KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

AME 295 AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING LABORATORY

LAB REPORT
 .

VISCOSITY IN FLUIDS

LAB REPORT

17TH FEBRUARY 2023

 VISCOSITY IN FLUIDS

Objective(s)

• To determine the variation (change) of viscosity with temperature.

Materials and apparatus

1. Viscometer
2. A viscous fluid (diesel engine oil)
3. Two Thermometers
4. Heat supply
5. Water
6. 50cm3 Container (for holding drained oil)
7. Timer

The Experimental setup.

Figure 1; Experimental setup for determining the variation of viscosity with temperature of the
diesel engine oil used.

Procedure

1. The water chamber and oil chamber of the viscometer were filled with water and oil
respectively.
2. The two thermometers were put in either of the two chambers (one in oil and the other
in water) to measure the temperature of each chamber.
3. The power supply of the viscometer is turned on and heat is supplied to the chamber
containing the water.
4. The stirrer of the viscometer is rotated periodically to ensure heat is transmitted from
the heat vessel to the oil in the oil chamber.
5. Temperature of the water chamber and that of the oil are made to reach equilibrium at
temperature of 29°C, as the starting temperature, after which the heat supply is turned
off.
6. The dip stick is removed, and the oil is drained into the container until the 50cm3
volume is reach.
 7. The time taken for the oil to fill the container to 50cm3 is taken and recorded.
8. The procedure is repeated for value of temperature: 39°C, 49°C, 59°C, 69°C, 79°C,
89°C and 99°C.
9. A graph of temperature(T) in plotted against time taken(t) and the gradient calculated.

Data

Temperature T (°C) Time t(s)

29 40.07

39 36.06

49 32.55

59 28.50

69 25.05

79 23.11

89 21.09

99 19.52

Below is the plotted graph of the above data; temperature T(°C) on the ordinate and time t(s)
on the abscissa.
 Temperature
100
90
80
70
Temperature(0 C)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (s)

Temperature Linear (Temperature)

Results and discussion

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (cm3 )
Rate of flow of oil = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒(𝑠)

At temperature T = 29°C, the rate of flow the oil was found to be:

50cm3
Rate = = 1.248cm3 /𝑠
40.07 𝑠

Also, at temperature T = 99°C,

50cm3
Rate = = 2.561cm3 /𝑠
19.52 𝑠
From the calculations above, it can be observed that the rate of flow of the oil increases as the
temperature rises. At the lowest temperature, T = 29°C, the flow of the oil was observed to
have the lowest rate, with a value of 1.248cm3 /𝑠. While at the highest temperature (in the
experiment), T = 99°C, the rate of flow is 2.561cm3 /𝑠. All other values of temperature were
observed to have a rate of flow depending on their respective temperatures.

It can be concluded that, since the rate of flow of a fluid is inversely proportional to the
viscosity, the higher the rate of flow, the lower the fluid’s viscosity and vice versa. The lower
temperature, T = 29°C, in the experiment, has the oil at a higher viscosity than at 99°C.

Precautions

1. The temperature of the water and that of the oil were kept same (at the require
temperature) before the oil was drained into the 50cm3 container.
2. Parallax in reading the level of oil in the container was avoided by reading parallel to
the free surface of the oil.
3. The oil and water were gently poured into their respective chambers to prevent them
from mixing.
4. Error due to inaccurate timing was avoided by the use of three timers and their average
found.
5. The distance between the tip of the oil chamber (from which point the oil drains) and
the container is kept constant.

Conclusions

The viscosity of a fluid decreases with increasing temperature and vice versa. At different
temperatures, the same fluid has different viscosity.
SIMPLE MACHINES; THE SCREW JACK

LAB REPORT

24TH FEBRUARY, 2023.

Objectives:

a) To examine the screw jack as an example of a simple machine and to determine its

law as a machine.

b) To study the screw jack as an example of theory of the thread.

Apparatus:

• Wall-mounted screw jack

• A pair of outside callipers

• Vernier calliper

• Load (incrementable by 2 Ib/, that is 8.9 kg)

• Small effort weight (ranges from 0.89 to 0.089 kg)

Experimental set-up
Procedure

1. The pitch and lead of both square and v-threads were measured and recorded.

2. The diameter of the rope (that winds around the disc, connecting the two efforts

together) and the disc were measured and recorded using the vernier calliper and the

pair of callipers respectively.

3. The rope was made wind around the disc until the ends where the efforts hang freely,

are at a reasonable point from the pulley.

4. An initial load 2 Ib. is suspended from the load plate and efforts are attached to each

end of the effort rope until they descend down with a constant speed.

5. The weight of the efforts on either end of the rope is summed and the total recorded.

6. The procedure is repeated for values of loads including 4,6,8, and 10 ib weights.

Results and discussions

Derived data

Pitch of thread = 0.00246 m

Number of starts of threads = one (single start)

Diameter of rope= 8 x 10-3 m

Diameter of disc= 21.1cm = 0.211m

0.211
Radius of disc, 𝑅𝐷 = = 0.1055m
2

Lead, L for V- thread and square thread = 0.00246m

2𝜋𝑅𝐷 2𝜋∗0.1055
Therefore, velocity ratio = 𝐿
= 0.00246
=269.462

MA
Efficiency, ɧ = 𝑉𝑅
×100%
DATA FOR V THREAD

Load (lb) Effort Ideal Mechanical Friction Velocity Efficiency

(lb) effort advantage ratio %

2 0.4 0.007422 5.0 0.3875 269.462 1.86

4 0.5 0.014844 8.0 0.3749 269.462 2.97

6 0.7 0.022267 8.57 0.4624 269.462 3.18

8 0.8 0.029689 10.0 0.6498 269.462 3.71

10 0.9 0.037111 11.11 0.7373 269.462 4.12

DATA FOR SQUARE THREAD

Load (lb) Effort Ideal Mechanical Friction Velocity Efficiency

(lb) effort advantage ratio %

2 0.5 0.007422 4.0 0.3875 269.462 1.48

4 0.7 0.014844 5.71 0.3749 269.462 2.11

6 0.8 0.022267 7.5 0.4624 269.462 2.78

8 0.9 0.029689 8.89 0.6498 269.462 3.30

10 1.0 0.037111 10.0 0.7373 269.462 3.71

Graph plots

Graph 1

Effort against Load

1 0.9
0.8
0.8 0.7

0.6 0.5
Effort

0.4
0.4
0.2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Load

Figure 1.1 Graph of Effort against Load for V-thread.

Graph 2

Plot of ideal effort against load

0.07

0.06

0.05
Ideal Effort

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
2 4 6 8 10
Load

Figure 1.2: Graph of ideal ratio against load for V thread.

Graph 3

Plot of friction against load

0.8

0.6
Friction

0.4

0.2

0
2 4 6 8 10
Load

Figure 1.3 Graph of Friction against Load V thread.

Graph 4

Efficiency against Load

12
10
Efficiency

8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Load

Figure 1.4 Graph of efficiency against Load for V thread.

Graph 5
 Effort against Load
1.2

0.8
Effort

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
2 4 6 8 10
Load

Figure 1.5: graph of effort against Load for square thread.

Graph 6

Ideal Effort against Load

0.04
Ideal Effort

0.03
0.02
0.01
0
2 4 6 8 10
Load

Figure 1.6: graph of ideal effort against Load for square thread.

Graph 7

Friction against Load

0.8
0.6
Friction

0.4
0.2
0
2 4 6 8 10
Load
Figure 1.7: graph of friction against Load for square thread.

Graph 8

Efficiency against Load

4
3.5
3
Efficiency

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2 4 6 8 10
Load

Figure 1.8: graph of Efficiency against load.

Discussion

At the end of the experiment, it was found from data (both measured and calculated) that,

huge loads are being overcome by little effort when using the screw jack. Again, it was

found that, in order to achieve a higher efficiency with screw jack, the ratio of load to effort

must be greater. The lesser the ratio of load to effort, the higher the friction or wasted effort.

Also, from figure 1.4, it can be observed that, the efficiency of the screw jack increases as the

load increases. This is because the frictional force existing in the threads and the pulleys are

easily overcome with heavy loads.

Conclusions

In contrast, the screw jack can be used to lift or overcome huge load with little effort. It

works on a principle similar to incline planes and have mechanical advantage as the ratio of

the load applied to the effort applied.

Like all other simple machines, the screw jack has efficiency less than unity or 100%. Due to

friction in the threads, the efficiency of the screw jack is relatively low. The deeper the depth

of the thread, the lower the efficiency, hence the square thread is more efficient than the V-

thread.

Precautions

1. All efforts were made to move at a constant speed before effort values were recorded

to ensure consistency.

2. Attaching loads to effort handle were done gently to in order not to impact on the

speed at which the effort moves.

3. Scrutiny in calculating and recording measurements was exercised to avoid errors in

both derived and observed values.

CIRCULAR BENDING
LAB REPORT

17TH MARCH, 2023

 CIRCULAR BENDING
OBJECTIVE
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the circular bending of aluminium,brass and
steel rectangular beams under a distributed load, and to study the relationship between the
applied load, deflection, and bending stress.

APPARATUS

⚫ Vernier (Deflection gauge)

⚫ Aluminium
⚫ Brass
⚫ Steel
⚫ Simple support frames
⚫ Loads

EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

PROCEDURES
⚫ Using a vernier, measure the width and depth of the aluminium, brass and steel test
beams.
⚫ For each material, record the values next to the results tables and use them to calculate
the second moment of area, I.
⚫ Remove any clamps from the backboard and set up the beam as shown in figure 1.
⚫ Slide the digital dial test indicator into position on the beam and lock it using the
thumbnut at the rear.
⚫ Slide a knife-edge hanger on to each of the beam as shown.
⚫ Tap the frame lightly and zero the digital dial test indicator using the ‘origin’ button.
⚫ Tapping the frame lightly each time, apply masses to the knife-edge hangers in
increments of 100g.
⚫ Record the digital dial test indicator reading for each increment of mass.
⚫ Repeat the procedure for the other two specimen materials filling in a new table.

In this experiment, the following formula is used;

M/I = E/R
Where;
M = Applied momentum(Nm)
R = Radius of curvature(m)
E = Young’s modulus for cantilever material(Nm-2)
I = Second moment of area of the cantilever(m4)
And also,
R = C2 + 4h2
8h
Where R = Radius of curvature(m);
C = Chord(m);
h = Height of chord(m).
RESULT FOR STEEL

E = 207

C = 400

M/I = E/R

Where;

M = applied moment (Nm)

R = radius of curvature (m)

E = young’s modulus for cantilever material (Nm-2)

I = second moment of area of cantilever (m4)

H(Deflection) = reading – datum

I = (bd3)/12 Where the ‘b’ is width and ‘d’ is depth.

I = 1216/75=16.213m4

R = (C2+4h2)/8h

TABLE AND GRAPH

MASS/ READING DEFLECTION APPLIED RADIUS OF 1/R M/I
LOAD (g) MOMENT CURVATURE (×109)
0 0 0.01 1.68 2000 0.0005 0.104
100 0.15 0.16 26.85 125 0.0080 1.656
200 0.33 0.34 57.06 58.82 0.0170 3.519
300 0.52 0.53 88.93 37.74 0.0264 5.486
400 0.70 0.71 119.14 28.17 0.0354 7.348
500 0.88 0.89 147.65 22.73 0.0439 9.106

STEEL
10

9
8
7

M/ 6
5
I 4
3
2
1
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

1/R

Slope is ΔY/ΔX
Therefore the slope is (5.486 - 3.519)/ (0.0264 - 0.0170) 209.255

RESULT FOR ALUMINIUM

E = 69
C = 400
M/I = E/R
Where;
M = applied moment (Nm)
R = radius of curvature (m)

E = young’s modulus for cantilever material (Nm-2)

I = second moment of area of cantilever (m4)

H(Deflection) = reading – datum

I = (bd3)/12 Where the ‘b’ is width and ‘d’ is depth.

I = 47.1690m4

R = (C2+4h2)/8h

TABLE AND GRAPH

MASS/ LOAD READING DEFLECTION APPLIED RADIUS OF 1/R M/I
(g) MOMENT CURVATURE (×109)
0 0 0.02 3.2546667 1000 0.001 0.069
100 0.55 0.57 92.758002 35.087719 0.0285 1.9665
200 1.15 1.17 190.39800 17.094017 0.0585 4.0365
300 1.56 1.58 257.11867 12.658228 0.079 5.451
400 1.56 1.58 257.11867 12.658228 0.079 5.451
500 1.56 1.58 257.11867 12.658228 0.079 5.451
 ALUMINIUM
6

5.451 5.451 5.451

4 4.0365

M/
3
I
2 1.9665

0 0.001
0 0.0285 0.0585 0.079 0.079 0.079
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1/R M/I (×109)

1/R

RESULT FOR BRASS

E =105

C = 400

M/I = E/R

Where;

M = applied moment (Nm)

R = radius of curvature (m)

E = young’s modulus for cantilever material (Nm-2)

I = second moment of area of cantilever (m4)

H(Deflection) = reading – datum

I = (bd3)/12 Where the ‘b’ is width and ‘d’ is depth.

I = 49.4884m4

R = (C2+4h2)/8h

TABLE AND GRAPH

MASS/ LOAD READING DEFLECTION APPLIED RADIUS OF 1/R M/I
(g) MOMENT CURVATURE (×109)
0 0 0.02 5.1962891 1000 0.001 0.105
100 0.34 0.36 93.532902 55.555736 0.018 1.889
200 0.70 0.70 187.06398 27.778138 0.036 3.779
300 1.07 1.09 283.18935 18.349169 0.054 5.722
400 1.44 1.46 379.3089 13.69936 0.073 7.664
500 1.80 1.82 472.82316 10.989921 0.090 9.554

BRASS
12

10

M/
6
I
4

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.1

1/R

Slope is ΔY/ΔX

Therefore the slope is (5.722- 3.779)/ (0.054 - 0.036) = 107.9]

PRECAUTION

• Wear safety gear to avoid injuries.

• Make sure the equipment is calibrated correctly.
• Prepare samples carefully to avoid defects.
• Be gentle when handling the samples.
• Apply the load gradually, and avoid sudden or excessive loading.
• Record accurate data during the experiment.
• Analyze the data carefully to avoid errors or outliers.
HYDROSTATICS (THRUST ON A PLANE SURFACE)

LAB REPORT

24TH MARCH 2023.

 HYDROSTATIC THRUST ON A PLANE SURFACE EXPERIMENT

OBJECTIVE
To find the hydrostatic thrust by subjecting a plane surface to hydrostatic pressure and taking
moment of the resultant moment about a fixed axis above the water surface.
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
• Quadrant tank
• Trim tank
• Weight hanger
• Weight plate
• Weights(standards)
• Beaker
• Pipette
• Water reservoir
• Pendulum rule
• Fluid(water)

EXPERIMENT SET-UP
PROCEDURE
➢ With the quadrant tank empty and weight hanger removed, the base was carefully levelled.
➢ The assembly was then brought to a desired position, with the end plate at angle ϴ, by
carefully pouring water into the trim.
➢ The weight hanger was then hanged from the suspension cord, causing the assembly to roll a
little to the left.
➢ Water was then added to the quadrant tank until the correct angle was restored.
➢ The corresponding depth of water D was measured from above the lower edge of the end
plate. The reading was taken from the scale at the rear of the tank.
➢ With the same procedure repeated with corresponding weights added incrementally at the
weight hanger with depths (Ds) recorded at each increment.

TABLE OF VALUES

W/(gf) D=(R2- M/(kgf mm) h=(R2-R0)/(R2-R1) m=M/Mref

R0)/mm
50 30 10 0.30 0.2138
70 38 14 0.38 0.2775
100 46 20 0.46 0.3056
120 52 24 0.52 0.3493
150 62 30 0.62 0.368
170 64 34 0.64 0.402
200 69 40 0.69 0.4325
220 73 44 0.73 0.4622
250 78 50 0.78 0.4816
270 82 54 0.82 0.5053
300 86 60 0.86 0.5239
320 90 64 0.90 0.5511
350 94 70 0.94 0.5685
370 100 74 1.00 0.5885
400 104 80 1.04
R1 R2 W=m*g B
100mm 200mm g=9.81m/s2 75mm
 GRAPH OF MOMENT,M, WITH SLANT DEPTH
OF WATER,D
120
MOMENT, M/KGFMM

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
SLANT DEPTH, D/MM

graph of variation of dimentionless moment,m, with

dimentionless slant depth of water, h
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
m=M/Mref

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
h=(R2-R0)/(R2-R1)

COMMENT
The force applied in the system vertically counters the mass added to the hanging arm. It is known
that changes in pressure occur when moving away from sea level, whether with air or water. Our
experiment demonstrated the effects of the weight of water and buoyant forces on pressure. The curved
area of the apparatus provided a larger surface area for water to act upon with less change in depth. The
graph plotting dimensionless moment 'm' against slant depth of water 'h' showed that the change in 'm'
increased with an increase in 'h'. This indicates a direct proportionality between 'm' and 'h', as a slight
increase in 'h' led to a relatively greater increase in 'm'."
CONCLUSION
The lab report's graphical analysis revealed a linear correlation between the Hydrostatic force
and Average Depth for both Partially and Fully Submerged conditions, with the Fully
Submerged graph being perfectly linear. However, the Partially Submerged graph exhibited a
less than perfect linear relationship.

PRECAUTIONS
➢ We made sure the experimental setup was not disturbed.
➢ Parallax readings were avoided by viewing along the water surface.
➢ The water was carefully poured from the beaker into the quadrant tank to avoid
spillage.
➢ The various tanks were emptied appropriately after the experiment and corresponding
masses arranged in their rack.
STABILITY OF A FLOATING BODY

LAB REPORT

31ST MARCH 2023.

 STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY.

OBJECTIVES
• To ascertain the stable position of a pontoon.
• To calculate the metacentric height of a buoyant object.
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
• Vessel (pontoon)
• Water tank
• Adjustable weight (jockey)
• Small magnetic weight
• A plumb line
• Water.
PROCEDURE
➢ The distance between the center of gravity of a floating structure and its base, OG, is
determined at a selected height of the adjustable weight.
➢ The sail has a hole on one side from which the pontoon is suspended, and the jockey
weight is positioned along the line of symmetry to ensure that the pontoon hangs with
its base approximately vertically.
➢ The center of gravity, G, is determined by suspending a plumb line from the suspension
point, which intersects with the line of symmetry of the pontoon.
➢ The various components of the pontoon is measured and then floated in water.
➢ . The assembly is balanced using small magnetic weights to ensure that the jockey
weight is on the line of symmetry.
➢ The jockey is then moved in steps across the width of the pontoon, and corresponding
angle of tilts are recorded.
➢ The procedure is repeated with the jockey weight at different heights to determine the
metacentric height, a critical parameter for assessing pontoon stability
 i. TABLE OF VALUES
-δx +δx

37.50 30.00 22.50 15.00 7.50 7.50 15.00 22.50 30.00 37.50 yj
3.40 3.00 32.10
5.00 2.40 2.50 4.90 26.60
5.50 3.80 1.90 2.00 4.00 5.90 21.00
6.30 4.60 3.10 1.50 1.50 3.20 4.50 6.30 15.30
6.70 5.20 4.00 2.70 1.10 1.40 2.80 4.20 5.40 6.80 10.0

plot of adjustable weight (δx) against angle of tilt

8

4
adjustable width(δx)/cm

0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
-2

-4

-6

-8
angle of tilt/ϴo

angle of tilt /ϴo

ii. Table of values

δx/δϴ 2.34 3.06 3.85 5 6
height of G above 3.21 2.66 2.10 1.53 1.00
water line/cm
 plot δx/δϴ against height of G above water line/cm
3.5

3
height of G above water line/cm

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
δx/δϴ

CONCLUSION
After analyzing the plotted graphs, it was observed that the pontoon's stability was inversely
proportional to the volume of fluid displaced. In other words, as the volume of displaced fluid
increased, the stability of the pontoon decreased. This relationship between stability and fluid
displacement is an important factor to consider when designing or operating floating structures.

When the density of the liquid is increased, the pontoon is observed to displace a larger volume of
fluid. This is because denser liquids provide more buoyancy to the pontoon, causing it to displace more
fluids in order to maintain balance.

Due to the increased volume of fluid displacement resulting from higher liquid density, the pontoon
experiences an increase in metacentric height. As a result, the stability of the pontoon also increases.
This relationship between fluid density, metacentric height, and stability is also a crucial factor to
consider in the design and operation of floating structures.

PRECAUTIONS
• To maintain accuracy, readings were taken without touching or shaking the bench.
• We ensured that the magnetic weights were handled with care and moved gently to
maintain the balance of the pontoon.
• To minimize air interference, windows were kept closed
• To ensure accurate readings, we carefully positioned the plumb line to rest precisely on the
particular angle of tilt before taking measurements.