MTHISTO100

Finals – Lesson 1: Organs Associated with the Digestive Tract

PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

ORGANS ASSOCIATED WITH THE - Secretion of each gland is either serous,

DIGESTIVE TRACT seromucous, or mucous
➔ Depending on content of the glycoprotein
- Products facilitate transport and digestion of
mucin
food within the gastrointestinal tract
- Includes: Gland Secretion
1. Salivary Glands Parotid Serous (watery)
- Moisten and lubricate ingested food Submandibular and Seromucous
and the oral mucosa Sublingual
- Initiate digestion of carbohydrates Minor Glands Mostly mucous
and lipids with amylase and lipase - Saliva is modified by the cells of the duct
- Secrete innate immune components system draining the secretory units
such as lysosome and lactoferrin
2. Pancreas
- Secretes digestive enzymes that act
in the small intestine and hormones
important for the metabolism of
absorbed nutrients
3. Liver
- Creates bile – whose components are
necessary for digestion and
absorption of fats
- Plays a major role in carbohydrate
and protein metabolism
- Inactivates many toxic substances
and drugs
- Synthesizes most plasma proteins
and factors necessary for blood
coagulation
4. Gallbladder
- Stores and concentrates bile
SALIVARY GLANDS
- Type of exocrine glands that produce saliva
➔ Saliva has digestive, lubricating, and
protective functions
➔ Has a pH level of 6.5-6.9
➔ Important buffering function and is also
important for evaporative cooling
- Three pairs:
1. Parotid Three Epithelial Types
2. Submandibular
3. Sublingual 1. Serous Cells
- Polarized protein-secreting cells
- Pyramidal in shape, round nuclei, well-
stained RER, and apical secretory granules
- Joined apically by tight and adherent
junctions
- Form a somewhat spherical unit called an
acinus with very small central lumen
- Secretes enzymes and other proteins
2. Mucous Cells
 MTHISTO100
Finals – Lesson 1: Organs Associated with the Digestive Tract
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

- Columnar in shape, compressed basal

nuclei
- Contain apical granules with hydrophilic
mucins that provide lubricating properties in
saliva
- Organized as cylindrical tubules rather than
acini
• Tubuloacinar secretory units – mixed
salivary glands with both serous and
mucous secretions
3. Myoepithelial Cells
- Inside basal lumina, surrounding acini,
tubules and proximal ends of the duct
system
- Small, flattened cells
- Extend several contractile processes around
the associated secretory units
- Important for moving secretory products into
and through the ducts
Intralobular Duct System
- Secretory acini and tubules empty into short
intercalated ducts
- Cuboidal epithelial cells
- Ducts join to form a striated duct
- Striated ducts reabsorb Na+ ions from the
initial secretions
- Folded cell membranes present a large
surface area with ion transporters, facilitating
rapid ion transcytosis and making the
secretion slightly hypotonic
- IgA is released by the plasma cells in the
connective tissue covering
➔ It is transferred into the saliva and
provides defense against specific
pathogens in the oral cavity
Excretory Ducts
- Each lobule converge and drain into this
- Atypical epithelia reflect cell composition
with diverse functions
o Ion reabsorption
o Secretion of mucin and other proteins
o Enteroendocrine cells
o Basal stem cells
 MTHISTO100
Finals – Lesson 1: Organs Associated with the Digestive Tract
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

➢ Autonomic Nervous System - Elongated retroperitoneal organ with the

- Stimulates capillaries to provide fluid for head near the duodenum and the body and
saliva production tail extend to the left
➢ Parasympathetic Stimulation
- Elicited through smell or taste of food
- Provokes a copious watery secretion
➢ Sympathetic Stimulation
- Inhibits secretion
- Produces potential for dry mouth associated
with anxiety
Features of the Major Salivary Glands
Parotid GlandsLocation:
Each cheek near the ear
Type:
Branched acinar with
exclusively serous acini
Function:
Serous cells secrete
abundant a-amylase that
initiates hydrolysis of - Thin capsule of connective tissue
carbohydrates and proline- - Secretory acini are surrounded by basal
rich proteins lamina with a thin sheath of reticular fibers
Submandibular Location: with capillary network as support
Glands Under the jaw, posterior ➢ Endocrine function – involves primarily
Type: smaller cells similar to enteroendocrine cells
Branched tubuloacinar located in pancreatic islets or the islets of
glands, having primarily Langerhans
serous acini, but with many ➢ Exocrine function – serous acini in larger
mixed tubuloacinar units exocrine portion produces digestive
Function:
enzymes
Produce 2/3 of all saliva
Secrete lysosome for
hydrolysis of bacterial
walls
Sublingual Location:
Glands Under the tongue
Type:
Branched tubuloacinar, but
secretory tubules of
mucous cells predominate
Function:
Produce mucus
Serous cells add amylase
and lysosome to the
secretion

PANCREAS
- Mixed exocrine-endocrine glands
- Produces both digestive enzymes and
hormones
 MTHISTO100
Finals – Lesson 1: Organs Associated with the Digestive Tract
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03
Centroacinar Cells
- Initial cells of intercalated ducts extend into
the lumen of the acinus as small pale-
staining centroacinar cells
- Unique to the pancrease
- Secrete a large volume of fluid, rich in HCO3-,
which alkalinizes and transports hydrolytic
enzymes produced in the acini
Interlobular Ducts
- Merges with intercalated ducts
- Large ones have increasingly columnar
epithelia before joining the main pancreatic
duct
Exocrine Pancreas
- Secretes approximately 1.5 L of alkaline
pancreatic juice per day and delivers it
directly to the duodenum where the HCO3-
ions neutralize the acidic chyme entering
there from the stomach
- Establish the pH for optimal activity of
pancreatic enzymes
- Digestive enzymes include:
1. Proteases – secreted as inactive
zymogens (trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen)
o Trypsinogen – cleaved and activated
by enteropeptidases in the duodenum
to generate trypsin
2. A-amylase
3. Lipases
4. Nucleases (DNAase and RNAase)
- Pancreatic tissue is protected against
autodigestion by the following:
➢ Restricting protease activation to the
duodenum
➢ Trypsin inhibitor, which is copackaged in
the secretory granules with trypsinogen
➢ The higher the pH in the acini and duct
system due to HCO3- secreted by the
centroacinar and intercalated duct cells,
which helps keep all enzymes inactive
- Two polypeptide hormones produced by
the enteroendocrine cells of the small
intestine that regulate exocrine secretion:
1. Cholecystokinin (CCK) – stimulates
enzyme secretion by the acinar cells
2. Secretin – promotes water and HCO3-
secretion by the duct cells
- Autonomic (parasympathetic) nerve
fibers also stimulate secretion from both
acinar and duct cells
LIVER
- Largest internal organ
- In adults, averaging about 1.5kg or 2% of the
body weight
- Supported by ligaments in the RUQ of the
abdomen, just below the diaphragm
- Has two major lobes, left and right, with the
latter much larger and having two other
smaller inferior lobes
- Four lobes are incompletely separated by
deep fissures and covered by a thin layer of
fibrous connective tissue called Glisson’s
capsule
➢ Serous mesothelium of the visceral
peritoneum covers most of this
capsule, except where the liver contacts
the diaphragm and other organs
➢ Thickens as loose connective tissue at
the hilum (or porta hepatis) on the
inferior side
➢ Where the dual blood supply enters
the organ and where lymphatics and
the left and right hepatic ducts exit
• Dual Blood Supply
o From the hepatic portal vein and
hepatic artery
- Main digestive function: Production of bile
➢ Complex substance required for the
emulsification, hydrolysis, and uptake of
fats in the duodenum
 MTHISTO100
Finals – Lesson 1: Organs Associated with the Digestive Tract
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

- Also the major interference between the - Large cuboidal or polyhedral epithelial cells
digestive system and the blood, as the organ - Large, round, central nuclei
in which nutrients absorbed in the small - Eosinophilic cytoplasm rich in mitochondria
intestine are processed before distribution - Frequently binucleated
throughout the body - 50% are polyploid, with two to eight times the
- About 75% of the blood entering the liver normal chromosome number
is nutrient-rich (but O2-poor) blood from
the portal vein arising from the stomach,
intestines, and spleen
- Other 25% comes from the hepatic artery
and supplies the organ’s O2.

Hepatic Lobules
- Organization of the liver parenchyma
- Exists in thousands and are small (0.7x2mm)
- Formed by hepatocytes as hundreds of
irregular plates arranged radially around a
small central vein.
- Each has three to six portal areas with
fibrous connective tissue
Hepatocytes - Contains three interlobular structures or the
portal triad:
- Key cells of the liver 1. Venule Branch – portal vein, blood rich
- Most functionally diverse cells of the body in nutrients but not in CO2
- In addition to exocrine function of secretion 2. Arteriole Branch – hepatic artery,
of bile components, hepatocytes have the supplies O2
following functions: 3. Bile ductules – one or two, small,
• Synthesis and endocrine secretion of cuboidal epithelium; branches of the bile
major plasma proteins (albumins, conducting system
fibrinogen, apolipoproteins, transferrin,
and others)
• Conversion of amino acids into glucose
(gluconeogenesis)
• Breakdown (detoxification) and
conjugation of ingested toxins (drugs)
• Amino acid deamination, producing urea
removed from blood in kidneys
• Storage of glucose in glycogen granules
and triglycerides in small lipid droplets
• Storage of vitamin A (in hepatic stellate
cells) and other fat-soluble vitamins
• Removal of effete erythrocytes (by
specialized macrophages or Kupffer cells)
• Storage of iron in complexes with the
protein ferritin
 MTHISTO100
Finals – Lesson 1: Organs Associated with the Digestive Tract
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03
• Sinusoids
- Located between all the anastomosing
plates of hepatocytes of a hepatic lobule
- Vascular, emerges from the peripheral
branches of the portal vein and hepatic
artery
- Converges on the lobule’s central vein
- Where venous and arterial blood mixes
- Thin, discontinuous linings of fenestrated
endothelial cells surrounded by sparse basal
lamina and reticular fibers
➔ Allows plasma to fill a narrow
perisinusoidal space (or space of
Disse) and directly bathe the irregular
microvilli of the hepatocytes
➔ Direct contact of hepatocytes and plasma
facilitates most key hepatocyte
functions (uptake and release of
nutrients, proteins, and potential toxins)
- Two other important cells found in sinusoids:
1. Stellate macrophages (Kupffer cells)
o Sinusoid lining
o Recognize and phagocytose aged
erythrocytes, freeing heme and iron
for reuse or storage in ferritin
complexes
o Antigen-presenting cells
o Remove bacteria and debris in portal
blood
2. Hepatic stellate cells (Ito cells)
o Perisinusoidal space
o Store vitamin A and other fat-
soluble vitamins
o Mesenchymal cells
o Difficult to see in routine preparations
o Produce ECM components and
cytokines that help regulate Kupffer
cell activity
o Becomes myofibroblasts after liver
injury
• Hepatic Veins
- Central venules → larger veins → three
major and several minor hepatic veins
- Empty into the inferior vena cava
• Bile Canaliculi
- Formed by the smaller apical surfaces of the
hepatocytes
- Involved in exocrine secretion of bile
- Apical surfaces of two adherent hepatocytes
are grooved and juxtaposed to form the
canaliculus, sealed by tight junctions, into
which bile components are secreted
- Elongated spaces with lumens only 0.5-1um
in diameter with large surface areas due to
many microvilli
- Form a complex anastomosing network of
channels at the end near portal tracts
➔ Bile flow – periphery to center
- Small branches of the biliary tree or bile
conducting system
- Empty into bile canals of Hering
- Composed of cholangiocytes (cuboidal
epithelial cells)
- Secretes bile acids, bile salts, electrolytes,
fatty acids, phospholipids, cholesterol,
and bilirubin.
➔ Important in emulsifying lipids in the
duodenum
➔ Bilirubin – pigmented breakdown
product of heme released from splenic
macrophages and Kupffer cells; gives
feces and urine their characteristic colors
 MTHISTO100
Finals – Lesson 1: Organs Associated with the Digestive Tract
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03

• Bile Ductules • Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

- Merge with - Distributed more evenly through cytoplasm
short bile canals - Contains enzyme systems for the
lined by biotransformation or detoxification of
cuboidal or substances in blood
columnar ➔ Usually excreted with bile
cholangiocytes ➔ Responsible for oxidation, methylation,
- Gradually and conjugation of drugs (SBAhAc)
merge, enlarge, ➔ Prolonged exposure to drugs leads to
and form the increased amounts of SER, which
hepatic ducts improves liver detoxification capacity.
leaving the liver - Other enzymes conjugate bilirubin to
glucuronate
• Glycogen granules, lipid droplets, and
ferritin complexes (hemosiderin)
- Located in Kupffer cells
- Mediate temporary storage of glucose,
triglycerides, and iron
• Peroxisomes
- For oxidation of excess fatty acids, catalase-
mediated breakdown of the hydrogen
peroxide generated by fatty acid oxidation
(via catalase activity)
- Conversion of excess purines to uric acid
• Golgi complexes
- Synthesis of plasma proteins and bile
components
• Mitochondria
Direction of Blood Flow in Hepatic Lobules - Provide energy for all activities

- Periphery to center Liver Lobule Structure

- Oxygen and metabolites, as well as all other
toxic or nontoxic substances absorbed in the
intestines, reach the lobule’s peripheral cells
first and then the more central cells
- Partly explains why the properties and
function of the periportal hepatocytes differ
from those of the centrilobular cells
➢ Hepatocytes near the portal area –
aerobic metabolism, often more active in
protein synthesis
➢ More central hepatocytes – exposed to
less nutrients and oxygen, more involved
with detoxification and glycogen
metabolism
Structure and Function in the Liver
(Hepatocytes & Hepatic Lobules)
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Synthesis of plasma protein
- Causes cytoplasmic basophilia, often more
pronounced in hepatocytes near portal area
1. Classic Hepatic Lobule
- Emphasizes endocrine function of the
structure producing factors for uptake by the
plasma
2. Portal Lobules
- Exocrine function – bile secretion
- Bile ductule at center, bile moves in the
opposite direction of blood
3. Hepatic Acinus
- Third way of viewing liver cells
- Emphasizes nature of blood supply to
hepatocytes and oxygen gradient from
hepatic artery branch to the central vein
Zone Description
I Location: Periportal
ON: Most oxygen and nutrients
Function: Readily carry out
functions requiring oxidative
metabolism, such as protein
synthesis
 MTHISTO100
Finals – Lesson 1: Organs Associated with the Digestive Tract
PAR, Raynne Avrielle C. – 1MT03
II Function: Intermediate range of
metabolic functions ranging between
those in zones I and III
III Location: Near the central vein
ON: Least oxygen and nutrients
Function: Preferential sites for
glycolysis, lipid formation, and drug
biotransformations
Risk: First to undergo fatty
accumulation and ischemic necrosis
Regeneration
- Liver has a strong capacity for this despite
slow cell renewal
- Hepatocyte loss from action of toxic
substances triggers mitosis and in the
remaining healthy hepatocytes in a process
of compensatory hyperplasia
➔ Maintains original tissue mass
- Surgical removal of a liver portion produces
a similar response in the hepatocytes of the
remaining lobe(s)
- Regenerative capacity is important clinically
due to liver donation of a living relative to a
recipient which can restore full liver function
in both the donor and recipient
- Liver stem cells (oval cells) are present
among cholangiocytes of bile canals near
portal areas and produce progenitor cells for
both cholangiocytes and hepatocytes
BILIARY DUCT
- Bile produced by the hepatocytes flows
through the bile canaliculi, bile ductules, and
bile ducts.
- The structures merge and form the common
hepatic duct
- The common hepatic duct joins the cystic
duct from the gallbladder and continues to
the duodenum
- The common bile duct is formed
Mucosa: Simple columnar epithelium of
cholangiocytes.
Lamina propria and submucosa: Relatively
thin with mucous glands in some areas of the
cystic duct
Muscularis: Thin but becomes thicker near the
duodenum and in the duodenal papilla, forms a
sphincter that regulates bile flow into the small
bowel
GALLBLADDER
- Hollow, pear-shaped organ attached to the
lower surface of the liver
- Capable of storing 30-50ml bile
- Actively transporting water for bile
concentration – includes activity of Na+
pumps followed by passive movement of
water from the bile
- Cholecystokinin induces contraction of the
muscularis to move bile into the duodenum
➔ Stimulated by the presence of ingested
fats in the small intestine
- Gallbladder removal leads to direct flow of
bile from liver to gut, with few major
consequences on digestion.
Mucosa: Simple columnar epithelium, lamina
propria; Numerous folds that are evident when
the gallbladder is empty
Muscularis: Thin, bundles of fibers oriented in
several directions
Adventitia/Serosa