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Hydrodynamic Characterization and Modeling of the Arabian Gulf

Article  in  Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering · January 2006

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-950X(2006)132:1(47)

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 Hydrodynamic Characterization and Modeling
of the Arabian Gulf
Walid Elshorbagy1; Mir Hammadul Azam2; and Koichi Taguchi3

Abstract: Studying and understanding the hydrodynamic conditions of the Arabian Gulf have received growing interest over the last few
decades. This is attributed to the strategic importance of the area, as it is used in transporting most of the oil produced from the Gulf
countries in addition to being the main source of desalination water that such countries rely on heavily. Yet, only few comprehensive
studies have been conducted to fully characterize and interpret the hydrodynamics of the Arabian Gulf. The current study is one of those
efforts directed towards the understanding of water dynamics in the Arabian Gulf. This has been achieved by virtue of three-dimensional
numerical modeling supported by field measurements conducted recently in the southern shelf to verify the output results. The southern
shelf refers to the southern region of the Arabian Gulf, bounded from the west by the Qatar Peninsula and from the south by the United
Arab Emirates. The utilized numerical model employs a rectilinear grid system with parallel layers and uses explicit technique in solving
the continuity, momentum, and heat/solar-transferee governing equations. The model employs typical seasonal wind fields developed via
combining Hellerman historical data averaged over the last 30 years with other data recorded recently in the southern shelf. Salinity and
temperature fields are also incorporated in the simulation model, considering the Mt. Mitchell National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration data complemented with field measurements in the southern shelf. The conducted field measurements include tidal records
at three stations and current measurements at one station and are found to reasonably agree with the simulated results.
DOI: XXXX
CE Database subject headings: United Arab Emirates; Hydrodynamics; Tides; Currents; Wind; Salinity; Temperature.

Introduction
The Arabian Gulf is a strategically important sea. The Gulf coun-
tries enjoy the facility of sea transport, benefit from the biologi-
cally diverse marine environment, and utilize seawater as a source
of industrially converted fresh water. For the purpose of engineer-
ing development and environmental management of the Gulf, it is
essential to understand the dynamic behavior of the sea. A com-
puter model can be a comprehensive tool for resolving the details
of the flow dynamics in any required time frame.
Most of the model studies conducted on the physical processes
of the Arabian Gulf focused on the mean flow characterization
under extreme seasonal conditions. Such studies may provide
valuable information in the context of long-term environmental
management issues. However, in the cases of sudden environmen-
tal disasters like an accidental oil spill or a large-scale toxic
release, tidal flow dynamics are crucially important. In one of the
1 ducted using a three-dimensional model. The model performance
Associate Professor, Civil and Environmental Engineering Dept.,
United Arab Emirates Univ., AlJimi #17555, AlAin, United Arab
Emirates. E-mail: Walid.shorbagy@uaeu.ac.ae
2
Senior Researcher, Scientific Research Sector, United Arab Emirates
Univ., AlJimi #17555, AlAin, United Arab Emirates.
3
Manager, Science and Technology Division, Chuden CTI Company,
Japan.
Note. Discussion open until June 1, 2006. Separate discussions must
be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor.
The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible
publication on April 19, 2004; approved on April 27, 2005. This paper is
part of the Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal, and Ocean Engineering,
Vol. 132, No. 1, January 1, 2006. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-950X/2006/1-1–
XXXX/$25.00.
earliest model studies on the tidal dynamics of the Gulf, Chu et al.
共1988兲 found that the tide-induced flows are much stronger in the
Straits of Hormuz and in the deeper part of the basin along the
Iranian coast as compared to the flow in the shallower shelf off
the United Arab Emirates 共UAE兲 coast. One of the key processes
that maintain the salinity level unchanged is the water exchange
between the Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman via the Straits of
Hormuz. The rate of exchange that determines the residence time
for the Arabian Gulf basin has been studied by a number of sci-
entists, and the results showed some degree of disagreement. Un-
derstanding the circulation in the Straits of Hormuz plays a key
role for correct estimation of the residence time. Older studies
showed that the residence time falls in the range of 2 – 5 years
共Hughes and Hunter 1979; Hunter 1983兲. However, later field
measurement by Johns and Olson 共1998兲 revealed that the mean
outflow ranged between 0.2 and 0.28 Sv, which gave a residence
time spanning 350– 500 days 共1 Sv= 1 million m3 s−1兲.
In the present study, a hydrodynamic modeling study is con-
has been satisfactorily tested with well-known commercial mod-
els such as MIKE3 and Delft3D. Investigation is done to explore
the tide-driven flow behavior in the presence of other meteoro-
logical and oceanographic forces. The ultimate goal of the present
study is to evaluate the flow field in response to different driving
forces such as tide, wind, and density gradient, and to better un-
derstand the hydrodynamic aspects via experiments of numerical
simulations. This is demonstrated and achieved in another related
paper 共Azam et al., submitted paper, 2004兲.
The hydrodynamic modeling performed here represents the
first phase of a comprehensive environmental impact assessment
study conducted in the UAE coastal water and involves hydrody-
namic, ecological, and pollutant transport modeling.

JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006 / 1

Fig. 1. Arabian Gulf bathymetry 共depth contours in m兲; A = point of
ADCP measurement 共depth= 22 m兲; CM2 共depth= 94 m兲 and CM4
共depth= 69 m兲 are points of NOAA current measurements;
X1 = points of WL measurements; 丢 = points used in WL analysis
Physical Background
Bathymetry
The Arabian Gulf, located between 24 and 30° latitude, is more
than 1,000 km in length along its axis. The boomerang-shaped
basin is connected to the Arabian Sea through the Straits of Hor-
muz 共Fig. 1兲, a narrow passage that is as narrow as 56 km near its
dramatic bend. Unlike the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea,
there are no sills limiting the exchange with adjoining seas. Con-
sequently, there is essentially unrestricted exchange between the
Arabian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. The widest section of the
Gulf spans between the coasts of UAE and Iran. Contracting the
width, the peninsula of Qatar separates the northern Gulf from its
central and southern part. The bathymetry is basically asymmetric
along its axis with a deeper zone close to the Iranian coast and a
broad, shallower shelf off the UAE coast 共see the depth contour
lines of Fig. 1兲. The southern Gulf, which is literally rocky, is
characterized by marked bathymetric undulation. The contourj
distribution in the north becomes much smoother, probably being
modified by the sediment discharges from the major rivers.
Numerous islands, many of which are in the form of spikes, are
dispersed all over the Gulf.
Wind
The Arabian Gulf is located between the latitude of 24 and 30°N.
Most of the Earth’s deserts are located in this region. This zone is
the boundary between the synoptic weather system of the midlati-
tude and tropical circulation 共Hadley Cell兲, where the descending
air produces clear skies and arid conditions. The Shamal is the
prominent wind that blows from the northwest and occurs all
around the year 共Perrone 1979兲. The winter Shamal is related to a
synoptic weather system to the northwest that sets in with great
abruptness and force 共Reynolds 1993兲. A strong breeze occurs
along the coastline of the Arabian Peninsula. The sea-breezing
circulation adds a landward component being driven by the
intense temperature difference between the land and water.
2 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006
Data from two sources, Hellerman 共2003兲 and the UAE Me-
teorology Department, were averaged and combined to represent
typical and constant in time, yet variable in space, wind condi-
tions for the summer and winter seasons considered in the current
simulations 共Fig. 2兲.
Inspection of the 106 available records of Hellerman wind data
共Hellerman 2003兲 showed similar seasonal differences for the en-
tire Gulf. In both seasons, the mean wind blows from the north-
west. Averaging the last 30 years of such records is found ad-
equate to develop typical seasonal conditions for the major
portion of the Arabian Gulf. However, finer and more recent data
recorded by the Department of Meteorology, UAE, are employed
in the southern shelf, where most of the field measurements con-
sidered in comparisons made in the current study are located. The
records are taken at three offshore observation points of UAE,
namely, Zarkum, Umm Shaif, and Abu Khush. The 3 h wind data
of the year 2002 at the Zarkum and Umm Shaif locations are
averaged over the months of January and February to provide a
typical wind representation for the winter season and over the
months of July and August for the summer season. The monthly-
based data of the northmost location, Abu Khush, was available
for a period of 11 years, from 1989 to 2000. This period is there-
fore averaged over the same months considered earlier, i.e., Janu-
ary and February for the winter season and July and August for
the summer season. The southern shelf region is then divided into
three segments surrounding the three observation points, and the
wind of each segment is assigned the average value calculated at
its relevant observation point.
The wind speed in the Hellerman data is found to be slightly
lower than the values recorded by the Department of Meteorol-
ogy. However, the wind directions from both sources show good
agreement. The combined sets of averaged data are believed to
provide a reasonable representation of typical wind fields for both
summer and winter seasons. Recalling that the ultimate goal of
the present work is to evaluate the flow field in response to dif-
ferent driving forces via numerical experiments, and because
mostly only the surface layer is affected by the wind-driven cur-
rent, the use of such sets in the current computational setting
seems reasonable.
Radiation
Hastenrath and Lamb 共1979兲 showed that heat fluxes for the Ara-
bian Gulf are negligible 共⬍20W · m−2兲 so that the heat gained by
the ocean could be expressed as the summation of net radiation
and heat loss by evaporation 共which is a negative term兲. The study
found that the net radiative flux is high in the summer 共more than
200 W · m−2兲 and low in the winter 共about 50 W · m−2兲. The latent
heat flux is high 共more than 100 W · m−2兲 in the fall and winter but
low in the summer 共less than 80 W · m−2兲.
Evaporation
Privett 共1959兲 estimated a mean evaporation rate of 1.44 m / year
in the open waters of the Arabian Gulf. The maximum evapora-
tion was in December and the minimum was in May. An evapo-
ration atlas compiled by Hastenrath and Lamb 共1979兲 also shows
a similar pattern. The mean evaporation rate estimated by Meshal
and Hassan 共1986兲 was around 2 m · year−1 in the coastal region
of the Gulf. A much higher figure 共up to about 5 m · year−1兲 was
Fig. 2. 共a兲 Hellerman mean wind data in summer and winter; and 共b兲 vectors showing average winds recorded by UAE Meteorological
Department in summer and winter
determined by Ross and Stoffers 共1978兲. Due to different perspec-
tives, different resolutions were adopted by the different studies
and brought about the apparent discrepancy of the estimated
figures.
Salinity and Temperature
In one of the early reports, Emery 共1956兲 published field-
expedition results that covered the summertime. Later, Brewer
and Dryssen 共1984兲 presented a wintertime survey report. The
first widely covered, much more integrated and technically so-
phisticated effort was made during a research cruise study con-
ducted on the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
共NOAA兲 vessel Mt. Mitchell 共Reynolds 1993兲.
Reynolds 共1993兲 conducted salinity-temperature measure-
ments, current meter mooring, buoy tracking, and observation of
meteorological and oceanographic variables. The survey contin-
ued for about 4 months, covering the period of winter to early
summer. Reynolds’ data do not extend well downward to United
Arab Emirates coast. The lack of such data can potentially pro-
duce misleading conclusions upon conducting numerical hydro-
dynamic simulations. It was therefore necessary to compliment
these data with a recent set of data gathered in the southern shelf
and presented by another study 共Elshorbagy et al. 2004兲.
Reynolds’ 共1993兲 data showed that the southern shallow areas
are relatively more saline, with values mounting to 43 psu 共prac-
tical salinity units兲 in the winter. The salinity near the Straits of
JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006 / 3
Hormuz was lower, with values of about 36– 38 psu in both sum-
mer and winter. The salinity in the winter was observed to be
higher by about 1 – 2 psu than the summer observation, due to the
higher evaporation during winter induced by the strong cold
northwesterly wind creating convection in the upper layer. The
temperature map 共not shown here兲 indicated that warmer water
entered through the Straits of Hormuz during the winter when the
temperature in the Gulf ranged between 15 and 20° C. During the
summer, the temperature was recorded as high as 30° C at the
southern part. In both the summer and winter, the north part was
comparatively colder. A stratified bottom layer with higher salin-
ity and colder temperature was observed during both the summer
and winter.
In summary, the vertical structure of the Gulf was found to be
as follows: In the summer, the northern end of the Gulf becomes
a two-layered system with a well-mixed surface layer and well-
mixed bottom layer that is residual of the winter water. In the
wintertime, the area north of Qatar is almost perfectly mixed from
top to bottom, while at the extreme northern end, the depth be-
comes shallow enough for the surface and bottom mixing to stir
the water column over its full depth. At the extreme southern end
of the Gulf, the two-layered system persists around the year.
The field survey conducted by our research team in the shal-
lower southern Gulf showed that salinity towards the southern
shore gradually increased up to 45 psu in both seasons. The tem-
perature in the shallower water was higher during the summer but
lower during the winter. Water temperature was measured as high
as 34° close to the shore.
Water Level
A power spectrum analysis was conducted on the gathered water
level data to investigate the possible existence of basin-wide
waves 共Fig. 3兲. Water levels were measured using pressure sensor
type gauges at Dubai, Abu Dhabi and Ruwais. Data covered
periods of more than 4 months in all locations. At Dubai, a small
amplitude oscillation was observed with period of 78.2 h
共⬇3.25 days兲. At Abu Dhabi, the N2 constituent was present with
an amplitude of about 8 cm 共period 12.66 h兲. A small oscillation
was also noticed with a period of 34.6 h. Such oscillation could
be a localized phenomenon, as the gauge was located in a shel-
tered harbor. At Ruwais, a low frequency oscillation with an
amplitude of 7 cm was observed. The oscillation period was
estimated to be 166.7 h, which is relatively larger than the periods
of local waves in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. In all three locations, no
consistent fluctuation was observed and the existence of a basin-
wide low frequency wave was not evidenced.

Simulation Model

A well-developed 3D rectilinear-grid coastal flow model, usually

referred to as the multilevel model 共e.g., Nakata et al. 1983, 1985;
Taguchi and Terasawa 1988; Taguchi and Nakata 1998; Taguchi
et al. 1999, 2002兲, is employed in the present study to simulate
the hydrodynamics of the Arabian Gulf. The numerical scheme
was originally developed and applied as a part of a combined
eco-hydrodynamic model. The present study employs the hydro-
dynamic part of the modeling system. Solving the continuity, mo-
mentum, and conservation of salt and temperature equations nu-
merically simulates the hydrodynamics. The model comprises a
system of equations that express the flow momentum, flow con-
tinuity, sea surface fluctuation, and heat and salt transfer, in con-
junction with the equation of state. Water is treated as a viscous
incompressible fluid in a flow process that adopts a hydrostatic
pressure assumption. Because of that assumption, the model can
be regarded in the strict sense as “pseudo-3D,” because the ver-
tical momentum equation is ignored. Yet, it can be still regarded
as 3D, as this is conventionally the case with most models prac-
ticed in physical oceanography. While heat flux calculation is
done to incorporate the external influx of energy, the turbulence
conservation equations are used to compute internal kinetic
energy transfer.

Governing Equations

The depth-integrated momentum equation for each level k in the

direction of x and y are
⳵M k ⳵ ⳵
+ 共M kuk兲 + 共M kvk兲 − 兩共uw兲兩−Hk−1 + 兩共uw兲兩−Hk
⳵t ⳵x ⳵y

= f 0N k +
hk
␳k
再 1
关P̃x兴k − g · hk
2
冎 冉 冊
⳵␳k
⳵x
+
⳵
⳵x
Ax
⳵M k
⳵x

+
⳵
⳵y
冉 冊
Ay
Mk
⳵y
1
+ · ␶k−1,k
␳ x
1
− · ␶k,k+1
␳ x
共1兲

⳵Nk ⳵ ⳵
+ 共Nkuk兲 + 共Nkvk兲 − 兩共vw兲兩−Hk−1 + 兩共vw兲兩−Hk
⳵t ⳵x ⳵y

= − f 0M k +
hk
␳k
再 1
关P̃y兴k − g · hk
2
冎 冉 冊
⳵␳k
⳵y
+
⳵
⳵x
Ax
⳵Nk
⳵x
Fig. 3. Power spectrum of water levels measured at Abu Dhabi,
Ruwais, and Dubai +
⳵
⳵y
冉 冊
Ay
⳵Nk
⳵y
1
+ · ␶k−1,k
␳ y
1
− · ␶k,k+1
␳ y
共2兲

4 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006
In these equations, u, v, and w = velocity components 共cm· s−1兲 in
the x, y, and z directions, respectively; ␨ = sea-surface level 共cm兲;
H = still-water depth 共cm兲; ␳ = seawater density 共g · cm−3兲;
f 0 = Coriolis parameter 共s−1兲, which is given as f 0 = 2 · ␻ · sin ␸0
with the angular velocity ␻共s−1兲 of the Earth’s rotation and the
mean latitude ␸0 of the estuary; g = gravitational acceleration
共=980 cm· s−2兲; and Pa = atmospheric pressure 共g · cm−2 · s−1兲.
On completing the preceding mathematical description, the
depth-integrated velocity components are defined as the volume
transport; i.e.
difference of the temperatures in the air and water and also on a
wind-based factor. Saturated vapor pressure at the air temperature
and water temperature are used to estimate the latent heat flux.
Model Setup
The model is constructed using 5 ⫻ 5 km grids, and the size of the
model is 122⫻ 185. In the vertical direction, the water column is
divided into six layers with a minimum thickness of 4 m at the

冕 冕
surface.
Mk ⬅ udz, Nk ⬅ vdz 共k = 1,2, . . . ,K兲 共3兲 The sea-surface elevation due to astronomical tide is pre-
k k scribed at the open boundary at the Straits of Hormuz, and the
Neumann free-momentum condition is assumed to the horizontal
For the top level 共k = 1兲, depth integration of the equation of flow velocity components. Four major tidal constituents 共M2, S2,
continuity becomes K1, and O1兲 collected from the Admiralty Tide Table 共ATT 2001兲

冕再 冎 冉冕 冊 冉冕 冊 are used. For scalar fields 关water temperature, salinity, and sub-
⳵u ⳵v ⳵w ⳵ ⳵
+ + dz = udz + vdz grid-scale 共SGS兲 kinetic energy density兴, the boundary values are
1 ⳵x ⳵ y ⳵z ⳵x 1 ⳵y 1 user-specified under the up-wind advective difference scheme
共i.e., prescribed values are valid only during the flood tide pe-
⳵␨ ⳵␨
− 兩u兩␨ − 兩v兩␨ + 兩w兩␨ − 兩w兩−H1 riod兲. Temperature and salinity for the boundary are obtained
⳵x ⳵y from the Mt. Mitchell cruise data 共Reynolds 1993兲. Salinity and
⳵ M 1 ⳵N1 ⳵␨ temperature data from the same study are also used to construct
= + + − 共v P − vE兲 − 兩w兩−H1 the depth-varying initial condition. Four major rivers in the north-
⳵x ⳵y ⳵t
ern coast 共Kuwait and Iran兲 are included with constant discharges.
共4兲 The bed friction coefficient is assumed to be a constant value of
Note here that the precipitation rate v P and the evaporation rate vE 0.0026 and the wind friction coefficient at the sea surface
are taken into account for the vertical flow velocity at the sea is 0.001. The eddy viscosity in the horizontal plane is 1.98
surface, 兩w兩␨. For the interlayer k 共2 ⬍ k ⬍ K兲, depth integration of ⫻ 106 cm2 · s−1.
the equation of continuity gives Parameters for the heat flux model known to be critical

冕再 冎
for seas like the Arabian Gulf are set for the summer
⳵u ⳵v ⳵w ⳵ M k ⳵Nk condition as: global solar radiation= 1,500 cal· cm−2 · day−1; day
+ + dz = + + 兩w兩−Hk−1 − 兩w兩−Hk 共5兲 length= 0.57 days; empirical coefficient reflecting solar altitude
k ⳵x ⳵ y ⳵z ⳵x ⳵y
= 0.35; cloudiness= 0.01; daily mean temperature= 30° C; relative
and for the bottom level 共k = K兲, the equation is given as humidity= 53; and empirical constant reflecting the cloudiness

冕再 冎
⳵u ⳵v ⳵w ⳵ M K ⳵NK
+ + dz = + + 兩w兩−HK−1
K ⳵x ⳵ y ⳵z ⳵x ⳵y
The equation of state adopting Knudsen’s expression is used for
computing the seawater density from the water temperature and
salinity. In this scheme, the empirical relation developed by Munk
and Anderson 共1948兲 is used to account for the buoyancy effect
due to stratification.
The foregoing equations of the multilevel hydrodynamic
model are discretized using a primitive finite-difference scheme
and solved numerically under a staggered grid regime. A simple
explicit scheme is chosen for time advancing where the compu-
tation becomes time-consuming because of severe restrictions to
the time increment. A time increment of 1 min is used and found
to yield reasonable execution times.
Heat Exchange Model
The heat exchange calculation through the sea surface is done by
including the contribution from the short-term solar radiation,
long-term back radiation, sensible heat flux, and latent heat flux.
The short-term solar radiation is estimated from the global solar
radiation value, which varies with seasonal condition and the lati-
tude position of a particular location. The long-term back radia-
tion is empirically determined from the absolute vapor pressure
and air-water temperatures. The sensible heat is dependent on the
= 0.65. For winter, the parameters are: global solar radiation
= 970 cal· cm−2 · day−1; day length= 0.50 days; empirical coeffi-
共6兲 cient reflecting solar altitude= 0.35; cloudiness= 0.01; daily mean
temperature= 20° C; relative humidity= 60; and empirical con-
stant reflecting the cloudiness= 0.65. The simulation periods in
the calibration phase of the model are selected on the basis of the
coverage of the field data.
Calibration and Results
Computed water levels at Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Ruwais are
compared with measured data in Figs. 4共a–c兲. The result agrees
fairly well in all cases except for some amplitude disagreements.
The tidal parameters estimated at 15 locations in the Gulf are
plotted against predicted ATT values in Fig. 4共d兲. In general, the
computed values show good agreement with the ATT phase and
amplitude. The major disagreement occurs at the points in the east
and west of the Qatar Peninsula. Most of the K1 amplitudes are
underestimated, while the amplitudes of O1 constituent are over-
estimated. The modeled phases for all constituents lag their
respective ATT phases.
Computed currents 共northward and eastward components兲 are
plotted in Fig. 5共a兲 against measured ADCP data at point A 共see
Fig. 1兲, located in the southern gulf. The ADCP measurement
only covered 12 days, as the instrument started to malfunction
after this period in its 2-month-long field deployment. Computed
current magnitude and directions are also plotted 关Figs. 5共b and

JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006 / 5
Fig. 4. Comparison of measured and simulated water levels at: 共a兲 Abu Dhabi; 共b兲 Dubai; 共c兲 Ruwais; and 共d兲 computed tidal constituents
共amplitude and phase兲 against respective ATT values
c兲兴 against measured data collected from the NOAA. Compari-
sons are done at two locations 共CM2, CM4兲 in the deeper part of
the Gulf close to the Iranian coast. At CM2, the result shows
better agreement with the measurement. Some disagreements
with measured data are seen for CM4. One of the possible reasons
for such a discrepancy is noninclusion of time-dependent wind
data in the present simulation.
Dynamics of Tides and Currents
Model-estimated water level and velocity field are plotted at 3 h
intervals 共Fig. 6兲 covering 1 day 共June 9, 2002兲. Results are fully
based on the summer condition. At 00:00 h, when the peak of a
tidal wave enters the Arabian Gulf through the Straits of Hormuz,
the preceding peak is observed at the northwestern end of the
basin. This creates a wavelength of about 1,000 km with a celer-
ity larger than 22 m · s−1 共as tides are semidiurnal at the open
boundary兲. Although the incoming tide through the Straits of Hor-
muz is semidiurnal in nature, the tidal behavior in the Gulf is
complex. As the tidal wave, which travels faster along the Iranian
side of the basin, reflects back from the northwestern boundary
and is trapped in the eastern side of the Qatar Peninsula, high
water appears diurnally in some parts of the northern and south-
ern areas. Higher tidal ranges are observed in the northern end of
the Gulf and the east side of Qatar.
The plot representing 00:00 h of June 9, 2002, in Fig. 6 shows
northwest flow in the northern Gulf but eastward flow in the
central Gulf. After 3 h, water starts to enter the Gulf from the
6 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006
Straits of Hormuz and the southern Gulf receives flow both from
the northwest and northeast as the water level elevates. At hour
06:00, southeastward flow in the north further intensifies with the
lowering of the water level. Strong flow directed to the east coast
of Qatar also occurs as the water level continues to rise. The flow
field remains identical but turns out to be much weaker at hour
9:00. While the current in the north reverses in the following
frame, the flow tends to converge from the north and east in the
south. Later, at hour 15:00, the flow in the entire Gulf directs
towards the east with a low intensity as the central Gulf experi-
ences high water. Flow grows stronger in the central and southern
Gulf at hour 18:00, moving towards northwest. Water starts to
move out through the Straits of Hormuz in the same frame. At
hour 21:00, the velocity pattern remains the same, except that
stronger outflow develops through the east. Overall, the current is
axially dominant except for the southern shelf, where the current
orients in all directions in response to the change of tidal phase.
Harmonic Analysis
The tidal characteristics along the UAE coast are not unique.
Understanding the tidal behavior is a key condition for working in
engineering or environmental projects in any coastal region. To
portray the spatial distribution of tidal harmonics, a number of
points are selected in the southern Gulf and tidal analysis is done.
The interpolated maps for the amplitudes and phases are shown in
Fig. 7. The positions of the M2 and S2 amphidromes 共zero am-
plitude兲 are found at the north of Ruwais, similar to the results
Fig. 5. Comparison of: 共a兲 measured and simulated current components 共m · s−1兲 at point A in the Southern Gulf; 共b兲 measured and simulated
currents 共m · s−1兲 at CM2 at depth of 15 m; and 共c兲 measured and simulated currents 共m · s−1兲 for CM4

JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006 / 7
Fig. 6. Water level and current field with 3 h interval covering 1 day
obtained from other studies 共Lardner et al. 1982兲. The estimated
Rossby radius at 27° is 335 km, which is comparable with the
basin width. As a result, the response to the diurnal forcing
through the opening is a single half-basin oscillation with an an-
ticlockwise amphidrome. The semidiurnal tide develops two an-
ticlockwise amphidromic systems with a node of antiamphidrome
at the middle of the basin. Near the center of the basin, the
changes in tidal level are predominantly semidiurnal, whereas
near the semidiurnal amphidromes, they are mainly diurnal. At
the northwest and southwest ends of the basin, the tidal levels
have mixed diurnal and semidiurnal characteristics. The M2 am-
plitudes show lower values than the model results of Lardner et
al. 共1982兲. Comparison shows some degree of phase lag for this
constituent. The amplitude of S2 shows slightly lower values in
the central and northern part of the Gulf. The S2 phase is found to
be closer to Lardner’s value. Our model also shows a lower am-
plitude for K1 in the northern part, while the amplitude is damped
near the UAE coast. The K1 phase shows slight lag.
Mean Current
To understand the net flow pattern of the Gulf, the current field
from 30 day simulation is averaged over time. Fig. 8共a兲 shows the
8 / JOURNAL OF WATERWAY, PORT, COASTAL, AND OCEAN ENGINEERING © ASCE / JANUARY/FEBRUARY 2006
Fig. 7. Maps of amplitude and phase of M2, S2, K1, and O1 in Gulf
mean current field developed with the application of the com-
bined wind field 共Hellerman and recorded兲 when the summer
temperature-salinity data are used in the background. The current
field tends to move southward in the entire Gulf except for the
eastern and southern coasts, where it flows along the shoreline.
The effect of wind is not observed very close to the boundary in
the Straits of Hormuz, where the flow is reported to be strongly
density driven.
The surface flow pattern with winter wind on the prognostic
setup is shown in Fig. 8共b兲. Almost in the entire northern and
central Gulf, southward current is generated by the wind force
with almost no visual effect from the density force. But close to
the Straits of Hormuz, the westward movement of water shows
the dominance of density force over the wind force, which acts
mainly towards the southeast. Currents tend to become parallel
along the Saudi Arabian coast and become stronger after arriving
at the tip of the Qatar Peninsula. The shallow shelf of the UAE is
subject to strong wind-generated current in winter. To balance the
wind drag, such flow develops a positive gradient of surface el-
evation towards the coast, generating a downwelling current.
 water levels and current records. The results show that the entire
Gulf is tidally active. Spectrum water analysis of the tidal mea-
surements showed no consistent fluctuation in the water levels, so
the existence of a basin-wide low frequency wave is not evi-
denced. Strong tidal oscillations are observed in the northern Gulf
and on the east side of the Qatar Peninsula. The time-averaged
results show a strong influence of wind on the current field in
both the summer and winter. Tracking the surface flow field over
1 day shows that inflow from the Straits of Hormuz takes place
during most of the day. Due to the small amount of external water
supplied by only three rivers, the inflow through the Straits of
Hormuz apparently compensates for some of the water lost by
evaporation, a phenomenon that contributes to the high salinity
levels observed in the whole Gulf in general and in the southern
shelf in particular.

Acknowledgments

Japan Cooperation Center, Petroleum 共JCCP兲, sponsors the re-

search work that is currently undertaken at the United Arab Emir-
ates University. The writers would like to acknowledge the great
support received from TAKREER and ADPOC from UAE-
ADNOC Companies in the marine surveys and in other sampling
work. Acknowledgment is also due to Professor Kisaburo Nakata,
from Tokai University, for his valuable help with revision and for
his recommendations.

Notation

The following symbols are used in this paper:

ea ⫽ actual vapor pressure;
es ⫽ saturated vapor pressure;
f 0 ⫽ coriolis parameter 共⬃5.210−5 s−1兲;
g ⫽ acceleration due to gravity 共981 cm· s−2兲;
Fig. 8. Flow field of surface layer due to wind and density force in: H ⫽ still water depth 共cm兲;
共a兲 summer; and 共b兲 winter k ⫽ turbulent kinetic energy 共m2 · s−2兲;
M k ⫽ average x-velocity in layer k;
M k ⫽ average y-velocity in layer k;
Due to the vertical and lateral density variation along the open Pa ⫽ atmospheric pressure 共g · cm−2 · s−1兲;
boundary of Straits of Hormuz, an outflow occurs through the t ⫽ time 共s兲;
bottom layers. The surface influx is therefore the result of local u , v , and w ⫽ velocities in x-, y-, and z-directions,
balance at the boundary as well as the replenishment of major respectively 共m · s−1兲;
evaporation losses taking place in the basin, less the small amount vE ⫽ evaporation rate;
of fresh supplies from the three northern rivers. Based on a v P ⫽ precipitation rate;
1-month simulation, the simulated mean outflow near the Straits vv ⫽ eddy viscosity 共m2 · s−1兲;
of Hormuz is 0.07 Sv. This value is calculated by summing up the W ⫽ wind speed 共m · s−1兲;
mean flows of bottom outflowing layers after being averaged up x, y, and z ⫽ cartesian coordinates 共m兲;
over the boundary grids. The bottom layers showing outflow are ␧ ⫽ turbulence dissipation term;
mainly 2–3 layers, depending on the location, because the deeper ␨ ⫽ sea surface elevation 共cm兲;
layers only cover a narrow part of the Straits of Hormuz. The ␳k ⫽ sea water density of layer k 共g · cm−3兲;
simulated mean outflow rate is associated with a residence time of ␸0 ⫽ area latitude; and
nearly 3.9 years for the gulf water, which is about 8,630 km3 in ␻ ⫽ angular velocity of the earth rotation 共s−1兲.
volume. This value is close to the 5-years estimation of Hunter
共1983兲 but much larger than the value of 350– 500 days calcu-
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