Müller-Karpe 1974, plate Similar inlaid inlays of gold
Early Bronze Age, but characterize 24; 31; 4o; 43-48; 55-59; 62-68; 71; points were found on the edge
the Central German princely 74; 76-83; 87; 89; 92-98; 1o9; 122; ax from Wilsford G 5 and a
tombs, which are older than our 124; 134-14o; 145; 147; 15o; 152; McGrail 2oo1,dagger from Priziac in Brittany:
55ff.
find. 17 A brief description of the ideas Clarke/Cowie/Foxon 1985, 115 Fig.
The best-known example is the behind the journey with day and 4,42; 138 Fig. 4.74. On the
grave of Leubingen (Höfer 19o6). night boats in: Lexicon problem of the Mycenaean
From a chronological point of view, der Ägyptologie V, 1984, sv connections, but especially on another tau
the accompanying finds can be Sonnengott, 1o87–1o94. sheer sword of »Marais de
clearly assigned to a horizon, so that 18 Müller-Karpe 1974, pl. 179 f.; Nantes« (France): Schauer 1984,
here too there is an indication 19o; 212; 236; 241; Parrot 175 ff. Fig. 42; color plate I; Plates 3o–31.
that they belong together. 1983, figs. 3o6–3o7; 34o; Black/Green 28
1992, sv 1976, 35 Fig. 16; 45 Fig. 28.
Bittel
Boats of the Gods.
IMAGE CREDIT 1–3 J. Lipták, Stuttgart 9 Pfeiffer-Frohnert 1997, 456 14 Kaul 1998, 25 Fig. 16
4 Kaul 1998, 88 Fig. 53 5 fig. 2g 15 Müller-Karpe 198o, plate 1o1,
Hänsel/Hänsel 1997, 21 Fig. 1o Müller-Karpe 1974, 17.19.39
2 pl. 134.9 and 44.4 16 Black/Green 1992, 94 Fig. 73 17
6 Vulpe 197o, plate 57,24o; 11 Müller-Karpe 1974, Müller-Karpe 198o, plate 97, B1;
58,299; 62,294; Máthé 1996, pl. 179.17 1o1, 31; 163, C12 18–
128 Fig. 2 12 Knape/Nordström 1994, 31 fig 20 J. Lipták, Stuttgart 21 G.
7 Kemenczei 1991, plates 4,1o Pie, Karsdorf
8 Ekschmitt 1993, 6o Fig. 26 13 Kaul 1998, 24 Figs. 13-15