Environ. Sci. Technol.
2001, 35, 2347-2351
Nitrous Oxide Emissions from
Aerated Composting of Organic
Waste
Y A O W U H E , * ,† Y U H E I I N A M O R I , †
MOTOYUKI MIZUOCHI,† HAINAN KONG,†
NORIO IWAMI,† AND TIEHENG SUN‡
National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa 16-2,
Tsukuba, Ibaraki 3050053, Japan, and Institute of Applied
Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road,
Shenyang, 110015, P.R. China
The composting of high organic content wastes has been
shown to produce nitrous oxide (N2O). This study was
initiated to investigate the mechanisms of N2O emissions
from aerated composting and to determine the optimal
operational conditions that minimize N2O emissions. The
results of our experiment in laboratory-scale composters
showed that more than 95% of N2O was produced during the
later period of composting when readily available carbon
sources had been depleted. Significant increases in
N2O emission after nitrite (NO2-) addition, and good NO2- -
N2O correlation, indicates that N2O was transformed
from NO2-. Extremely high N2O generation was observed
after NO2- addition in the presence and absence of composted
cattle manure. This suggests an identical mechanism for
N2O production in both treatments. However, the addition of
composted cattle manure resulted in an earlier initiation
of the main N2O generation period. Intermittent feeding of
fresh food waste postponed the main N2O generation
period, and reduced the mass-based N2O emissions by
20%.
Introduction
Interest in the sources of atmospheric N2O has recently been
stimulated by the recognition that this trace gas exerts
significant influence on the chemistry of the stratosphere
and on the earth’s thermal balance. Reaction of N2O with
singlet atomic oxygen represents the dominant source of
nitric oxide in the stratosphere which plays a catalytic role
in ozone destruction (1, 2). The high efficiency of N2O in
absorbing infrared radiation (IR) also makes it an important
greenhouse gas (3). Though atmospheric N2O accounts for
only 6% of the greenhouse effect, the rapid increase of its
mixing ratio in the atmosphere (currently at a rate of 0.25-
0.31%/year) (4), has drawn attention to the need for research
on all sources and sinks of this gas.
In the global inventory of N2O, natural sources such as
undisturbed soil, photolytic processes in the ocean, and
atmospheric formation are estimated to account for about
60% of total N2O emissions (4, 5). Significant anthropogenic
sources including agricultural and industrial activities release
* To whom correspondence should be addressed. Current ad-
dress: School of Biological Sciences, The Flinders University of South
Australia, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide 5001, Australia. E-mail: li.li@
flinders.edu.au.
† National Institute for Environmental Studies.
‡ Institute of Applied Ecology.
10.1021/es0011616 CCC: $20.00  2001 American Chemical Society
Published on Web 04/19/2001
5.5 Tg N2O-N/year, about 30-35% of the total emissions
(5); however, this estimation does not include N2O production
from waste management systems. Although the treatment
of organic wastes has been frequently reported to generate
N2O (6, 7), the total emission from these processes remains
poorly quantified.
Nitrous oxide is a byproduct of nitrification and deni-
trification, which are the main mechanisms for nitrogen
removal in waste treatment processes; therefore, it is not
surprising to detect high N2O emission from a variety of waste
treatment facilities. Zheng et al. (8) reported that in anoxic
treatment of wastewater 0-19% of nitrogen was removed in
form of N2O. In activated sludge systems, Mizuochi et al. (9)
and Hanaki (10) observed a production of 3 and 24.1 mg of
N2O-N, respectively, from the treatment of 1 m3 wastewater.
Apparent N2O emissions were also detected from treatment
of solid waste. Tsujimoto et al. (7) reported emissions of 7.8
and 40.2 g‚day-1 from an active and a closed landfill site,
respectively. Availability of oxygen is a determining factor in
N2O production. Nitrification under strict aerobic condition
and denitrification under strict anaerobic condition result
in negligible N2O production. N2O is mainly formed at
moderate O2 concentrations (6, 7).
Up to now, most solid organic waste has been landfilled
or incinerated; however, more and more concern has arisen
in recent years because of leachate problems and air pollution
associated with these systems. In particular, significant
emissions of greenhouse gases were detected from these
processes (7,11-13). In view of this, aerobic composting has
been suggested as a more acceptable alternative to landfill
disposal since the predominant aerobic environment in-
volved can mitigate greenhouse gas emission by reducing
methane generation (14). Nevertheless, the potential of N2O
production from aerobic composting is unknown. In a
practical scale sludge composting study, Czepiel et al. (6)
found that N2O flux was a function of the compost age, pile
depth, temperature, and water filled pore space. Aeration
was reported to increase N2O production.
The present paper describes the results of a comprehen-
sive study conducted in laboratory-scale reactors to quantify
N2O generation from the aerated composting of food waste.
The effects of several factors were investigated to identify
the main parameters controlling N2O emission. The resulting
emission rate data were then used to optimize the operational
conditions for aerated composting to minimize N2O emission.
Experimental Section
Waste and Amendments (Table 1). To keep the uniformity
of food waste composition, synthetic food waste was used
instead of practical pre- and postcustomer garbage. It was
fortified according to a Standard Composition for Food Waste
used by Ministry of Construction, Japan, which contains
chicken bone (8.16%, by weight), fish (10.20%), apple
(10.20%), banana peel (10.20%), grape peel (10.20%), cabbage
(18.38%), carrot (18.38%), rice (10.20%), and tea residue
(4.08%). Chicken bone, fish, and rice were boiled. All materials
were reduced in size by a disposer (Emerson Electric Co.).
The food mixture was stored in the dark in a freezer prior to
use. A commercial sawdust-based product of National Ltd.
(Japan), Biochip, was used as the bulking agent. In some
reactors composted cattle manure (CCM) purchased from
Joriku Ranch (Ibaraki, Japan) was added, in simulation of
the compost addition process in some small-scale composters
in Japan, to investigate its effect on N2O generation.
Composting Unit. Cylinder-shaped composters (18 L)
were used in the study. As shown in Figure 1, waste and
VOL. 35, NO. 11, 2001 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 2347
TABLE 1. Amount of Food Waste and Amendments (fresh weight) in Different Experiments
food
waste
experiments (kg)
reproducibility test 2.0
2.0
single-charged composters 2.0
2.0
intermittent-charged composters 2.0 + 4.0 + 6.0b
effect of aeration rates 2.0
2.0
effect of NO2- addition 2.0
2.0
a Liters per minute per kilogram of initial dry weight of food waste. b On days 5 and 14, 4.0 and 6.0 kg of fresh food waste were added into
the composters. c After readdition of food waste, aeration rate was increased correspondingly.
FIGURE 1. Schematic of laboratory composting apparatus.
amendments were thoroughly mixed in the composter by
slow stirring (0.8 rev‚min-1) of the motor. Four mixing arms
were fixed to the central shaft and at the ends of two adjacent
arms a connection plate was installed with only a narrow
space left in the middle for the thermocouple. Such a design
enabled the mixing paddles to move across the composter
to guarantee a uniform mixing of waste and amendments.
Aeration was achieved by continuously compressing air into
the composter through a false floor. To mitigate effects of
ambient temperature fluctuation on composting, the com-
poster was kept in a thermostatic chamber throughout the
testing period. Moreover, two electrical heaters were used,
one to heat the aeration flow, the other to warm a 0.5 L‚min-1
airflow passed through the space between composter and
the wall of chamber to establish a thermostatic environment.
A trough was installed beneath the false floor to collect
leachate which was then recycled into the composter. A
thermocouple buried into the waste mixture automatically
measured temperature.
Gas Sampling and Analysis. Air samples were collected
at 12-h intervals within the first week. After day 8, sampling
frequency was gradually reduced to a rate of once in 3 days.
A battery-operated pump (Sibata MP-2N, Japan) drew the
headspace samples into aluminum bags. Samples were
immediately transported to the lab, and allowed to equilibrate
to room temperature and analyzed by a Shimadzu GC-14A
gas chromatograph (Shimadzu Co., Japan) within 4 h.
Samples and standards were cleaned-up across two glass-
made columns packed with magnesium perchlorate (Nacalai
Tesque, Inc., Japan) and ASCARITE II (Thomas Scientific),
respectively, to remove moisture and CO2 as they were
injected into the gas chromatograph injection loop. Analysis
of N2O ((0.02 µL‚L-1) was accomplished using an electron
capture detector after constituent separation by a Poropak
Q column (2m × 3 mm i.d. stainless steel). The carrier gas
was a 95% Ar-5% CH4 mixture at a flow rate of 40 mL‚min-1.
Temperatures of detector and oven were 340 and 80 °C,
respectively. O2, CO2, and NH3 concentrations in the exhaust
air were measured by gas detector tubes (Gastec Co., Japan)
packed with materials which change colors after reaction
with O2, CO2, and NH3. The measurement was conducted by
2348 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 35, NO. 11, 2001
composted
cattle manure sawdust aeration rate
(kg) (kg) replicate (L‚min-1‚kg-1a)
0.0 1.5 2 0.70
1.0 1.5 2 0.70
0.0 1.5 2 0.70
1.0 1.5 2 0.70
1.0 1.5 2 0.70c
1.0 1.5 2 0.14
1.0 1.5 2 0.56
0.0 1.5 2 0.70
1.0 1.5 2 0.70
eye at an accuracy of (0.1%, (0.1%, and (0.1 ppm for O2,
CO2, and NH3, respectively.
Waste Mixture Sampling and Analysis. Immediately
after air sampling, the waste mixture was sampled from at
least five different points in each composter and mixed
thoroughly. Subsamples were then removed to determine
pH and gravimetric water content. For analysis of NH4+-N,
NO3--N, NO2--N, and TN (total N) concentration, 2.00 g of
waste mixture was extracted by 20 mL of 2 M KCl solution
for 30 min. After being centrifuged at 4000 rev‚min-1 for 10
min, the supernatant was filtered through glass fiber filter
(0.45 µm, Whatman), analyzed by an automated colorimetric
method on a TRAACS-800 instrument.
To determine concentration of dissolved organic carbon
(DOC) in waste, another 2.00 g subsample was extracted by
20 mL of water (Milli-Q SP TOC, Millipore) for 30 min,
centrifuged at 4000 rev‚min-1 for 10 min, and filtered by
glass fiber filter (0.45 µm, Whatman). The supernatant was
stored at 4 °C and analyzed within 2 days on a TOC analyzer
(Shimadzu TOC-5000, Japan).
Results
Reproducibility of Composter Performance. The reproduc-
ibility of the performance of the composters was assessed by
the analysis of oxygen and temperature profiles from two
preliminary experiments, one with CCM the other without.
In both experiments water content in the waste mixture was
kept at around 65%. In the presence of CCM, both duplicates
showed a 44-45 °C temperature peak at day 3 and a stabilizing
temperature profile (30.6-32.3 °C) after day 10, whereas in
the absence of CCM, temperature increased to 45-47 °C at
day 5 and stabilized after day 11. The average difference
between the replicate temperature profiles in two experi-
ments was less than 2 °C throughout the composting period.
Oxygen percentage in the offgases first decreased to 13 and
15% in treatments with and without CCM, respectively, and
then returned to 19.1-19.5% after day 11. The average
discrepancy between oxygen levels in offgases from com-
posters with identical initial conditions was less than 0.5%.
Analysis of the temperature and oxygen profiles showed that
the composting system was able to provide reproducible test
conditions for further experiments.
Nitrous Oxide Emission. Significant N2O production was
detected in all experimental runs. Figure 2 presents two
typical N2O emission profiles versus composting time
obtained in treatments with and without CCM, respectively.
A N2O emission peak was observed immediately after the
beginning of composting, and the peak value in treatments
with and without CCM was 3.32 and 2.73 µL‚L-1, respectively.
Charging of CCM increased the average peak value of N2O
emission by 0.59 µL‚L-1. After 2 days, N2O concentration in
the exhaust gas rapidly decreased to 0.53 µL‚L-1, slightly
higher than the atmospheric background level of 0.45 µL‚L-1
(ranging from 0.41 to 0.47 µL‚L-1 during the composting

FIGURE 2. Profiles of N2O concentration in the exhaust gas versus
composting time.
FIGURE 3. Profiles of N2O concentration in treatments with CCM
at various aeration rates.
period). From days 2 to 12, N2O production was low with an
average emission rate of 3.38 µL‚h-1 from 1 kg food waste
(dry weight). After day 12, N2O production from CCM-
amended treatments increased steadily and entered the
second (main) production period. A peak of 202.67 µL‚L-1
was detected on day 36, then N2O generation decreased slowly
to around 0.6 µL‚L-1 after day 100. In treatments without
CCM, no significant change occurred in N2O production until
day 55. Though a peak was detected at day 110, the average
peak value was much lower compared with that in CCM-
applied composters. Nitrous oxide generated during the main
production period accounted for more than 95% of total
emission throughout the experimental processes in trials with
and without CCM.
Effect of Aeration Rate. The effect of aeration rate on
N2O production was studied by aerating composters with
identical water contents and waste/amendment ratios at
different aeration rate. As the aeration rate was reduced from
0.70 to 0.56 and 0.14 L‚min-1‚kg-1, N2O emission decreased
significantly (Figure 3). The second N2O emission peak, which
was observed at 0.70 L‚min-1‚kg-1 (Figure 2, treatments with
CCM), was reduced by more than 90% at 0.56 L‚min-1‚kg-1
and did not appear at 0.14 L‚min-1‚kg-1. However, low
aeration prolonged ammonification period and resulted in
high ammonia volatilization (Figure 4), which would reduce
the nutrient value of the composted product and cause more
difficulties with odor control. Moreover, as the aeration rate
was reduced methane production increased. The mass-based
methane production was 1.72, 31.23, and 1328.94 mL‚kg-1
(dry weight), respectively, at 0.70, 0.56, and 0.14 L‚min-1‚kg-1.
High methane production at 0.14 L‚min-1‚kg-1 offset its
benefit in N2O emission control though IR absorbance of
FIGURE 4. Ammonia volatilization from composters aerated at
different rates.
FIGURE 5. Changes of DOC in waste mixture and N2O concentration
in the exhaust gas with composting time, the inset shows a plot
of N2O concentration in offgas against available carbon content (n
) 111).
CH4 is 10 times lower than that of N2O (9). Therefore, among
the three aeration rates employed in the study, 0.56
L‚min-1‚kg-1 appeared to be the most suitable aeration rate
if both N2O and CH4 emissions were considered.
Effect of Intermittent Feeding of Fresh Waste. To assess
the effect of carbon availability on N2O generation, DOC in
the waste mixture was determined in parallel with gas
analysis. In Figure 5, DOC in waste mixture increased sharply
to 33.28 mg‚g-1 on day 3, showing a higher DOC production
than removal, then decreased to 3.45 mg‚g-1 on day 10. During
this period, N2O emission was relatively low, ranging from
0.45 to 3.32 µL‚L-1, most of N2O was produced after day 12
(Figures 2 and 5). A plot of N2O concentration against DOC
content in the waste mixture (inset of Figure 5) showed no
statistically significant correlation. However, high N2O pro-
duction occurred while DOC content was low, indicating
that N2O was mostly released after the depletion of available
carbon source. The result implies that intermittent feeding
of fresh waste in the presence of enough bulking agent and
amendments, as it is widely used in commercially available
composters which require sawdust addition once a month,
may influence N2O production.
To investigate the effect of intermittent feeding of waste
on N2O generation, additional 4 and 6 kg fresh food waste
were added at days 5 and 14, respectively, into two CCM-
amended treatments with an initial loading rate of 2 kg. Fresh
waste was charged immediately after the pH in the waste
mixture increased to 9.0. Similar DOC accumulation-
VOL. 35, NO. 11, 2001 / ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 9 2349

FIGURE 6. Effect of intermittent feeding of food waste on N2O
production
consumption patterns were observed after addition of
different amount of waste on days 0, 5, and 14 (DOC in waste
mixture reached a maximum concentration of 31.88, 61.94,
and 84.32 mg‚g-1 3 days after addition and returned to 6.18,
6.54, and 6.39 mg‚g-1 5 days after addition, respectively).
The result suggested that sawdust used in the experiment
was enough for removing organic carbon. A small N2O
emission peak was detected immediately after each addition
(Figure 6). Consequently, three emission peaks were obtained
within 15 days in intermittent-charged composters, while in
single-charged ones only one peak appeared during the same
period. Nitrous oxide in the exhaust gas from single-charged
composters began to increase after day 12 and reached a
maximum concentration of 202.67 µL‚L-1 on day 36. In
intermittent-charged composters, however, a significant
increase in N2O production occurred on day 47 and reached
a maximum concentration of 953.23 µL‚L-1 on day 70. The
occurrence of the main production period was postponed in
intermittent-feeding treatments. The mass-based N2O emis-
sion was 1.19 and 0.95L‚kg-1 (dry waste) for single-charged
and intermittent-charged treatments, respectively, indicating
a 20% reduction in N2O production in intermittent-feeding
treatments.
Nitrous Oxide-Nitrite Correlation. Ammonia, nitrite,
nitrate, and TN concentration in waste mixture were
monitored simultaneously with N2O, and the data was then
utilized to formulate their relationships with N2O concentra-
tion in the exhaust gas. Significant increases in ammonia,
nitrite, and nitrate concentrations in waste mixture occurred
on days 8-10, 28-30, and 60-90, respectively, depending
on the aeration rate and waste application pattern. The result
suggested that nitrification was the predominant nitrogen
transformation process in our system. A good linear cor-
relation between nitrite and N2O concentration was found
in all composting trials, independent of feeding patterns of
waste and amendments (Figure 7). For ammonia, nitrate,
and TN, however, no statistically significant correlation was
obtained. To provide further evidence for the dependence
of N2O production on nitrite in the aerated composting
system, NaNO2 solution was added into composters to
increase the theoretical nitrite concentration (calculated on
the base of dry waste mixture) in waste mixture by 0.5 mg‚g-1.
Six hours after addition of nitrite, N2O concentrations as high
as 8838.83 and 1978.96 µL‚L-1 were detected in the offgases
of the composters with and without CCM, respectively (Figure
8) and then sharply decreased to normal level (0.53-0.60
µL‚L-1) within 3 days.
2350 9 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY / VOL. 35, NO. 11, 2001
FIGURE 7. Correlation between N2O concentration in offgas and
NO2- content in waste mixture.
FIGURE 8. Effect of nitrite addition on N2O production in composters
in the presence (solid circles) and in the absence of CCM (open
triangles).
Discussion
Our results demonstrate the potential for significant N2O
production from aerated composting of food waste. By
microbial degradation, organic nitrogen was transformed
into ammonia, leading to accumulation of ammonia in the
waste mixture and high ammonia volatilization (Figure 4).
Significant N2O emission started concurrently with ammonia
oxidation, which was evidenced by the sequential occurrence
of ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate accumulation. More than
95% of N2O was released during the later period of composting
while available carbon had been used up (Figure 5). The
time at which the N2O emission peak appeared depended
on the waste application pattern and amendment. Intermit-
tent feeding of fresh waste postponed its occurrence, whereas
amendment of CCM resulted in a peak earlier in the
composting cycle. The result implies that large amount of
N2O can be released from old compost piles in which
ammonia oxidation has started.
Previous studies on aerobic wastewater treatment pro-
cesses such as activated sludge and systems with high
nitrification activity showed that high NO2- level was
conducive to N2O production (8, 15-18). Similarly, linear
NO2--N2O correlation was observed in our study, implying
the existence of a nitrogen transformation pathway from
nitrite to N2O in our system. Significant N2O emission after
nitrite addition further certified that nitrite was one of main
parent chemicals of N2O in the aerated composting process.
The dependence of N2O production on nitrite was found
both in the presence and absence of CCM, suggesting an
identical mechanism for N2O production in both treatments.
 In contrast to the results obtained previously in manure
land application (19-21) and composting systems (22), no
significant correlation was found between N2O production
and ammonia, nitrate and total nitrogen. Aeration enabled
the system to be predominantly an oxic environment, and
reduction of nitrate was poor though anoxic/anaerobic
microsites might exist in large waste particles. As a result of
this, NO3- concentration as high as 3.53 mg‚g-1 detected in
CCM-amended treatments at the end of composting did not
cause apparent change in N2O generation. Poor NH4+-N2O
correlation was possibly a consequence of the extensive
period needed for ammonia oxidation.
High N2O production occurred after the readily available
carbon source was depleted. In intermittent-feeding com-
posters, occurrence of the main N2O-production peaks was
postponed from days 36 to 70. It’s unlikely the increased
waste amount, which was expected to prolong DOC removal
process, postponed N2O generation. With enough bulking
agent, applying large amount of food waste did not prolong
DOC removal process, as evidenced by the similar DOC
accumulation-consumption patterns observed after read-
dition of different amount of waste in our study. Multiple
feedings of fresh waste supported a continuous DOC
production-consumption process and inhibited ammonia
oxidation, and hence N2O production was postponed.
In single-charged composters, a two-peak N2O emission
curve was obtained after 5 months. The first peak observed
immediately after feeding of fresh waste came from the
release of N2O stored in food waste. Within 6 h, 200 g of food
waste stored in refrigerator produced 0.75 µL of N2O according
to our investigation. N2O was then sealed in the clump after
being frozen and released after thawing.
The first N2O emission peak in treatments with CCM was
higher than that without CCM, as a result of N2O generation
from the mature compost which was a known N2O generator-
(22-24). There is no direct evidence that CCM addition
imported new N2O generation mechanisms based on the
presently available data, but this study clearly showed that
addition of CCM resulted in an earlier occurrence of N2O.
In all experiments, a high N2O emission peak was found
at the end of the composting process (Figures 2 and 3).
Considering the good NO2--N2O correlation during this
period and the immediate increase in N2O production after
NO2- addition, N2O might be produced from NO2-. Usually
this transformation step occurs under anoxic or anaerobic
conditions (25, 26); however, aerobic denitrification has been
frequently documented in recent years (27, 28). With the
high aeration rates employed in the study, our composting
system was kept predominantly aerobic throughout the
experiment; however, anoxic or anaerobic microsites might
still exist inside the waste particles similarly to the coexistence
of aerobic and anaerobic microenvironment in aerobic soils
(29, 30), denitrification conducted by denitrifiers in these
microsites might contribute to NO2- reduction. If this is the
case, N2O production should be proportional to the available
carbon as shown previously (21, 31) because denitrifiers are
mostly heterotrophs. However, most of the N2O was produced
after the depletion of available organic carbon in our study,
a result inconsistent with the active metabolism of denitrifiers.
Considering the sequential appearance of NH4+, NO2-, and
NO3- peaks, which proved the existence of nitrifiers, nitrifier
denitrification appeared to be the predominant mechanism
for N2O production in our system.
Acknowledgments
The research was financially supported by Environmental
Agency, Japan. We are grateful to Dr. Toshihiro Sankai and
Ms. Keiko Kuto for their generous provision of equipment
for food waste preparation, and Ms. Hideko Arai and Ms.
Midori Toyama for their help on N, P analysis. Also, we wish
to express our appreciation for the assistance of Dr. Nicholas
McClure and Mr. Brett Roman in manuscript revisions.
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