Advanced RSSI-Based Wi-Fi Access

Point Localization Using Smartphone

Debajyoti Biswas, Suvankar Barai, and Buddhadeb Sau

Abstract The geographical position of sensors is important information in wireless

sensor networks (WSNs). The range-based localization systems by received sig-
nal strength indicator (RSSI) achieve high accuracy compared to a broad range of
other localization approaches. However, RSSI suffers from various environmental
dynamic and static catalyst factors. To manage these issues, several methods have
been proposed in the literature. It is seen that the existing methods might not per-
form adequately well in ever-changing environments. Because RSSIs are fluctuating
in significant ranges from time to time. For improving the performance, this paper
has introduced the scheme of curve fitting-based algorithm, utilizing the most proba-
ble RSSIs. Experiments were conducted in the indoor and outdoor, with ten wireless
fidelity (Wi-Fi) routers and a smartphone, where routers worked as an access point
(AP), and smartphone worked as a station (STA). A Wi-Fi analyzer application (APP)
was installed on a smartphone to observe the RSSIs of every router simultaneously.

Keywords Localization · WSNs · Catalyst factors · Curve fitting · Most probable

RSSIs · Wi-Fi analyzer APP

1 Introduction

From last few years Wi-Fi positioning system becomes more and more popular due
to its several applications and widespread adoption. Among all the positioning tech-
niques, the RSSI has become mainstream with advantages of simple process, low
cost, extensive coverage, and no need for additional hardware [1–4], although RSSI-
based information commonly affected by various catalyst factors such as reflections,
refractions, multipath, moisture, human body, temperature, metals, electromagnetic
waves, and electronic devices. [5, 6]. It is impossible to know about a number of cat-
alyst factors that are present in the environment, and how they affect the RSSI-based
measurement [7, 8]. However, many algorithms are introduced to achieve higher

D. Biswas (B) · S. Barai · B. Sau

Department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 543
S. Mekhilef et al. (eds.), Innovations in Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 756,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0749-3_42
544 D. Biswas et al.

accuracy. Xue et al. [9] proposed an algorithm by using the average of maximum
RSSIs and they have compared their algorithm with other existing algorithms under
both static and dynamic conditions [10]. However, our experiment results show that
the largest RSSIs give huge errors compared to mode, average, and median values.
Also, their proposed signal attenuation model produces enormous errors for mea-
surement. In this work, routers are placed in multiple locations, and from different
positions, the distances are estimated by the RSSI values using curve fitting. We
calculated the mode, average, median and maximum values of RSSI and suitable
curves are chosen for them for producing best accuracy. In the WSNs, the ranges of
technologies (as the LTE, Wi-Fi, ZigBee, and Bluetooth have the coverage up to 30
km, 100 m, 100 m and 10 m, respectively [11]) and the choice of RSSIs (i.e., mode,
average, median, and maximum, etc.) are the leading causes of different types of
path loss. However, various types of data cannot be represented by a common model
[12], and it does not explain each issue adequately. A mathematical expression can
represent the fundamental shape concerning the connection between two variables
at a glance. Because of the high dependency between RSSIs and distances, the rela-
tionships also cannot be represented by a linear function. Thus, the nonlinear curve
fitting (NCF) is a compelling alternative as it provides more flexibility for choos-
ing a best-fitted function from an extensive range of functions. Such NCF is based
on an iterative algorithm, which varies the parameters significantly and re-evaluates
until it finds the best fit. The algorithm of NCF makes it notably better than the
least square and smoothing technique [13]. This curve fitting-based algorithm is so
appropriate because it can represent the nature of data within a moment. For estab-
lishing the type of variables, different curves are fitted to various types of RSSIs in
MATLAB. Among them, the most probable (i.e., mode) RSSIs are chosen because
mode RSSI provides significantly better positioning accuracy than average, median,
and maximum values. In the experiment, the mode RSSI was more than 40% for
every measurement. It is known to us that signal strength is inversely proportional to
distance. Therefore, only the most frequent RSSIs to each position more accurately
validated the efficiency of measurements. In many cases, the rest of 60% RSSIs
changed the average and median values, because from time to time, they have gone
up and down to the mode. For each position, maximum RSSI has maintained a mas-
sive difference with others, and often the same maximum values have been seen for
the two or more consecutive distances. The significant results on curves exhibit that
the gaussian function (GAF) has most perfectly fitted to mode values and raised the
appropriateness of measurement. Because of the GAF has benefits that, if data does
not have a gaussian but can be transformed to obtain it fit a Gaussian. Thus, most
data scientists recommended it. In the indoor experiment, ten Wi-Fi routers were
kept on a floor of an office building at different locations, with a known distance
from each other. Furthermore, from separate random positions, a large amount of
RSSI samples was collected to the smartphone from all routers simultaneously by
a Wi-Fi analyzer APP. The RSSIs to the smartphone from different routers indicate
the original distances. Besides it, to verify the nature of data, an outdoor experiment
was conducted in an open location with the same instruments and manners. First,
we draw the curves for different RSSI values in the indoor environment. Then we
Advanced RSSI-Based Wi-Fi Access Point Localization … 545

have compared the positions with the outdoor values to see the error levels. In this
work, our intention to achieve the best accuracy using the curve fitting to different
RSSI values. The experiment results are almost similar for both indoor and outdoor
environments [14, 15]. Different results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm
is more accurate, useful, reliable, and proper than other methods. The rest of this
paper is summarized as follows. In Sect. 2, we have drawn the system model. Then
the performance assessment of indoor localization using smartphone is discussed in
Sect. 3. In Sect. 4, the experimental results are presented. Finally, in Sect. 5, we have
concluded our work.

2 System Model

Consider a set of N IEEE 802.11 Wi-Fi routers, AP = {AP1 , AP2 , . . . , APN } with
known locations θi = [xi , yi ], (θi ∈ R2 ) for i = 1, 2, . . . , N , and from different ran-
dom positions, θu = [x u , yu ], the smartphone received RSSIs, for u = 1, 2, . . . , M.
The positions of the smartphone situated inside the intersection of coverage of every
AP. Their original distances are calculated by, di j = (xi − x j )2 + (yi − y j )2 , (∀
i and j), where dui is the Euclidean distance between the uth position and the ith
location. From any position θu , the distances of APs are du1 , du2 ,…, du N , with some
of them are equal length. If r RSSI samples are collected to the position θu , with
distance dui , then the set of various RSSIs of ith AP is written as RSSIui (k) =
{RSSIui (1), RSSIui (2), . . . , RSSIui (r)} for k = 1, 2, . . . , r. These r number of sam-
ples give x (x ∈ N) types of RSSIs, where RSSIui (1) occurred a times, RSSIui (2)
occurred b times,…, RSSIui (R) occurred q times, a + b + · · · + q = r. Informa-
tion on the occurrence of RSSIs provided by the set S = {a, b, . . . , q}. If max{S} = l,
(l ∈ S) then the probability of most frequently occurred RSSI of ith AP is P(Smax )
= rl . By following the same process, the total N probabilities are taken from each
position θu . Due to uncertainty, the occurrences of various RSSIs are changed from
time to time. So, the values of a, b,…, q are also changed, and their numbers may
be increased or decreased in different circumstances. Thus for different M positions
θu , total M × N number of most probable RSSIs are collected along with original
distances. These probabilities formed a M × N matrix, which brings to the easiest
RSSI
computational process. The matrix Pmax (dui ) describes the probabilities of mode
RSSIs with original distances dui , for u = 1, 2, . . . , M and i = 1, 2, . . . , N .
 
P(d11 ) P(d12 ) . . . P(d1N )
 P(d21 ) P(d22 ) . . . P(d2N ) 
 
RSSI
 . . . . 
Pmax (dui ) = 
 .


 . . . 
 . . . . 
P(d M1 ) P(d M2 ) . . . P(d M N )
546 D. Biswas et al.

The similar procedures have applied for average, median, and maximum RSSI
values. With the appropriate values from the above matrix, a suitable two-dimensional
function d = ψ(RSSI) has created for each type of RSSI. Best of knowledge, the
GAF (1), and these following exponential functions, EXF1 (2), EXF2 (3), and EXF3
(4), are most accurately fitted to the mode, average, median, and maximum RSSIs,
respectively, since GAF produced similar results of EXF, for average, median, and
maximum values. Therefore, for comparison, different exponential functions are
chosen with the highest accuracy [16]. The existing signal intensity attenuation model
(SIAM) (5) is also taken into consideration. Based on observation and analysis, it
can say that the Gaussian estimation gives the most reliable efficiency than other
mapping and model yield methods [17].
The functions, which have drawn earlier by neglecting the catalyst factors, are
two-dimensional. However, if the functions are thought along with several catalyst
factors, they can be written as φ(RSSI, c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ), where c1 , c2 , . . . , cn are the
catalyst variables from different objects of the environment. It is impossible to know
about the expression of this function because the information of these catalyst factors
is not available. It also not known to us that the catalyst factors are finite or infinite
(n → ∞). If the STA scans the distinct r RSSI samples of a single AP [18], with
the time intervals of different counts, then for these subsequent counts, also a variety
of RSSIs is seen. This scanned RSSIi j of ith count and at t j second illustrated in
Table 1. For any of this count, the 1st RSSI is scanned by the smartphone at t1 second,
and the consecutive next jth RSSIs are scanned at t j (= t1 + ( j − 1)δ) second, for
j = 1, 2, . . . , r . For any count, the interval between two scans is denoted by δ, where
2 ≤ δ ≤ 4, (δ ∈ N). The change in RSSIs is also observed for the 1st, 2nd,…, pth
counts at any t j second because the catalyst factors vary from time to time. For these
above reasons, the expression of the catalyst function is changed at different times,
which harm the measurements [19–21].

Table 1 RSSIs from an AP to a STA according to the time of scan for different counts
Time (s) t1 t2 (= t1 + 1δ) … tr (=
t1 + (r − 1)δ)
1st Count RSSI11 RSSI12 … RSSI1r
2nd Count RSSI21 RSSI22 … RSSI2r
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
pth Count RSSI p1 RSSI p2 … RSSI pr
Advanced RSSI-Based Wi-Fi Access Point Localization … 547

3 Performance Assessment

For the evaluation of the proposed algorithm, the indoor experiment has been con-
ducted on the third floor of a four-storied office building. Ten 6 m × 6 m rooms (R1
to R10) and a 30 m × 3 m corridor (C) are taken as the working region, where the
total area was 30 m × 15 m.
Rooms and the corridor have been separated by concrete walls, but each room has
a wooden door and windows. Throughout this experiment, most of the inner portion
of each room was filled with iron cupboard, electronic gadgets, wooden tables, etc.
On the other hand, the corridor portion was free from these instruments. To conduct
the work, a total of ten Wi-Fi APs was distributed among these rooms and the corridor
with known locations, and the smartphone collected the RSSIs simultaneously. For
the calculation, a total of 100 RSSI samples was taken from each AP. Signals of APs
were propagated through both line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS)
medium, and during experiment temperature of this floor was around 34 ◦ C.
The APs (AP 1 to AP 10), which are drawn in Fig. 1, were connected to power
supply for generating the radio signals. The smartphone was kept in consecutive
twelve random positions (1st to 12th) to know about the signal strength of individ-
ual APs. The APs operated on 2.4 GHz frequency band with maintaining the IEEE
802.11b/g/n standard and their communication ranges are up to 32 m. Each AP has
different frequency channels and speeds. Receiver sensitivity of RSSIs is measured
in decibels relative to one milliwatt (dBm), and at the time of these experiments,
minimum −98 dBm sensitivity and a maximum of 20 dB variance were observed.
The distances were measured with Euclidean geometry, as well as the measuring
tape. Including the ten APs locations and twelve positions of STA, a total of 10 × 12
= 120 actual distances was measured with corresponding various types of RSSIs.
No significant changes were seen in the RSSIs if the smartphone is shaken within a
small interval, continuously. The experimental data have been collected at the time
of human activities.

Fig. 1 Experiment scenario of the indoor region with ten rooms and a corridor, where the quarter
of a circle represents the door of each room
548 D. Biswas et al.

Table 2 Coefficients of GAF, EXF1, EXF2, EXF3, and SIAM functions with coefficient of deter-
mination (R 2 ), sum of squared error (SSE), and root mean square error (RMSE)
GAF EXF1 EXF2 EXF3 SIAM
a = 2415 f = 0.004733 k = −0.03857 r = 0.01853 RSSId = −98
b = −210.4 g = −0.09071 l = 2.253 s = 0.9213 γ =2
c = 38.247 – – – d = 31.2046
R 2 = 0.9993 R 2 = 0.9963 R 2 = 0.9929 R 2 = 0.9766 R 2 = 0.3028
SSE = 3.725 m2 SSE = 18.56 m2 SSE = 35.54 m2 SSE = 118.2 m2 SSE = 3520 m2
RMSE = 0.198 m RMSE = 0.4397 RMSE = 0.6085 RMSE = 1.109 m RMSE = 5.993 m
m m

The coefficients, coefficient of determinations, SSEs, and RMSEs of GAF, EXF1,

EXF2, EXF3, and SIAM, respectively, are denoted in Table 2. The coefficient of
determination (R 2 ) assesses how well a curve explains and predicted by the scattered
data points around the curves. The R 2 more than 0.97 indicates that 97% of the
variation in distances explained by the RSSIs, which means every curve (except,
SIAM) is well fitted to these variables. The SSEs and RMSEs tell us how much
the data concentrated around the curve of best fit. The RMSE gives relatively high
weight than SSE for enormous errors. Based on the comparison, it concludes that
the use of a curve fitting technique (CFT) with GAF is most beneficial, because the
characteristic of GAF is ubiquitous in natural phenomena, as well as the parametric
methods of GAF are robust and well understood. In (1), a is the height of the peak
of the curve, b is the peak’s center, c is the standard deviation, and RSSIm is the
measured RSSI values. In (2), g is the multiplier of measured RSSI and f is the
positive real number not equal to 1. The curves (3) and (4) are similar to (2). In (5),
d is the initial distance and RSSId is the initial RSSI value at the distance d.
−(RSSIm −b)2
dmod = a × e 2c2 (1)

davg = f × e(g×RSSIm ) (2)

dmed = 10(k×RSSIm −l) (3)

dmax = r × s RSSIm (4)

(RSSId −RSSIm )
dsiam = d × 10 10γ (5)

Pr
RSSI = 10 × log10 [ ] (6)
1 mW

Pr = u × dmv (7)
Advanced RSSI-Based Wi-Fi Access Point Localization … 549

By applying the CFT to SIAM [22], it observed that the path loss exponents of
mode, average, median, and maximum RSSIs are 0.3616, 0.3825, 0.3812, and 0.4703,
respectively. These path loss exponents are the same for any choice of initial distance
with corresponding RSSIs. However, in the free space, path loss exponent (γ ) is close
to 2 [23, 24]. These two different characters of information are contradictory and
cannot be possible simultaneously. Therefore, the CFT is not suitable for the SIAM
with initial values, and it gives less accuracy than the mentioned GAF and EXFs.
The SIAM provides its best results for mode values if γ is selected 2, along with the
terminal distance and RSSI, but accuracy is next to nothing. The shape of different
functions of various types of RSSIs can be observed in Fig. 2. The average and
median RSSIs are relatively close to mode than maximum values. Maximum RSSIs
give enormous errors and, for large distances, always have kept a minimum of 10 dB
variance with the mode values. However, the variances among the mode, average,
and median are not too far. The slope of the tangent of each function represents how
fast the signals attenuated. Furthermore, slopes are calculated by the derivatives of
these functions. Notably, the inverse, RSS I = ψ −1 (d) of proposed GAF does not
provide the real values. In this experiment, the signal sensitivity was seen between 0
and −98 dBm for the distances 0–32 m. These ranges have considered as a boundary
of the Wi-Fi system, although the range can be extended using a range extender
antenna. In this work, these sample variables selected by neglecting the same and
nearest values. Only suitable 98 values are taken from the 120 samples for curve
fitting. The measured RSSIm can be standardized with mean −49.5 dBm and standard
m +49.5)
deviation 28.43 dB, and the standardized variables are (RSSI28.43 , for RSSIm =
−1, −2, . . . , −98. For the calculation, only absolute errors are taken.
It is clear that the RSSI has relationship with distance as well as receive power,
where Pr is receive power in milliwatt (mW). That means, distance and receive
power must have a relationship. It is observed that the power function most accu-

Fig. 2 Graphical representation of different functions for mode, average, median, maximum RSSIs,
and SIAM in the indoor
550 D. Biswas et al.

Fig. 3 Graphical relationship between receive power and distance by the power function

rately estimates the received power by distance, which is significantly better than
other functions. The solution of two different types of the nonlinear equation is too
complicated. For example, if Eqs. (1) and (6) are solved for receive power and dis-
tance, a complex equation will be created. So, without any complexity, CFT gives an
accurate way of generating a suitable equation for any estimation. Figure 3 represents
the graphical relationships of power (POW) function (7), where u = 1.494 × 10−6 ,
v = −2.652 and dm is the measured distance.

4 Experimental Results

For the performance verification of the proposed CFT scheme, the outdoor experi-
ment has been conducted on a roadside ground. Multifloor buildings have surrounded
the ground, and vehicles were moving through the road at the time of the experiment.
The different composition has been made for the APs locations, and smartphone posi-
tions contrast to the indoor, but the total area remained equivalent, Fig. 4.
Following the similar process of indoor, a total of 98 values has been taken for
the calculation. Then the original distances of outdoor have been compared with
the estimated distances of indoor, which are represented by different functions. The
compared results show that the SSEs and RMSEs of indoor and outdoor are similar.
It is notable that, each of these experiments has done only using Wi-Fi technology.
For GAF, EXF1, EXF2, EXF3, and SIAM, the maximum errors are observed,
respectively, for indoor 1.0871 m, 2.8271 m, 2.2605 m, 3.22 m, and 3.02 m and, out-
door 1.1271 m, 2.6271 m, 2.0605 m, 3.22 m, and 3.03 m. Because of enormous errors
for EXF3 and SIAM, up to 3.22 m, errors are considered for the calculations. Errors
difference of GAF with EXF1 and EXF2 are almost 1 m. Though the GAF and EXF
have similar capabilities to fit with mode, average, median, and maximum RSSIs but
each of the EXF does not fit well with other types of RSSIs. Because of having a
Advanced RSSI-Based Wi-Fi Access Point Localization … 551

Fig. 4 Experiment scenario of the outdoor region

Fig. 5 Comparison of location accuracy of five curves in terms of CDF for indoor (I) and outdoor
(O)

square term to the power of GAF, it provides excellent results than the others. The
accuracy of location error is measured by cumulative distribution function (CDF),
which is the difference between actual and estimated locations, and arranged in
increasing order. From the results of Fig. 5, it is recognized that the proposed algo-
rithm achieves significantly better positioning accuracy compared to other mapping
and model-based algorithms. The CDFs of errors describe that the GAF with mode
RSSIs gave the most crucial accuracy than others and almost remain similar for both
indoor and outdoor environments. Different types of experiment results ensure that
the mode RSSIs are most significant for position localization [25, 26], and GAF
finishes this job with perfect accuracy. Besides, the better transmit power validates
the excellent RSSI quality for producing the most desirable positioning accuracy.
552 D. Biswas et al.

5 Conclusions

This paper presents a Wi-Fi AP localization [27, 28], algorithm that is simple, robust,
energy-efficient, affordable as well as applicable in anonymous environments [29,
30]. The proposed algorithm based on the analysis of characteristics of RSSIs and
the use of proper curve fitting. Remarkably the Gaussian function provides better
results than other exponential functions and can fit with any sample. Experiment
results confirm that the positioning accuracy of the mentioned algorithm is notably
better for measurements and it could be an efficient solution for indoor and outdoor
applications [31, 32].

Acknowledgements The authors are very much thankful to Jadavpur University for giving them
proper environments to make this work successful. The authors also like to thank UGC (University
Grant Commission) and CSIR (Council of Scientific & Industrial Research), India for providing
necessary supports.

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