Wicked problem

In planning and policy, a wicked problem is a problem that is difficult or impossible to solve because of
incomplete, contradictory, and changing requirements that are often difficult to recognize. It refers to an
idea or problem that cannot be fixed, where there is no single solution to the problem; and "wicked"
denotes resistance to resolution, rather than evil.[1] Another definition is "a problem whose social
complexity means that it has no determinable stopping point".[2] Moreover, because of complex
interdependencies, the effort to solve one aspect of a wicked problem may reveal or create other problems.
Due to their complexity, wicked problems are often characterized by organized irresponsibility.

The phrase was originally used in social planning. Its modern sense was introduced in 1967 by C. West
Churchman in a guest editorial Churchman wrote in the journal Management Science,[3] either repeating
his own coinage or responding to a previous use of the term by Horst Rittel—the origin is uncertain.[4]
Churchman discussed the moral responsibility of operations research "to inform the manager in what
respect our 'solutions' have failed to tame his wicked problems." Rittel and Melvin M. Webber formally
described the concept of wicked problems in a 1973 treatise, contrasting "wicked" problems with relatively
"tame", solvable problems in mathematics, chess, or puzzle solving.[5]

Characteristics
Rittel and Webber's 1973 formulation of wicked problems in social policy planning specified ten
characteristics:[5][6]

1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem.

2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule.
3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but better or worse.
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.
5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there is no
opportunity to learn by trial and error, every attempt counts significantly.
6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of
potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be
incorporated into the plan.
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.
9. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in
numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem's
resolution.
10. The social planner has no right to be wrong (i.e., planners are liable for the consequences of
the actions they generate).

Conklin later generalized the concept of problem wickedness to areas other than planning and policy;
Conklin's defining characteristics are:[7]

1. The problem is not understood until after the formulation of a solution.

2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule.
3. Solutions to wicked problems are not right or wrong.
 4. Every wicked problem is essentially novel and unique.
5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one shot operation".
6. Wicked problems have no given alternative solutions.

Examples
Classic examples of wicked problems include economic, environmental, and political issues. A problem
whose solution requires a great number of people to change their mindsets and behavior is likely to be a
wicked problem. Therefore, many standard examples of wicked problems come from the areas of public
planning and policy. These include global climate change,[8] natural hazards, healthcare, the AIDS
epidemic, pandemic influenza, international drug trafficking, nuclear weapons, homelessness, and social
injustice.

In recent years, problems in many areas have been identified as exhibiting elements of wickedness;
examples range from aspects of design decision making and knowledge management[9] to business
strategy[10] to space debris.[11]

Background
Rittel and Webber coined the term in the context of problems of social policy, an arena in which a purely
scientific-engineering approach cannot be applied because of the lack of a clear problem definition and
differing perspectives of stakeholders. In their words,

The search for scientific bases for confronting problems of social policy is bound to fail
because of the nature of these problems... Policy problems cannot be definitively described.
Moreover, in a pluralistic society there is nothing like the indisputable public good; there is no
objective definition of equity; policies that respond to social problems cannot be meaningfully
correct or false; and it makes no sense to talk about "optimal solutions" to these problems...
Even worse, there are no solutions in the sense of definitive answers.[5]

Thus wicked problems are also characterised by the following:

1. The solution depends on how the problem is framed and vice versa (i.e., the problem
definition depends on the solution)
2. Stakeholders have radically different world views and different frames for understanding the
problem.
3. The constraints that the problem is subject to and the resources needed to solve it change
over time.
4. The problem is never solved definitively.

Although Rittel and Webber framed the concept in terms of social policy and planning, wicked problems
occur in any domain involving stakeholders with differing perspectives.[7] Recognising this, Rittel and
Kunz developed a technique called Issue-Based Information System (IBIS), which facilitates
documentation of the rationale behind a group decision in an objective manner.[12]

A recurring theme in research and industry literature is the connection between wicked problems and
design.[13][14] Design problems are typically wicked because they are often ill-defined (no prescribed way
forward), involve stakeholders with different perspectives, and have no "right" or "optimal" solution.[15]
Thus wicked problems cannot be solved by the application of standard (or known) methods; they demand
creative solutions.[16][17]

Strategies to tackle wicked problems

Wicked problems cannot be tackled by the traditional approach in which problems are defined, analysed
and solved in sequential steps. The main reason for this is that there is no clear problem definition of
wicked problems. In a paper published in 2000, Nancy Roberts identified the following strategies to cope
with wicked problems:[18]

Authoritative
These strategies seek to tame wicked problems by vesting the responsibility for solving
the problems in the hands of a few people. The reduction in the number of stakeholders
reduces problem complexity, as many competing points of view are eliminated at the start.
The disadvantage is that authorities and experts charged with solving the problem may not
have an appreciation of all the perspectives needed to tackle the problem.
Competitive
These strategies attempt to solve wicked problems by pitting opposing points of view
against each other, requiring parties that hold these views to come up with their preferred
solutions. The advantage of this approach is that different solutions can be weighed up
against each other and the best one chosen. The disadvantage is that this adversarial
approach creates a confrontational environment in which knowledge sharing is
discouraged. Consequently, the parties involved may not have an incentive to come up
with their best possible solution.
Collaborative
These strategies aim to engage all stakeholders in order to find the best possible solution
for all stakeholders. Typically these approaches involve meetings in which issues and
ideas are discussed and a common, agreed approach is formulated. A significant
advantage of this approach is the creation of a strong information sharing environment.
The main problem is the risk that certain ideas, while integral to finding a possible
solution, may be too controversial to accept by other involved parties.

In his 1972 paper,[19] Rittel hints at a collaborative approach; one which attempts "to make those people
who are being affected into participants of the planning process. They are not merely asked but actively
involved in the planning process." A disadvantage of this approach is that achieving a shared understanding
and commitment to solving a wicked problem is a time-consuming process. Another difficulty is that, in
some matters, at least one group of people may hold an absolute belief that necessarily contradicts other
absolute beliefs held by other groups. Collaboration then becomes impossible until one set of beliefs is
relativized or abandoned entirely.

Research over the last two decades has shown the value of computer-assisted argumentation techniques in
improving the effectiveness of cross-stakeholder communication.[20] The technique of dialogue mapping
has been used in tackling wicked problems in organizations using a collaborative approach.[21] More
recently, in a four-year study of interorganizational collaboration across public, private, and voluntary
sectors, steering by government was found to perversely undermine a successful collaboration, producing
an organizational crisis which led to the collapse of a national initiative.[22][23]

In "Wholesome Design for Wicked Problems", Robert Knapp stated that there are ways forward in dealing
with wicked problems:
 The first is to shift the goal of action on significant problems from "solution" to "intervention."
Instead of seeking the answer that totally eliminates a problem, one should recognize that
actions occur in an ongoing process, and further actions will always be needed.[24]

Examining networks designed to tackle wicked problems in health care, such as caring for older people or
reducing sexually transmitted infections, Ferlie and colleagues suggest that managed networks may be the
"least bad" way of "making wicked problems governable".[25][26][27]

Communication of wicked problems

Problem structuring methods

A range of approaches called problem structuring methods (PSMs) have been developed in operations
research since the 1970s to address problems involving complexity, uncertainty and conflict. PSMs are
usually used by a group of people in collaboration (rather than by a solitary individual) to create a
consensus about, or at least to facilitate negotiations about, what needs to change. Some widely adopted
PSMs include soft systems methodology, the strategic choice approach, and strategic options development
and analysis (SODA).[28]

Related concepts

Messes and social messes

Russell L. Ackoff wrote about complex problems as messes: "Every problem interacts with other problems
and is therefore part of a set of interrelated problems, a system of problems.... I choose to call such a system
a mess."[29]

Extending Ackoff, Robert Horn says that "a Social Mess is a set of interrelated problems and other messes.
Complexity—systems of systems—is among the factors that makes Social Messes so resistant to analysis
and, more importantly, to resolution."

According to Horn, the defining characteristics of a social mess are:[30]

1. No unique "correct" view of the problem;

2. Different views of the problem and contradictory solutions;
3. Most problems are connected to other problems;
4. Data are often uncertain or missing;
5. Multiple value conflicts;
6. Ideological and cultural constraints;
7. Political constraints;
8. Economic constraints;
9. Often a-logical or illogical or multi-valued thinking;
10. Numerous possible intervention points;
11. Consequences difficult to imagine;
12. Considerable uncertainty, ambiguity;
13. Great resistance to change; and,
14. Problem solver(s) out of contact with the problems and potential solutions.

Divergent and convergent problems

E. F. Schumacher distinguishes between divergent and convergent problems in his book A Guide for the
Perplexed. Convergent problems are those for which attempted solutions gradually converge on one
solution or answer. Divergent problems are those for which different answers appear to increasingly
contradict each other all the more they are elaborated, requiring a different approach involving faculties of a
higher order like love and empathy.

Wicked problems in software development

In 1990, DeGrace and Stahl introduced the concept of wicked problems to software development.[31] In
the last decade, other computer scientists[32][33] have pointed out that software development shares many
properties with other design practices (particularly that people-, process-, and technology-problems have to
be considered equally), and have incorporated Rittel's concepts into their software design methodologies.
The design and integration of complex software-defined services that use the Web (web services) can be
construed as an evolution from previous models of software design, and therefore becomes a wicked
problem also.

Super wicked problems

Kelly Levin, Benjamin Cashore, Graeme Auld and Steven Bernstein introduced the distinction between
"wicked problems" and "super wicked problems" in a 2007 conference paper, which was followed by a
2012 journal article in Policy Sciences. In their discussion of global climate change, they define super
wicked problems as having the following additional characteristics:[34]

1. There is a significant time deadline on finding the solution

2. There is no central authority dedicated to finding a solution
3. Those seeking to solve the problem are also causing it
4. Certain policies irrationally impede future progress

While the items that define a wicked problem relate to the problem itself, the items that define a super
wicked problem relate to the agent trying to solve it. Global warming as a super wicked problem, and the
need to intervene to tend to our longer term interests has also been taken up by others, including Richard
Lazarus.[35]

See also
Category:Problem structuring methods Hard problem of consciousness
Collaborative information seeking Hyperobject
Collective action problem Ludic fallacy
Competing harms Morphological analysis
Complex question Nonlinear system
Drama theory Post-normal science
Encyclopedia of World Problems and Problem solving
Human Potential Small Is Beautiful
 Social issue Structured systems analysis and design
Societal collapse method
Soft systems methodology Systems theory

References

Notes
1. "Tackling Wicked Problems: A Public Policy Perspective" (http://www.apsc.gov.au/publicatio
ns-and-media/archive/publications-archive/tackling-wicked-problems). Australian Public
Service Commission. 25 October 2007.
2. Tonkinwise, Cameron (4 April 2015). "Design for Transitions - from and to what?" (https://ww
w.academia.edu/11796491). Academia.edu. Retrieved 9 November 2017.
3. Churchman, C. West (December 1967). "Wicked Problems" (https://doi.org/10.1287%2Fmns
c.14.4.B141). Management Science. 14 (4): B-141–B-146. doi:10.1287/mnsc.14.4.B141 (http
s://doi.org/10.1287%2Fmnsc.14.4.B141).
4. Skaburskis, Andrejs (19 December 2008). "The origin of "wicked problems" ". Planning
Theory & Practice. 9 (2): 277-280. doi:10.1080/14649350802041654 (https://doi.org/10.108
0%2F14649350802041654). S2CID 145667746 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
45667746). "At the end of Rittel's presentation, West Churchman responded with that
pensive but expressive movement of voice that some may well remember, 'Hmm, those
sound like "wicked problems."' "
5. Rittel, Horst W.J.; Webber, Melvin M. (1973). "Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning" (ht
tps://web.archive.org/web/20070930021510/http://www.uctc.net/mwebber/Rittel+Webber+Dil
emmas+General_Theory_of_Planning.pdf) (PDF). Policy Sciences. 4 (2): 155–169.
doi:10.1007/bf01405730 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf01405730). S2CID 18634229 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18634229). Archived from the original (http://www.uctc.ne
t/mwebber/Rittel+Webber+Dilemmas+General_Theory_of_Planning.pdf) (PDF) on 30
September 2007. [Reprinted in Cross, N., ed. (1984). Developments in Design Methodology.
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6. Ritchey 2013.
7. Conklin 2006, p. .
8. Hulme 2009.
9. Courtney 2001.
10. Camillus 2008.
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13. Rittel 1988.
14. Stolterman 2008.
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16. Conklin, Basadur & VanPatter 2007a.
17. Conklin, Basadur & VanPatter 2007b.
18. Roberts 2000.
19. Rittel 1972.
20. Shum 2003.
21. Conklin 2003.
22. Fischer, Michael D. (28 September 2012). "Organizational Turbulence, Trouble and Trauma:
Theorizing the Collapse of a Mental Health Setting" (https://semanticscholar.org/paper/c466
2fbe00dec13104a90f957b23be49fc9153ae). Organization Studies. 33 (9): 1153–1173.
doi:10.1177/0170840612448155 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0170840612448155).
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modes of clinical risk management: Contradiction, contest, and the production of intractable
conflict" (http://eureka.sbs.ox.ac.uk/4368/1/Fischer_M_D__Ferlie_E_%28authors%27_post-
print_version%29_Accounting_Organizations_and_Society.pdf) (PDF). Accounting,
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24. Knapp, Robert (2008). "Wholesome Design for Wicked Problems" (http://publicsphereprojec
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25. Ferlie, E.; Fitzgerald, L.; McGivern, G.; Dopson, S.; Bennett, C. (2013). Making Wicked
Problems Governable?: The Case of Managed Networks in Health Care (https://books.googl
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PMID 21501913 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21501913).
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1896.x).
28. Rosenhead, Jonathan (2013). "Problem structuring methods". In Gass, Saul I.; Fu, Michael
C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of operations research and management science (3rd ed.). New
York; London: Springer Verlag. pp. 1162–1172. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1153-7_806 (http
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OCLC 751832290 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/751832290).
29. Ackoff 1974.
30. Horn & Weber 2007.
31. DeGrace & Stahl 1990.
32. Conklin 2003b.
33. Sølvberg & Kung 1993.
34. Levin et al. 2012.
35. Lazarus 2009.

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Camillus, J.C. (2008). "Strategy as a Wicked Problem". Harvard Business Review. 86: 98–
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Institute.
Conklin, Jeffrey (2006). Dialogue mapping: building shared understanding of wicked
problems. Chichester, England: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-470-01768-5.
Conklin, Jeff; Basadur, Min; VanPatter, GK (2007a). "Rethinking Wicked Problems:
Unpacking Paradigms, Bridging Universes (Part 1 of 2)" (http://issuu.com/nextd/docs/conv2
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organizations: toward a new decision-making paradigm for DSS". Decision Support
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167-9236%2800%2900117-2). ISSN 0167-9236 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0167-9236).
Horn, Robert E.; Weber, Robert P. (2007). New Tools For Resolving Wicked Problems: Mess
Mapping and Resolution Mapping Processes (http://www.strategykinetics.com//New_Tools_
For_Resolving_Wicked_Problems.pdf) (PDF). Strategy Kinetics L.L.C.
DeGrace, Peter; Stahl, L. Hulet (1990). Wicked Problems, Righteous Solutions: A Catalog of
Modern Engineering Paradigms (https://archive.org/details/wickedproblemsri0000degr).
Yourdon Press. ISBN 978-0-13-590126-7.
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Further reading
Buchanan, R. (1992). Wicked Problems in Design Thinking. Design Issues, Vol. 8, No. 2,
(Spring, 1992), pp. 5–21:
http://web.mit.edu/jrankin/www/engin_as_lib_art/Design_thinking.pdf
Brown, Valerie A. and Harris, John A. and Russell, Jacqueline Y; "Tackling wicked
problems : through the transdisciplinary imagination" Edited by Valerie A. Brown, John A.
Harris and Jacqueline Y. Russell Earthscan, London ; Washington, DC : 2010. ISBN 978-1-
84407-925-4.
Conklin, Jeff; Building Shared Understanding of Wicked Problems (http://www.cognexus.or
g/Rotman-interview_SharedUnderstanding.pdf), Rotman Magazine, the alumni magazine of
Rotman School of Management (Winter 2009).
Culmsee, Paul; Awati, Kailash . The Heretic's Guide to Best Practices: The Reality of
Managing Complex Problems in Organisations (https://books.google.com/books?id=CUgas
LvgvdEC&q=%22wicked+problem%22). iUniverse Star, 2013.
Horn, Robert E., Knowledge Mapping for Complex Social Messes (http://www.stanford.edu/~
rhorn/a/recent/spchKnwldgPACKARD.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080515
002344/http://www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/a/recent/spchKnwldgPACKARD.pdf) 2008-05-15 at
the Wayback Machine, a Stanford University presentation to the "Foundations in the
Knowledge Economy" conference at the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, July 16,
2001
Levin, K.; Cashore, B.; Bernstein, S.; Auld, G. (2009). "Playing it forward: Path dependency,
progressive incrementalism, and the 'Super Wicked' problem of global climate change" (htt
p://environment.research.yale.edu/documents/downloads/0-9/2010_super_wicked_levin_ca
shore_bernstein_auld.pdf) (PDF). IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental
Science. 50 (6): 502002. Bibcode:2009E&ES....6X2002L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
2009E&ES....6X2002L). doi:10.1088/1755-1307/6/50/502002 (https://doi.org/10.1088%2F17
55-1307%2F6%2F50%2F502002). S2CID 250682896 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:250682896).
Kolko, Jon; Wicked Problems: Problems Worth Solving (http://www.wickedproblems.com/), a
free book available online, 2012
Richardson, Adam; Wicked Problems: Today's business problems can be impossible to
define, let alone solve (http://www.frogdesign.com/design-mind/articles/fall-2006/wicked-pro
blems.html), Fall 2006
Ritchey, Tom (2011). Wicked problems – Social messes: Decision support modelling with
morphological analysis (https://www.springer.com/us/book/9783642196522). Berlin:
Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-19653-9.
 Rittel, Horst; "Second Generation Design Methods," Interview in Design Methods Group, 5th
Anniversary Report, DMG Occasional Paper 1, 1972, pp. 5–10. Reprinted in N. Cross (ed.),
Developments in Design Methodology, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, 1984, pp. 317–327.
Shum, Simon J. Buckingham; Albert M. Selvin, Maarten Sierhuis, Jeffrey Conklin, Charles B.
Haley, Bashar Nuseibeh; Hypermedia Support for Argumentation-Based Rationale: 15
Years on from gIBIS and QOC (http://kmi.open.ac.uk/publications/index.cfm?trnumber=kmi-0
5-18), December 2005

External links
The Wicked7 Project (https://www.wicked7.org/) – an open-source project to map the world's
wicked problems
CogNexus Institute (http://www.cognexus.org/) – more information on wicked problems and
dialogue mapping
Knowledge Media Institute (https://kmi.open.ac.uk/)
Swedish Morphological Society (https://www.swemorph.com/) – Wicked Problems:
Structuring Social Messes with Morphological Analysis

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