Filters

CHAPTER 15:
ACTIVE FILTER CIRCUITS
1
Contents
15.1 First-Order Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters
15.2 Scaling
15.3 Op Amp Bandpass and Bandreject Filters
15.4 High Order Op Amp Filters
15.5 Narrowband Bandpass and Bandreject Filters
Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

ames W. Nilsson | Susan A. Riedel 2
15.1 1st-Order Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters
• Active filters consist of op amps, resistors, and capacitors.

• They overcome many of the disadvantages associated with passive filters.
A first-order low-pass filter.
A first-order low-pass filter. A general op amp circuit.
• At very low frequencies, the capacitor acts like an open circuit,

and the op amp circuit acts like an amplifier with a gain.
• At very high frequencies, the capacitor acts like a short circuit,
thereby connecting the output of the op amp circuit to ground.
Transfer function for the circuit
1
‖
Where and =
The gain in the passband, K, is set by the ratio R2/R1.

The op amp low-pass filter thus permits the
passband gain and the cutoff frequency to be specified independently.

• Bode plot
(1) uses a logarithmic axis, instead of using

a linear axis for the frequency values
(2) plotted in decibels (dB), instead of plo
tting the absolute magnitude of the tra
nsfer function vs. frequency
20 10
1
20 3
2
• A prototype low-pass filter
: component values of 1 2 1Ω and 1 ,
: a unity passband gain and a cutoff frequency of 1 / .
: Providing a useful starting point for the

design of filters by using more realistic component
values to achieve a desired frequency response

ames W. Nilsson | Susan A. Riedel
6
A first-order high-pass filter.
Transfer function Equation for passive high-pass filters.
‐K Where , and =
15.2 Scaling
Scaling :
 transforming the convenient values into realistic values
1. Magnitude scaling
 altering component values without changing the frequency response of a circuit.
• For a magnitude scale factor of ,

Let primed variables represent the scaled values of the variables
, , /
2. Frequency scaling
 shifting the frequency response of a circuit to another frequency region
without changing the overall shape of the frequency response.
• For a frequency scale factor of k f ,
, / , /

8
15.2 Scaling
• Components can be scaled in both magnitude and frequency, with the

scaled (primed) component values given by
, ,
• The design of active low-pass and high-pass filters
1. an a prototype filter circuit.

: component values of 1 2 1Ω and 1 ,
: a unity passband gain and a cutoff frequency of 1 / .
2. Scaling can then be applied to shift the frequency response
to the desired cutoff frequency, using component values
that are commercially available.

9
15.2 Scaling
The Use of Scaling in the Design of Op Amp Filters
1. Selecting the cutoff frequency  , to be 1 rad/s (if you are designing

low- or highpass filters), or selecting the center frequency 0, to be 1
rad/s (if you are designing bandpass or bandreject filters).
2. Selecting a 1 capacitor and calculating the values of the resistors

needed to give the desired passband gain and the 1 rad/s cutoff or
center frequency.
3. Using scaling to compute more realistic component values that give the
desired cutoff or center frequency.
Bandpass filters Three separate components

consisting of the bandpass filter
1. A unity-gain low-pass filter whose cutoff frequ
ency is 2, the larger of the two cutoff freque
ncies
2. A unity-gain high-pass filter whose cutoff fr
equency is ωc1. the smaller of the two cuto
ff frequencies
3. A gain component to provide the desired l
evel of gain in the passband
These three components are cascaded in series

(combine multiplicatively in the s domain)
The formal definition of a broadband filter

Constructing the Bode magni
tude plot of a bandpass filter. 2
Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J 11

A cascaded op amp bandpass filter. (a) The block diagram. (b) The circuit.
*Establishing the relationship between 1 and 2 that will permit each

subcircuit to be designed independently, without concern for the other
subcircuits in the cascade.

12
• The transfer function of the cascaded bandpass filter is the

product of the transfer functions of the three cascaded
components:
• Standard form for the transfer function of a bandpass filter
2
Converting into the form of the standard transfer function for a bandpass
filter,
Assumption ≫
Transfer function for the cascaded bandpass filter
Upper cutoff frequency, ωc2

1

lower cutoff frequency, ωc1

1
Computing the values of Ri and Rf in the inverting amplifier to

provide the desired passband gain.
the magnitude of the bandpass filter’s transfer function,

evaluated at the center frequency, ω0
K.
Gain of the inverting amplifier is Rf / Ri

Bandreject filters
Bandreject filter configuration
1. A unity-gain low-pass filter whose cutoff

frequency is 1, the smaller of the two
cutoff frequencies
2. A unity-gain high-pass filter whose
cutoff frequency is 2. the larger
of the two cutoff frequencies
3. A gain component to provide the desired
level of gain in the passband
: these three components cannot be

cascaded in series
(we use a parallel connection
and a summing amplifier)
Constructing the Bode magnitude
plot of a bandreject filter.
16
The transfer function of the resulting

circuit
: the sum of the low-pass and high-pass
filter transfer functions.
= ( )
= ( )
A parallel op amp bandreject filter.

(a) The block diagram. (b) The circuit.
17
1
Cutoff frequencies
1

In the two passbands (as s  0 ands  ),

the gain of the transfer function is Rf / Ri
Note the magnitude of the transfer function ,

at the center frequency
2
If ≫ , then ≪2 / (as / ≪ 1)

 the magnitude at the center frequency is much
smaller than the passband magnitude.
15.4 Higher Order Op Amp Filters
• An ideal filter has a discontinuity at the point of cutoff, which sharply
divides the passband and the stopband.
• Higher order active filters have multiple poles in their transfer functions,
resulting in a sharper transition from the passband to the stopband and
thus a more nearly ideal frequency response.
The Bode magnitude plot of a

cascade of identical
prototype first-order filters.
•With one filter, the transition generally occurs

with an asymptotic slope of 20 (dB/ dec).
•With two filters, a transition

with an asymptotic slope of 20 + 20 = 40 dB/
dec.

19
• The transfer function for a cascade of n prototype low-pass filters—we
just multiply the individual transfer functions:
A cascade of identical unity-gain low-pass

filters. (a) The block diagram. (b) The circuit.

20
⋯
=
*A cascade of n first-order filters produces an nth-order filter,

having n poles in its transfer function and a final slope of 20n dB>dec in the
transition band.
• As the order of the low-pass filter is increased by adding prototype
low- pass filters to the cascade,
the cutoff frequency also changes.
 frequency scaling
=
⁄
=
2 1,
2 1.
For example,
Let’s compute the cutoff frequency of a fourth-order unity-gain low-
pass filter constructed from a cascade of four prototype low-pass
filters:
2 1 0.435 ⁄ .
 scaling by k f = ωc / 0.435 to place the cutoff frequency.

22
• A serious shortcoming of cascading identical low-pass filters
The gain of the filter is not constant between zero and the cutoff frequency
ωc.
An ideal low-pass filter, the passband magnitude is 1 for all frequencies

below
the cutoff frequency.
But, the magnitude is less than 1 (0 dB) for frequencies much less than the
cutoff frequency.
Magnitude of the transfer function
for a unity-gain low-pass nth-order cascade
Magnitude = As  , the denominator

becomes
larger than 1,
so the magnitude becomes smaller
=
than 1
⁄

23
• shortcoming: The gain of the filter is not constant between zero and the
cutoff frequency.
• Unity-gain Butterworth low-pass filter has a transfer function whose
magnitude
=
⁄
Properties
1. The cutoff frequency is ωc rad/s for all values of n.
2. If n is large enough, the denominator is always close to unity when

3. In the expression for H(jω)  the exponent of is always even.
Given an equation for the magnitude of the transfer function,
how do we find H(s) ?
The derivation for H(s) is greatly simplified by using a prototype filter.

24
To find H(s)

Because s = jω
Now observe that s2 = - ω2
1
1
1

1
1

1 1

25
• The procedure for finding H(s) for a given value of n
1. Find the roots of the polynomial

1 1 2 0
2. Assign the left-half plane roots to H(s) and the right half plane roots to H(-s)
3. Combine terms in the denominator of H(s) to form first- and second-order factors.

26
Butterworth Filter Circuit
A circuit that provides the second-order transfer function

for the Butterworth filter cascade.
• s-domain nodal equations at the noninverting terminal of the op amp and at

the node labeled
0 2
1 2
2 2 2 1
0
Transfer function for the circuit

1
2 1
Finally, set R = 1 
1

2 1
The form required for the second-order circuit

in the Butterworth cascade.
Transfer function of the form
1
2
1 1
Choosing capacitor values
and 1
The Order of a Butterworth Filter
• The higher the order of the Butterworth filter, the closer the
magnitude characteristic comes to that of an ideal low-pass
filter.
• At the same time, as the order increases, the number of
circuit components increases.
• It follows then that a fundamental problem in the design of a
filter is to determine the smallest value of n that will meet the
filtering specifications.
The filtering specifications are
usually
given in terms of the abruptness
of the transition region (Ap, ωp, As,
and ωs)
For the Butterworth filter, 1

20 log
1
.
10
10log 1
.
10
1
20 log
1
10log 1
10 . 1 log ⁄
10 .
1 log ⁄
If ωp is the cutoff frequency

⁄
One further simplification

.
the filtering specification 10 ≫ 1
.
10
log 0.05
a good approximation for the calculation of
.
⁄

31
Butterworth High-Pass, Bandpass, and Bandreject Filters
• nth-order Butterworth high-pass filter
A second-order Butterworth high-pass filter circuit.

To produce the second-order factors in the Butterworth polynomial
2
2
1 1
32
Transfer function
Setting 1
2 1
1

33
15.5 Narrowband Bandpass & Bandreject Filters
• The cascade and parallel component designs for synthesizing bandpass and
bandreject filters from simpler low-pass and high-pass filters
 only broadband, or low-Q, filters will result.
• If a high-Q, or narrowband, bandpass, or bandreject filter is needed,
the cascade or parallel combination will not work..
An active high-Q bandpass filter. The Bode magnitude plot for the high-Q
bandpass filter
34
transfer function
2
2
0.5
The largest quality factor we can achieve with discrete real poles arises
when the cutoff frequencies, and thus the pole locations, are the same.
The bandwidth and center frequency directly:
2
To build active filters with high quality factor values
1/
At the node labeled a,
1 1/ 1/ 2
1 2 ⁄
Transfer function
2 1
1 2
where 1‖ 2
1 2

36
Standard form of the transfer function for a bandpass filter
The values of the resistors, which will achieve a specified center

frequency (ω0), quality factor (Q), and passband gain (K):
;
1
;
1

Expressions for R1, R2, and R3 1 /

2 / 2 2
3 2

37
• A high-Q active band reject filter.
twin-T notch filter
The parallel implementation of a band reject filter that combines lowpass

and high-pass filter components with a summing amplifier has the same
low-Q restriction as the cascaded bandpass filter.
Summing the currents away from node a:
2
0
Summing the currents away from node b
2 0
Summing the currents away from the noninverting input terminal of the top
op amp
0
1

4 1 1
Transfer function:
1
4 1 1
Standard form for the transfer function of a band reject filter:
4 1
One parameter is chosen arbitrarily; it is usually the capacitor

value because this value typically provides the fewest
commercially available options
1
Once C is chosen,
1 1

40
End of Ch.15

41

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CHAPTER 15:

ACTIVE FILTER CIRCUITS

15.1 First-Order Low-Pass and High-Pass Filters

15.3 Op Amp Bandpass and Bandreject Filters

15.4 High Order Op Amp Filters

15.5 Narrowband Bandpass and Bandreject Filters

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

• Active filters consist of op amps, resistors, and capacitors.

A first-order low-pass filter.

A first-order low-pass filter. A general op amp circuit.

• At very low frequencies, the capacitor acts like an open circuit,

Transfer function for the circuit

The gain in the passband, K, is set by the ratio R2/R1.

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

(1) uses a logarithmic axis, instead of using

: Providing a useful starting point for the

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

A first-order high-pass filter.

Transfer function Equation for passive high-pass filters.

• For a magnitude scale factor of ,

• For a frequency scale factor of k f ,

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

• Components can be scaled in both magnitude and frequency, with the

• The design of active low-pass and high-pass filters

1. an a prototype filter circuit.

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

The Use of Scaling in the Design of Op Amp Filters

1. Selecting the cutoff frequency  , to be 1 rad/s (if you are designing

2. Selecting a 1 capacitor and calculating the values of the resistors

Bandpass filters Three separate components

These three components are cascaded in series

The formal definition of a broadband filter

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J 11

*Establishing the relationship between 1 and 2 that will permit each

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

• The transfer function of the cascaded bandpass filter is the

• Standard form for the transfer function of a bandpass filter

Transfer function for the cascaded bandpass filter

Upper cutoff frequency, ωc2

lower cutoff frequency, ωc1

Computing the values of Ri and Rf in the inverting amplifier to

the magnitude of the bandpass filter’s transfer function,

Gain of the inverting amplifier is Rf / Ri

1. A unity-gain low-pass filter whose cutoff

: these three components cannot be

The transfer function of the resulting

A parallel op amp bandreject filter.

In the two passbands (as s  0 ands  ),

Note the magnitude of the transfer function ,

If ≫ , then ≪2 / (as / ≪ 1)

The Bode magnitude plot of a

•With one filter, the transition generally occurs

•With two filters, a transition

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

A cascade of identical unity-gain low-pass

Electronic Circuits, Tenth Edition J

*A cascade of n first-order filters produces an nth-order filter,

 scaling by k f = ωc / 0.435 to place the cutoff frequency.