By

Dr. K. C. Vora
Emeritus Professor, COEP
AICTE-INAE Distinguished Visiting Faculty
Chair, ASDC Expert Group on EV
Chair, BAJA SAEINDIA & Chair, SAEINDIA Faculty Devp Committee
Former Sr. Deputy Director & Head ARAI Academy, ARAI, Pune.
With Prof. Sagar Kadam, I C Engine Lab, COEP
01
❑ Fuels & Combustion Course Outcome
❑ Fuels & Combustion Curriculum
❑ Gaseous Fuels Classification, Wobbe & Weaver Numbers
❑ Introduction to Alternate Fuels
❑ Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
❑ Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
❑ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
❑ Hydrogen (H2): Production & Automotive Application
❑ Fuel Cells
❑ Dual Fuel Technology
❑ Hydrogen enriched Natural gas (HCNG)
❑ Synthetic Gas like Producer & Water Gases
❑ Conclusions
Course Outcomes (COs): At the end of the course student will
be able to:
❑Analyze the properties of fuels
❑Compare the suitability of fuels utilization point of view.
❑Evaluate the performance of an engine
❑Demonstrate stages of combustion in SI and CI engine
❑Analyze the emission and performance of an engine.
Unit 1 (4 hrs)
❑ Characterization:
❑ Fuels - Types and Characteristics of Fuels, Fuels Analysis, Proximate and
Ultimate Analysis, Moisture Determination, Calorific Value, Gross & Net
Calorific Values, Calorimetry, DuLong’s Formula for CV Estimation, Flue gas
Analysis.
Unit 2 (6 hrs)
❑ Solid fuels:
❑ Coal Family, Properties, Calorific Value, DMMF, DAF and Bone Dry Basis,
Ranking, Storage, Washability, Coking & Caking Coals, Renewable Solid
Fuels, Biomass, Wood Waste, Agro Fuels, Manufactured Solid Fuels.
❑ Liquid fuels:
❑ Sources, Petroleum Fractions, Classification, Refining, Properties of Liquid
Fuels, Calorific Value, Specific Gravity, Flash & Fire Point, Octane Number,
Cetane Number etc, Alcohols, Liquefaction of Solid Fuels
Unit 3 (4 hrs)
❑ Gaseous fuels:
❑ Classification, Composition & Properties, Estimation of Calorific Value,
Gas Calorimeter, Rich & Lean Gas, Wobbe Index, Natural Gas, LPG, LNG,
CNG, Methane, Producer Gas, Water Gas, Town Gas, Coal Gasification,
Gasification Efficiency, Biogas.
Unit 4 (2 hrs)
❑ Combustion:
❑ Combustion equations, stoichiometric A/F, enthalpy of formation, adiabatic flame temperature.
Unit 5 (10 hrs)
❑ SI and CI Engine:
❑ Otto cycle, fuel supply system, stages of combustion in SI engines, abnormal combustion and knocking
in SI engines, factors affecting knocking, effects of knocking, control of knocking, combustion chambers
for SI engines, Diesel cycle, fuel supply system, stages of combustion in C.I. Engines, delay period,
factors influencing delay period, diesel knock, control of diesel knock, types of combustion chamber.
Unit 6 (10 hrs)
❑ Performance and Emission:
❑ Engine Performance and parameters, determination of IP, BP, FP, IMEP, BMEP, various efficiencies,
energy balance, performance of CI and SI engine. Exhaust after treatment, catalytic converters, exhaust
gas recirculation, emission control in engines, sources of SI and CI engine emission, Euro and Bharat
stage norms, Emission control methods in SI and CI engine.
Text Books:
❑ Ganesan. V, “Internal Combustion Engines”, Tata McGraw Hill
❑ Mathur & Sharma, “A Course in Internal Combustion Engines”, Dhanapat Rai Publications.
❑ Samir Sarkar, “Fuels & Combustion”, 2nd Edition, Orient Longman, 1990

Reference Books:
❑ Edward E. Obert, “Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution”, Internal Edu. Pub, 1973
❑ Crouse W.H., “Automotive Mechanics”, McGraw Hill
❑ Heywood J., “I.C. Engines Fundamentals”, McGraw Hill publications
❑ Sharma SP, Mohan Chander, “Fuels & Combustion”, Tata McGraw Hill, 1984.
❑ Burns Stephen, “An Introduction to Combustion: Concepts & Applications”, 2012.
❑ Borman Gary, Ragland Kenneth, “ Combustion Engineering”, 1998.
❑ Pundir B P, “Engine Emission”, 2007.
Gaseous fuels are the most convenient fuels, requiring the least amount of handling
and simplest and most maintenance free burner/combustion systems.

❑ Generally it has clean burning:

❑ Easy to burn - No grinding or atomisation. Excellent mixing
❑ No problems with erosion or corrosion
❑ The gas is easy to clean. If sulphur is present, it may be removed prior to
combustion
❑ Little soot.
❑ No ash problems
❑ Can be started up and shut down very easily and quickly.
❑ Problems with distribution and storage
❑ Explosion risk - very volatile.
(A) Fuels naturally found in nature:
❑ Natural gas
❑ Methane from coal mines
(B) Fuel gases made from solid fuel
❑ Gases derived from Coal
❑ Gases derived from waste and Biomass
❑ From other industrial processes (Blast furnace gas)
(C) Gases made from petroleum
❑ Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
❑ Refinery gases
❑ Gases from oil gasification
(D) Gases from some fermentation processes.
When deciding whether an alternative gas can be used in an
application/appliance, three factors must be considered:

❑ For the same pressure drop, is the heat release roughly the same?:
Wobbe Number
❑ For the same air and fuel flows, is the flame shape the same?: Weaver
Number
❑ -For the same heat release conditions, are pollutants/emissions within
a specified tolerance?
Consider the flow of gas through the control valve. It may be considered as an orifice of area, A

The heat release Q is calculated knowing the CV of the gas

The pressure drop is calculated from Bernoulli's equation.

Continuity gives the volume flow rate:

The combination of these gives the heat release in terms of CV
(J/m3), pressure drop, density and area
Now if the fuel gas is changed on the same burner or application (i.e. Area & pressure drop remain the same) the new
heat release rate may be calculated as the ratio of the CV multiplied by the square root of density.

Thus, a number may be derived which gives an indication of the interchangeability of the gases, the Wobbe number.
In practice, the specific gravity with relation to air is used instead of density and Wo = CV/Ö sp gr.
Weaver flame speed factor is a factor used to define the propensity of the gas to react. It is
defined as the ratio between the laminar flame speed of the gas of interest with relation
to hydrogen. Thus Hydrogen has a value of 100. The lower the number the lower the
flame speed. Weaver speed factor is greatly influenced by the amount of hydrogen in the
mixture.

Flame speed may be adjusted by varying the proportion of the fuel mixture:
❑ Increase H2 = increase We
❑ Increase CO2, CO, N2= decrease We.

For manufactured gases from coal or oil, We is very important due to the variable
Hydrogen content. We for natural gas is not so variable. All saturated hydrocarbons have a
very similar flame speed.

If the Wobbe & Weaver numbers are identical for two gases, they are completely
interchangeable. Unfortunately, this still doesn't guarantee the emissions will be the same.
The international gas union assign the following gas classification:

Family 1: Wo = 17.8 - 35.8 MJ/Nm3 - Coke Oven gas, Low CV gas

Family 2: Wo = 35.8 - 71.5 - Natural gases, Town gas
Family 3: Wo = 71.5 - 87.2 - Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)

High flame speed gases We = 32 to 45

Intermediate speed We = 25 to 32
Low flame speed We = 13 to 25
Natural Gases
Naturally occurring gas found in oil fields and coal fields (Fire damp). The quantities of the
constituents vary but the principle component is Hydrocarbon. Other components include
higher hydrocarbons which can be separated out as a condensate. Some gases also contain
hydrogen sulphide.
❑ Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
❑ Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) contains mostly methane
❑ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) contain mostly butane and propane.
Synthetic Gases
These are gases which are chemically made by some process.
Main methods of synthesis:
❑ Producer gas
❑ Blue Gas or Water Gas
❑ Oil Gas
❑ Carburetted Water Gas
❑ Coal and Coke Oven Gas
❑ Dry or lean - high methane content (less condensate)
❑ Wet - high concentration of higher hydrocarbons (c5 - c10)
❑ Sour - high concentration of h2s
❑ Sweet - low conc. Of H2S
❑ Residue gas - gas remaining after the condensing process
❑ Casing head gas - gas extracted from an oil well by extraction at
the surface.
Development of Alternative Fuels was motivated by the “Twin Crisis”
❑ Increasing Environmental Pollution
❑ Reducing Fossil Fuel Reserves
Alternative Fuels have been developed for
❑ Auto industry
❑ Power Industry
❑ Jet Propulsion Industry

17
❑ Reduce Dependence on Fossil Fuels
❑ Environmentally Benign
❑ Reduce Air Pollution
❑ Renewable in Nature
❑ Obtained from Diverse Sources
❑ Economically Cheaper
❑ Higher Energy Content on Weight Basis
❑ Higher Octane Rating

18
❑ Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)
❑ Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
❑ Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
❑ Alcohols (Ethanol and Methanol)
❑ Straight Vegetable Oils (SVO)
❑ Biodiesel (Esterified Vegetable Oil)
❑ Hydrogen
❑ Hythane (Hydrogen + CNG)
❑ Gasohol (Gasoline + Alcohol)
❑ E-Diesel (Diesel + Ethanol)
19
❑ Di-Methyl Ether (DME)

❑ P-Series (Polymer Blends)

❑ Biogas

❑ Biomass to Liquid (BTL)

❑ Compressed Air

❑ Water

20
 100
100 Diesel Fuel
93.6
90 87.2 F-T Diesel

80 Gasoline

70 Propane
64.6
60
60 56.2 LNG
Percent

50 46.1 Ethanol

40 Methanol

30 25.5 Liquid H2
25.1
20 CNG (250)bar

10 6.4 Compressed
1.3 Hydrogen (250)bar
0 NiMH Battery
21
AISC Panel AISC Test
Agencies

SCOE

CMVR- TSC BIS, PESO

MORTH
GSR
❑ Bio-CNG / Bio-Methane – GSR 498 (E)
❑ Ethanol (E-85 and ED-95) – GSR 882 (E)
❑ Biodiesel (B–20 and B-100) – GSR 915 (E)
❑ Liquefied Natural Gas (Draft)
❑ Dual Fuel – Diesel - CNG (Draft)
❑ Hydrogen – CNG (Draft)
❑ Hydrogen (Draft)
❑ Methanol (Newly Proposed)
❑ Di-Methyl Ether (Newly Proposed)
❑ISO 15500-1 to 19: CNG Vehicle Fuel System Components standards
❑ECE Regulation 110 and 067 : CNG and LPG Component Testing and
Installation requirements on Vehicles
❑AS/NZS: 2739 :Code of practice for the use of CNG and LPG fuels in
internal combustion engines
❑AIS 024 & AIS 025 : Code of practice for the use of CNG and LPG fuels
in India
❑NGV 3.1 Canadian standard for CNG vehicles
Emissions CNG LPG Biogas HCNG H2
Power, Torque Lower Similar Lower Lower Lower
Fuel Efficiency 20 % 10 % 20 % 25 % 30 %
on volume lower lower lower Lower Lower
basis
Cost 60 % 40 % 30 % Same 100 %
Lower Lower Lower Higher
Safety Good Fair Good Moderate Lower
Availability Yes Yes Yes No No
Renewability Yes No Yes No Yes
Emissions CNG LPG Biogas HCNG H2
CO Lower by Lower by Lower by Lower by X
30 % 20 % 30 % 40 %

HC Lower by Lower by Lower by Lower by X

40 % 30 % 40 % 50 %

NOx Higher by Similar Higher Lower by Lower

10 % by 10 % 30 % by
50 %
❑Natural Gas is obtained from wells dug in the oil-bearing regions. When natural gas
occurs along with petroleum in oil wells, it is called as ‘wet gas’. The wet gas is then
suitably treated to remove propane, butane, etc., which is used as LPG. When the
natural gas is compressed, it is called Compressed Natural Gas (CNG). The primary
component present in CNG is methane. It is mainly derived from natural gas

❑The natural gas can either be stored in a tank of a vehicle as Compressed Natural Gas
(CNG) at 3,000 or 3,600 psi or as Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) at typically 20-150 psi. A
suitably designed dedicated natural gas engine with higher Compression Ratio may
have a higher output compared with a petrol engine because the octane number of
natural gas is higher than that of petrol

❑CNG powered vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel storage than
conventional gasoline powered vehicles. Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a
liquid like gasoline, CNG takes up more space for each GGE (Gallon of Gas Equivalent).
27
❑Natural Gas comprises of mostly Methane (CH4) with
varying content
❑ If the natural gas is compressed to a pressure of 200 bar
and stored it is termed as CNG
❑Auto LPG is a mixture of Propane and Butane
❑Domestic LPG is 100 % butane
❑CNG is often confused with Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). While both are stored
forms of natural gas, the key difference is that CNG is in compressed form, while
LNG is in liquefied form. CNG has a lower cost of production and storage compared
to LNG as it does not require an expensive cooling process and cryogenic tanks. CNG
requires a much larger volume to store the same mass of natural gas and the use of
very high pressures (3000 to 4000 psi or 205 to 275 bar).
❑CNG has been made mandatory for all public transport in the Indian capital city of
New Delhi.
Properties
❖ CNG is the cheapest, cleanest and least environmentally impacting alternative
fuel.
❖Vehicles powered by CNG produce less carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon (HC)
emission.
❖It is less expensive than petrol and diesel.
❖The ignition temperature of CNG is about 550°C. CNG requires more air for
ignition
29
❑Formula = CH4
❑Molecular Weight = 16
❑Stoichiometric AFR = 17.2
❑Octane number = 120
❑Auto-ignition Temp = 540°C
❑Flammability Limits = 5 to 15
❑Lower Calorific Value = 12000 KJ/L
❑Temperature = -162°C for LNG
❑Burns with Visible flame
33
Source : IOC
 ADVANTAGES ISSUES

❑ Octane > 120 ❑ Less volumetric efficiency leading to power loss

❑ Good lean combustion

characteristics, clean burning ❑ On board storage

❑ Abundant availability
❑ Negligible sulfur / toxic HC content
❑ Less CO2 / unit of energy than ‘
‘ gasoline or diesel
❑ Infrastructure.
❑ Engine Valve seat wear
❑ Fast filling causes heating of cylinder, hence under
filling
❑ Failure of Bust Disk of Cylinder valve
38

❑ Fuel Composition
 CNG Passenger Car Layout

CNG Layout in Vehicle

❑ Reduce pressure from 200 bar to 10
bar
❑ Carbureted or Fuel Injected Type

40
 2nd Stage

1st Stage Outlet

Inlet

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
Govt has notified Bio-CNG as an automotive fuel in CMVR vide GSR 498 (E)
❑LNG is produced by cooling natural gas until it liquefies at -256° F
or -162° C.
❑In its liquid state LNG occupies 1/600th the volume of its gaseous
state
❑LNG is not pressurized and is not flammable.
❑LNG has been around for a long time:
❖First plant (1917)
❖International transport (1959)
Production

Liquefaction

Shipping

Storage

Supply
❑Remote markets can be served
❑Environmental benefits
❑Fuel diversification possible
❑Cost competitiveness
❑Ease of transportation
❑Reduced leakage
❑Can be easily converted to CNG
❑LNG does not explode
❑Storage pressures are low
 29mtpa
5mtpa
77mtpa
Algeria Middle East

Trinidad W.Africa

S.E.Asia

Australia

Source : BG
 Kenai

Sakhalin

Iran Red=Existing
Green=Greenfield
Das Lumut
RasGas
Island
Bontang
Qatargas
Tangguh
Donggi
Omani LNG Greater Sunrise
Arun
Bayu Undan
MLNG
Gorgon
NWS
 Proven Gas Reserves as of January 1, 2003

Indonesia

Australia

Malaysia

Timor Sea
Hawaii needs roughly 1.5
Russia (Sakhalin) Tcf to support demand of
1.2 mtpa + demand
Brunei growth for 20 years.

Hawaii

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Tcf
 ❑ LNG is used in increasingly many places for road transport fleets: Buses, Dust Carts,
Chilled Container Transporters – it gives good engine performance and a vehicle range
comparable with other fuels
❑ LNG is suitable to fuel high-consumption transport where space for the LNG storage is
readily available: e.g. trains and sea ferries
❑ LNG is less-suitable for small privately-owned vehicles because of more complex
procedures and more expensive fuelling stations with special requirements regarding their
location.

LNG Fuel is under Notification in CMVR promoted by MOPNG & Petronet

British Petroleum
❑World’s third largest private oil and gas producer (behind
ExxonMobil and Shell) with activities in 24 countries.
❑Largest gas producer in both the US and UK.
❑Recently purchased 2 LNG tankers
❑The conditions required are 20 K temperature and 2 Bar pressure.

❑To maintain these conditions, LNG is stored in a double-walled, super

insulating cryogenic vessel.

❑LNG can be drawn either in liquid or gas phase from these containers

❑An amount of energy equivalent to 40% of the heating value is lost during
the liquefaction process.
❑LNG Kit requires a vaporizer due to Phase change (Liquid to
Gaseous)
❑Reduced volumetric efficiency results in power loss
❑Heavier than air so does not disperse quickly in case of leaks
❑An ignition source close to fuel leak is likely to cause ignition and
result in rapid burn-off
❑Variable Fuel Composition affects performance and emissions
❑Carbon Steels are not compatible with LNG as they become brittle

❑Stainless Steel is compatible with LNG and is the primary choice for
storage

❑Elastomers are not compatible with LNG as they tend to swell

❑Aluminum is compatible with LNG but is a secondary choice

❑LNG requires Dewar Vessel for Storage

❑LNG is having high octane rating (120) suitable for SI Engines

❑Except the addition of LNG kit, including vaporiser no other

modification is required on Petrol engines to run on LNG.
Engine modifications
❑ A LNG fuel metering system must be provided
❑ The diesel fuel injection system must be removed
❑ A throttle must be added
❑ Compression ratio must be decreased
❑ An Ignition system must be provided
❑ The cylinder head to be modified to remove the fuel
injectors and install spark plugs
❑ The valve material to be changed to Stellite.
❑ The Piston rings and valve stem seals to be replaced
❑ The piston to be modified and combustion chamber to be
enlarged to reduce compression ratio and to promote mixing
of charge
❑ To meet the stringent emission norms, addition of catalytic
after-treatment
❑ Modification in the cooling system and intake system
❑ Chassis modifications
❑ Removal of existing diesel tank
❑ Fitment of LNG cylinders to chassis by mounts and
brackets
❑ Assessment of chassis frame durability due to
mounting of cylinders
❑ Effect of increase in overall weight of vehicle on
axle distribution and loading on vehicle
❑ Cylinder Mounts to be added.
❑ In case of roof mounted LNG cylinders for lower floor bus,
body structure shall have to be strengthened to meet the
cylinder load.
❑ Addition of safety devices such as leak proof sensors
❑ Removing elastomer tubes and using teflon tubes
❑ Reduced volumetric efficiency & less partial pressures in the intake manifold
causing power loss

❑ To store same amount of energy as diesel, it requires five times the volume of
equivalent diesel tank

❑ Variable fuel composition affects performance and emissions

❑ Inadequate distribution infrastructure

❑ Engine Valve seat wear due to lack of lubricity

❑ Fast filling causes heating and then a pressure drop when tank cools down

71
Sr. Type of vehicle Water Capacity, Range in kms
No. CNG LPG CNG LPG
1 3W 22-25 lt 15lt 160 240
(4-5kg) (6kg)
2 Car 60 lt 60lt 240 480
(12kg) (24kg)
3 LCV (80 lt x 160lt - 320 -
2nos. of cyl) (32kg)
4 HCV (50 lt x 600lt - 360 -
12nos. of cyl) (120kg) 72

72
 ADVANTAGES ISSUES

❑ Octane rating nearly 100 ❑ volumetric efficiency less =>power

❑ Clean burning, lower tendency for loss (however less than CNG)
smog formation ❑ On board storage
❑ Easily be liquefied ❑ Phase change
❑ Negligible sulphur/ toxic HC content ❑ Heavier than air
❑ Less CO2 / unit of energy than gasoline ❑ Fuel Composition
or diesel
❑ LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is composed of following
hydrocarbons in varying proportion Propane (C3H8), Propylene
(C3H6) and Butane (C4H10)
❑ Specification of Auto LPG is as per IS:14861
❑ LPG in India contains up to 40 to 60 % Propane and 30 to 40 %
Butane.

74
❑ Formula = C3H8 + C4H10
❑ Molecular Weight = 44.09
❑ Stoichiometric AFR = 15.7
❑ Octane number = 97 to 112
❑ Auto-ignition Temp = 457°C
❑ Flammability Limits = 2.1 to 9.5
❑ Lower Calorific Value = 23000 kJ/L
❑ Density = 0.5 kg/L
❑ Burns with Visible flame

75
❑ Environment friendly - clean air
❑ Use of renewable energy sources
❑ Less dependence on fossil fuel
❑ Economic benefits
❑ Provides more energy on weight basis
❑ Higher octane rating
❑ Simpler molecular structure
❑ Low carbon to hydrogen ratio
❑ Low volumetric energy content

76
❑ LPG is stored as a liquid under pressure, is colourless and its
weight as a liquid is approximately half that of an equivalent
volume of water.
❑ In changing from a liquid state to gas LPG expands
approximately 260-times its original volume at normal
atmospheric conditions.
❑ A mixture of LPG vapour in air of between 2% and 10% by
volume is flammable.
❑ LPG vapour is approximately 1.5 times denser than air

77
❑ LPG vapour in common with most light hydrocarbon vapours, is
slightly anaesthetic and also cause suffocation if present in
sufficiently high concentrations.
❑ LPG is odorised (by adding ethyl mercaptan) at source to be
detectable by smell at a concentration in air of about 20% of lower
flammability limit, i.e. a vapour/air mixture of 0.5% by volume.
❑ Owing to its rapid vaporization and consequent lowering of
temperature, LPG, particularly liquid, can cause severe frost burns
if brought into contact with the skin.

78
 10 bar

Diesel
Diesel

10 bar

1 2
79
❑ Stainless Steel is compatible with LPG and is the primary
choice
❑ Elastomers are compatible with LPG as they retain their form
and are used for tubing
❑ Brass and Copper can also be used for storage tanks and
piping
❑ Aluminum is compatible with LPG but is a secondary choice

80
Bi-fuel
• Either LPG or Gasoline, separate fuel tanks and fuel
delivery systems

Dedicated fuel
• LPG fuel only

Dual fuel
• Both LPG and Gasoline, separate fuel tanks and fuel delivery
system

Flexible fuel
• LPG fuel and/or any other fuels
81
❑ Reduced volumetric efficiency & less partial pressures in the
intake manifold results in power loss
❑ To store same amount of energy as gasoline, it requires double
space than an equivalent gasoline tank
❑ Engine Valve seat wear due to lack of lubricity
❑ LPG Kit requires a vaporizer due to Phase change (Liquid to
Gaseous)
❑ Use of domestic LPG as an auto fuel is a widespread problem.
❑ Requires vapour withdrawal technology for kits.
❑ Variable Fuel Composition affects performance and emissions
❑ Heavier than air so does not disperse quickly

82
❑ The space occupied by LPG fuel reduces the amount of air
entering the engine (vol. Efficiency)
❑ Loss in volumetric efficiency due to pumping loss associated
with conversion hardware itself (i.e. venturi of gas-air mixer)
❑ Theoretically LPG causes 4 to 10% loss in power.
❑ LPG have relatively high octane ratings that will allow engine
compression ratio up to 15:1, so as to partially make up for the
loss in volumetric efficiency and power; however, it may
increase NOx emission.

83
 STOICHIOMETRIC LEAN BURN
l=1 l >1
Required: Required:
❑ combustion system with high rate of heat
❑ optimised combustion
release by high turbulent kinetic energy in
❑ accurate l-control
the spark region
❑ exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)
❑ very accurate l-control towards the ‚lean‘
❑ three-way catalyst
limit
❑ oxidation catalyst with capability to reduce
methane emissions
Advantages: Advantages:
❑ higher efficiency
❑ low emissions
❑ higher BMEP-potential
❑ small combustion variability
❑ reduced thermal load and heat rejection
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
❑ higher emissions
❑ lower efficiency
❑ sensitivity to gas composition variation
❑ higher thermal loading and heat rejection
❑ oxidation catalyst for lower CH4 emissions
 Multi-Function Valve Air ‘in’
Pressure regulator
Solenoid valve
LPG Cylinder I II
Seal Air-gas mixer
High box
pressure
line Air + LPG ‘out’
Refilling valve
Pressure 10.5 bar at 40C 1 bar 0.2bar

86
 LPG FUEL RAIL
INJECTORS FUEL INLET FUEL
The injectors are a bottom FLOW
feed type. The gas enters the
injector’s lower side from the
fuel rail.
The bottom feed injectors
provide excellent operation
FUEL
LPG FLOW
The injector is a low INJECTOR

impedance device FUEL INLET

FUEL OUTLET
 LPG ECU
LPG Signal
While running on LPG
the system is
LPG Injectors
controlled by the ECU
LPG Flow
Intake Manifold
The LPG ECU meters
the fuel injected by
the injectors in the
intake manifold
❑ No loss of performance on petrol
❑ Maximum gas performance
❑ No additional devices on the manifold
❑ Back-fire elimination
❑ Relevant improvement of “drivability”
❑ Consumption optimisation
❑ Reduction of pollution level
❑ Engine management same as petrol
 P1- MAP SENSOR
FUEL FILTER
LPG REDUCER

GASEOUS ECU FUEL RAIL & INJECTORS BOTTOM FEED INJECTOR

91
❑ In India, for vehicles below 3.5 t mass emissions are
measured by using CVS on Chassis Dyno.

❑ For LPG fueled vehicles, Reactive HC is estimated by using the

following formula, RHC=0.50 * THC

❑ The principal pollutant from LPG vehicle is unburnt HC, i.e.

propane/butane, Hence RHC reduction from LPG fueled
vehicle is approx. 80%.

93
❑ LPG is known as a carbon poor fuel, which is the reason for its
low CO and CO2, by 80 – 90 % as compared to conventional fuels.
❑ Due to higher combustion temperature, NOx emissions is the
problem, which can be reduced by fitting 3 way catalysts in
combination with closed loop exhaust oxygen level feedback and
EGR
❑ The small amount of sulfur in LPG (approx. 8-30 ppm) is due to
the odorant added for leak detection.

94
❑ As per GSR 284(E) dated 24th April 2001, AIS 025 is being followed
for carrying out safety checks on LPG Vehicles
❑ AIS 025 primarily describes installation of LPG components,
component testing requirements, CMVR tests to be carried out,
documents to be submitted, etc.
❑ Reference of ECE R67 Rev 1 is being taken for critical testing of
components, i.e. regulator, valves and gas air- mixer.
❑ Upgradation of safety norms has been a continuous process and
based on the experience gained, additional standards AIS 026 and
AIS 027 were evolved

95
❑ Leaking LPG being heavier than air stays near the ground
level and forms puddles.
❑ Hence the danger of fire would be greatest near the floor for
LPG.
❑ Considering these facts separate ventilated parking facilities
shall be preferred.

96
97
98
99
AIM of the work

CNG emission
+
Petrol Performance
+
Diesel running cost

101
102
Air Gas Valve

103
 Vaporizer

Fuel control valve

Mounting Bkt

104
Mounting bkt

LPG Solenoid

LPG Inlet
LPG outlet

105
Low pressure hose

Holding Bkt

106
No fouling Observed
While filling LPG at
Dispensing Station
Filling receptacle
For LPG

Modified location
For Gasoline filling
Fuel Selection
switch

Green LED shows

Contents of LPG
in the tank

109
❑ CNG/LPG Kit consists of the CNG fuel delivery system,
which is fitted on to the engine.
❑ The components of a CNG/LPG fuel kit are:
a. Pressure regulator – Primary & Secondary
b. ECU & Sensors
c. Solenoid Metering Valve & Throttle body
d. Wiring harness
e. Ignition coils & Spark plugs
f. Injector / Gas air mixer
g. CNG/LPG Cylinder
h. CNG/LPG Hoses & Filter
i. Vaporizer for LPG
❑ Removal of existing fuel tank and fitment of CNG/LPG
❑ Cylinders to chassis by mounts and brackets
❑ Mounting strength should be minimum 20 times mass of
CNG/LPG cylinder in any direction.
❑ Chassis frame durability due to mounting of cylinders and
❑ Effect of increase in vehicle weight on axle distribution should be
assessed
❑ Outlets from all bust discs should be manifolded together and
vented from a pipe with roof discharge
❑ In case of roof mounted CNG cylinders for low floor bus, body
structure should be strengthened to meet the cylinder load.
❑ Hydrostatic strength test : Pressurize the component at 5-times the working
pressure (i.e 1000 bar) to check the strength of the parts.
❑ High temperature leakage tests (at 120°C OR 85°C): Pressurize the component
at 300 bar at 120°C / 85°C according to the location of the component on the
vehicle.
❑ Low temperature leakage tests (at -40°C): Pressurize the component at 300 bar
at - 40°C.
❑ Corrosion resistance test (for 96 hrs) : Subject the component to corrosive
environment (i.e.Fog of salt solution) to check the corrosion resistance
properties of metallic parts.
❑ Continued operation test : (for 50,000 cycles at different temp. and pressures)
Operate the component for 50,000 cycles at 200 bar / 300 bar at 120°C / - 40°C
❑ To check quality of the moving parts like diaphragms, valve seats , springs of
the CNG/LPG kit components after continuous cycling.
❑ Vibration resistance test (at 1.5 mm with 17 Hz amplitude in each axis):
To check the CNG/LPG kit components for Vibration resistance.
❑ Excess torque resistance test:
To check the threaded fittings for excess torque (i.e. 150% of the rated torque) application.
❑ Bending moment test:
To check the joints and connections of the kit components for their strength against bending
moment.
❑ Oxygen aging test:
This test is applicable to non-metallic parts like diaphragms, ‘O’ rings, Valve seats etc. used in the
CNG/LPG kit components to check their resistance against Oxygen present in the environment.
❑ Non-metallic synthetic immersion test:
This test is applicable to non-metallic parts to check their material properties (weight and volume)
❑ Brass material compatibility test :
This test is applicable for threaded brass material parts of the CNG/LPG kit components to check their
resistance against ammonia.
Today's Fuel price in Pune is ₹ 109.5 per litre for Petrol,
₹ 92.3 per litre for Diesel,
₹ 38.26 per litre for AutoGas,
₹ 66 per kg for CNG,
₹ 902.5 per 14.2 kg for LPG = ₹ 63.55 per kg (Cooking Gas).
❑ Termed as the Freedom Fuel i.e. a clean burning fuel
❑ Clean fuel with only NOx emissions
❑ The lightest element in nature and renewable.
❑ Hydrogen is not an ‘energy source‘, but an energy carrier which has to be produced
and this requires energy
❑ Economic production of Hydrogen is an issue.
❑ Can be used in IC engines and Fuel cells
❑ Safety is critical due to high flammability of the fuel
❑ Metal Embrittlement tendency requires composite cylinders for storage.
❑ Prime Minister of India declared National Hydrogen Mission on 15th Aug 2021,
where Reliance, Adani, IOC, NTPC, GAIL, L&T, etc. have initiated work.
❑ EU commission wants to force Europe into a hydrogen economy by 2050
❑ Reduce Dependence on Fossil Fuels
❑ Environmentally Benign
❑ Reduces Air Pollution
❑ Renewable in Nature
❑ Obtained from Diverse Sources
❑ Carbon less Fuel
❑ Higher Energy Content on Weight Basis
❑ Higher Octane Rating

119
 Crude Oil Gasifier
Coal Gasifier
Natural Gas Reformer
Nuclear Hydrogen
Electric Power Plant
Nuclear
Photo-voltaic
Solar
Generator Electrolyzer
Hydro
Generator
Wind
Generator
Wave
Electric Power Plant
Geothermal
Gasifier
Wood
Gasifier
Organic Waste Gasifier
Biomass
1. Electrolysis of water
2. Catalytic Steam Reforming (SR) of natural gas
3. Partial OXidation (POX) of heavy oil
4. Coal gasification
5. Steam iron process
6. Thermal cracking of natural gas
7. Thermochemical water decomposition
8. Nuclear Fission
9. Photochemical conversion
10. Biological hydrogen generation by algae
11. Decomposition of biomass 121
 DC Current
2H2O 2H2 + O2

❑ Pure process
❑ Rate of H2 generation = f(current density)
❑ Very Expensive (Since, electricity is expensive)
❑ Electrolysis is a process in which electricity is used to decompose
water into gaseous hydrogen and oxygen.

122
 Water

AC Deioniser
ADC DC Separator
H2O
module residue

H2 + O2
(regulated
&stored)
@cathode
@anode
K+ + e- = K
OH- = OH + e-
K + H2O = K+ + H +
2OH = 2H2O + O
OH-
O + O = O2
H + H = H2

H2O + KOH
❑ Catalysts are used to increase the rate of hydrogen production
for cathode : Nickel coated with platinum
for anode : Nickel/Copper coated with Mn/W oxides
❑ Catalyst are surface coated on electrodes.

125
 Steam

CH4 Desulphuriser
Steam Shift
Preheater Converters H2
Reformer
CO + H2O = H2
CH4 +H2O = 3H2 + CO +CO2 CO2

Hydrocarbon + Steam = Hydrogen + Carbon

Oxides
CnHm + nH2O = (n + 0.5*m)H2 + nCO
 Steam
O2

CH4 Steam
Desulphuriser Oxidiser Preheater Shift H2
Reformer Converters
CH4 + 0.5O2 = 2H2 + CO
CH4 +H2O = 3H2 + CO CO + H2O = H2 +CO2
CO2

Hydrocarbon + Steam + Oxygen = Hydrogen + Carbon Oxides

CnHm + (0.5*n)O2 = nCO + (0.5*m)H2

127
❑ Different compositions of coal
❖ Anthracite
❖ Bituminous
❖ Lignite
❑ Expensive and Sophisticated Process
❑ Gasification Processes
❖ Koppers-Totzek process (at atmospheric pressure)
❖ Texaco process (at elevated pressure)

128
 Water

Raw Coal Gas

(HOT) Waste Recovery Ash Removal Compressor H2

Heat Ash

129
 Steam + O2 water

Gasification Raw gas + Ash Raw gas Syngas

Coal Desulphuriser
Plant ash Removal H2 + CH4 + CO +
CO2

Ash

Shift
H2 Methanation
Converter
CO2 CH4 & CO
removed removed

130
❑ Reforming steam by reaction of Hot Iron.

Steam + Hot Iron = Iron oxide + Hydrogen

H2O + 3FeO = Fe3O4 + H2

❑ CO & N2 are the impurities formed during the process

131
❑ Natural Gas is used for hydrogen production.
❑ Natural Gas + Heat = Carbon + Hydrogen

Catalysts
CH4 + Heat C + 2H2
Furnace (1400 deg. cel.)

❑ Economic process. (Natural gas is cheaper)

Collected in filter bags
for further processing

132
❑ Electrolysis

Electricity
H2O H2 + 0.5O2

❑ Thermochemical Decomposition

Heat
H2O 2500 deg. cel.
H2 + 0.5O2

133
❑ Very extreme conditions are needed.
❑ To carry out decomposition reaction at lower temperatures:
❖ Chemical reagents are used
❖ Reaction is carried out in multiple steps

❑ 3 step process AB + H2O + Heat = AH2 + BO

❖ Hydrogen production AH2 + Heat = H2 +A
❖ Oxygen production 2BO + Heat = 2B +O2
❖ Material Regeneration A + B + Heat = AB

134
❑ A & B are materials those can readily oxidise (iron, chlorine etc.)
❑ Working temperature drops down to 700 deg. cel. from 2500.
❑ Free energy in all equations should be zero ideally. (It allows the
products to go under multiple reaction and not allowing them to
stabilise)
❑ This process is still under development

135
 ❑ Photovoltaic cells and liquid
semiconductors are used for
collecting/absorbing solar
energy.
❑ Liquid junction transducer :
Photo-anode & Photo-cathode
are placed in two different
chambers separated by
semipermeable membrane.
❑ Maximum conversion
efficiency of the system is 8 %.

Two Electrode Photochemical Cell for Hydrogen Production 136

❑ Algal production of hydrogen falls under the category of photo
biological process which uses biological system with light.
❑ Photo biological processes involves use of cyanobacteria (blue
green algae), photosynthetic bacteria and eukaryotic algae (green
algae)

Cyano-bacteria Photosynthetic Eukaryotic

bacteria algae
❑ Cyanobacteria produces two types of hydrogen metabolizing enzymes namely
❖ Nitrogenase: Hydrogen producing enzyme

❖ Hydrogenase: Hydrogen consuming enzyme

❑ The cyanobacteria is kept in anaerobic environment (oxygen free/inert environment) to prevent consumption of
H2 produced by itself and uses water as electron donor.
❑ The presence of hydrogenase results in consumption of H2 during production itself which can be inhibited either
chemically or genetically.
❑ In chemical process low concentration of Nickel ions or acetylene are used to inhibit action of hydrogenase
enzyme
❑ In genetic method, hydrogenase-deficient strains are produced by genetical engineering.
❑ Although the conversion of solar energy to hydrogen by cyanobacteria is 0.1%
❑ Industrial and agricultural wastes such as organic compounds,
acids, alcohols, sugars and few sulphur compounds are used as
electron donors in anaerobic environment for economically viable
production of H2.
❑ The effectiveness of production depends on availability of
substrates, light irradiance and temperature.
❑ Advantages of photosynthetic bacteria are ability to grow cells to
produce H2 and substrate conversion efficiency from organic acids
to hydrogen in the range of 20%-100%.
❑ The eukaryotic algae differ from
cyanobacteria and other type of
bacteria because they have true
nucleus bound by membranes.
❑ The environment is made free
from oxygen and carbon dioxide
for the process.
❑ Hydrogen acts as electron acceptor
instead of CO2 in previous cases
and water is reduced to molecular
hydrogen and oxygen.
❑ Anaerobic digestion involves use of biomass
from residues, wastes and crops to form
methane in oxygen free environment.
❑ The feedstock is fed to a digester in the
presence of anaerobic bacteria and absence of
oxygen.
❑ In first stage cellulose and hemicellulose are
broken down to enzymes to form soluble
organic compound.
❑ These soluble organic compound are then
converted into hydrogen, CO2, formate and
acetate.
❑ The gas production at ambient temperature is
low hence it is carried out at (around 37 deg C)
by use of thermophilic bacteria or heating.
❑ Note: CHP = Combined Heat & Power
❑ Hydrogen IC engine ( port or direct injection)
❑ Electric hybrid with H2 IC engine
❑ H2 fuelled Fuel Cell Vehicles
❑ Hydrogen-gasoline admixture
❑ Dual-fuel diesel engine (port or direct injection of
Hydrogen)
❑ HCNG or Hythane (mixture of hydrogen and CNG)
❑ MNRE is the nodal agency driving the hydrogen program in India and has published a
hydrogen roadmap
❑ Vehicular Trials by OEMs like Mahindra and Tata Motors for Hydrogen
❑ Institutes like IIT Delhi, BHU, IIT Madras, IOC Faridabad & ARAI Pune at the forefront for
developing Hydrogen Engine technology
❑ BIS has framed national standards on Hydrogen and HCNG fuels inline with
corresponding ISO TC 197 and ISO TC 22 standards.
❑ ARAI is participating in UNECE and ISO Forums for development of international
regulations on Hydrogen.
❑ PESO has amended Gas Cylinder rules for Hydrogen-CNG storage. Type –III composite
cylinders granted permission for trials.
❑ IOC has taken active steps to establish distribution infrastructure of H2 & HCNG in India.
144
 Neat Hydrogen

Hydrogen supplementation
(Petrol+ hydrogen )

H2
Hydrogen + CNG

Dual Fuelling
( Diesel + Hydrogen)
145
146
ON – BOARD

147
❑ Hydrogen has a wide flammability limits which permit its use
under lean conditions
❑ Due to wide flammability limits, pre-ignition on hot cylinder
walls can occur
❑ Flame speed for H2 is seven times higher than that of gasoline,
thus approaching the ideal constant volume cycle.
❑ Ignition energy is ~1/10 that of gasoline
❑ It is colorless and odorless so difficult to detect leaks
❑ Causes metal embrittlement of Iron and Zinc.
❑ With Port Injection power loss for stoichiometric combustion is
comparable to CNG (~15%).

148
❑ Low density and viscosity requires care for leak tight joints
❑ For the same pressure and hole size, hydrogen would leak
Approx 2.8 times faster than natural gas and 5.1 times
faster than propane
❑ Burns with nearly invisible flame. Hydrogen fires are more
difficult to detect than Methane or gasoline fires.
❑ Backfire may occur due to hot spots (valve, spark plug).
❑ Low density requires high flow rate injection configuration.

149
❑ The biggest issue is how to provide fuel
❑ The space needed to store the fuel on board the vehicle
❑ Efficient ways for processing fossil fuels on board must be
developed
❑ Even though reforming is a gentler process than combustion, it
still introduces trace emissions, which will drag down the overall
efficiency
❑ Three methods are available for on board storage of hydrogen

150
❑ The conditions required are 20 K temperature and 2 Bar
pressure.
❑ To maintain these conditions, LH2 is stored in a double-walled,
super insulating cryogenic vessel.
❑ Hydrogen can be drawn either in liquid or gas phase from these
containers
❑ An amount of energy equivalent to 40% of the heating value of
H2 is lost during the liquefaction process.

151
❑ They are based on the fact that gaseous H2 readily absorbs in
metals, forming a weak chemical bond
❑ They are in granular or powder form thus having larger surface
area and large capacity
❑ To release the gases, the hydride is heated to a certain
temperature
❑ The biggest disadvantage is that they have low mass energy
density and thus tend to be heavy

152
❑ This is the most straightforward way to store H2 (aluminum
cylinders wrapped in fiberglass)
❑ Pressurized to 20MPa, H2 gas weighs approximately 3 times
the liquid storage system and occupies more than twice the
volume
❑ Possibility of leakage is higher

153
 Gasoline Liquid Hydride Compresse
reference Hydrogen (1.2% of d H2 (20.7
(20K) Hydride to 69MPa)
weight)
Energy, Btu 629,500 629,500 629,500 629,500

Fuel weight 13.9 4.7 4.7 4.7

(kg)
Tank wt 6.3 18.6 547.5 63.3-86
(kg)
Total fuel 20.4 23 552 67.9-90.5
system wt
(kg)
Volume 18.9 177.9 189.3 408-227
(liter) 154
❑ Auto ignition temperature of Hydrogen is 576 C. The ignition is by
compression alone –not possible even at a CR of 29

❑ Dual fuel operation -most practical mode of diesel engine operation using
hydrogen

❑ Small horse power diesel engine –converted to hydrogen-diesel operation is

efficient

❑ Multi-cylinder Diesel engine has 45% Energy substitution when using

Hydrogen

155
Mixture formation Flow timings Supply pressure Comments
Continuous A little above
Continuous flow Used for Hythane
carburetion (CC) atmospheric

Continuous Slightly greater

Not essentially different from
manifold injection Continuous flow than
CC
(CMI) atmospheric

flow commences after the

Timed manifold
opening of the intake valve 1.4 - 5.5 kgf/cm2 Most appropriate
injection (TMI)
but completed prior to IVC

flow commences after the

Low pressure Direct
intake valve closure and is Requires tough thermal
cylinder injection 2.0 - 8.0 kgf/cm2
completed before significant environment
(LPDI)
compression pressure rise

High pressure Direct

cylinder injection flow commences at the end Abnormally high
(HPDI) Uncontrolled combustion
of the compression stroke pressure

156
❑ A Hydrogen engine adopting TMI system embraces the benefit of
both CI as well as SI engine
❑ TMI is designed such that the intake manifold does not contain
any combustible mixtures thus eliminates the undesirable
combustion
❑ TMI provides a pre-cooling effect and thus renders the pre-
ignition sources ineffective
❑ In TMI system, hydrogen air mixing can be sufficiently rapid to
ensure burning of hydrogen gas soon after it enters the cylinder
❑ TMI is free from constraints such as injection pressure and
charge mixing time.

157
❑ LPDI shows the possibility of eliminating backfire by the method of
delaying fuel delivery.
❑ LPDI requires a sophisticated design of the injection valve.
❑ There is a possibility of flow starvation condition for both hydrogen
and air in case of LPDI
❑ LPDI has problems of incomplete combustion due to the very brief
time allowed for the mixing of fuel and air after injection.
❑ Flow controllability seemed to be main stumbling obstacle in
achieving higher speed in LPDI.

158
❑ Hydrogen combustion does not produce HC, CO, PM or CO2
emission as it does not contain any carbon
❑ NOx emissions are on the same order as conventional diesel
engine (this is the main difference between using hydrogen in IC
engines and fuel cells)
❑ Cooling of air or hydrogen is effective in reducing NOx emission.
❑ If cryogenic liquid storage is used, the injected hydrogen can
significantly cool the charge temperature

159
 Properties Hydrogen CNG
Flame speed 237 cm/s 42 cm/s
Diffusion coefficient 0.61 cm2/s 0.16 cm2/s
Higher Heating Value 142 MJ/kg 55 MJ/kg
Lower Heating Value 120 MJ/kg 50.4 MJ/kg
Flammability limits 4 - 75 (% vol) 5.3 – 15 (% vol)
Minimum Ignition Energy 0.02 mJ 0.28 mJ

Auto-ignition Temp. 858 K 813 K

160
❑ Fuel Cell is a mini power plant that converts chemical energy
directly into electrical energy by giving off water and heat as
byproduct.
❑ Fuel cells can use any fuel: Hydrogen, Ethanol, Methanol, LPG,
CNG, etc.
❑ Each Fuel Cell provides a very small voltage, hence individual
cells are arranged in stacks to provide required power to the
application.

161
“A fuel cell is an electrochemical device which converts the chemical
energy of a fuel and an oxidant (pure oxygen or air) directly into
electricity without the intermediate step of classical, chemical
combustion used in the normal process of heat extraction from a fuel”
Conventional Method
Engines
Combustion Generator

Chemical Energy Mechanical Electrical

Heat Energy
(Fuel) Energy Energy

Fuel Cell Method

Chemical Energy Fuel Cell Electrical
(Fuel) Energy
❑ It is a direct energy conversion device with high electrical efficiency of
around 80%. They are not limited by the Carnot efficiency, which is the
upper limit for the normal thermo-mechanical means of energy
conversion
❑ One of the most attractive features of these devices, apart from their
high efficiency, is that only water, heat and electricity are the products
of electrochemical reaction in the cell, when pure hydrogen is used as
fuel
❑ It is also a fuel flexible technology which can accept hydrogen obtained
from various renewable and fossil energy resources (hydrogen rich
gases like natural gas, biogas and producer gas)
❑ This three-in-one (high efficiency, zero/low pollutant emission and fuel
flexibility) feature makes the fuel cell an extremely desirable power
generation technology with high potential for the future.
163
A Ragone chart is used for
comparing the performance of
various energy devices.
❑ The fuel cells are much
higher energy density devices.
❑ Almost energy density is
100 times higher than other
types of energy-storage
devices.
❑ The fuel cells can be used
for long time.
❑ As the power density of
fuel cell is low, it needs more
surface to volume ratios.
165
❑ Pressurized tanks for gaseous
hydrogen
❑ Metal Hydride
❑ Chemical storage
❑ Advanced carbon materials
absorption, including carbon
nanotubes, alkali-doped
carbon nanotubes, and
graphite nano-fibers.

166
❑ Structure of battery:

❖ Anode

❖ Cathode

❖ Electrolyte Zinc – Carbon Battery or Dry Cell

Structure of fuel cell and its working is

similar to that of battery
❑Working:

❖Converts chemical energy of reactants directly into

electrical energy by electrochemical means 167
❑ Batteries can be classified as primary or disposable batteries and secondary or
rechargeable batteries
❑ A fuel cell partly resembles a normal battery/cell in structure and the basic
mechanism of operation
❑ The differences between a battery and a fuel cell are listed below:
❖ In fuel cell the fuel is send from outside, whereas in a battery it is stored
inside
❖ The electrodes are non-reactive in fuel cells, whereas they get consumed in a
battery
❖ Continuous operation is possible using fuel cells by replacing the fuel cell
cartridges (No recharge and higher power densities compared with batteries)

168
❑ The heart of the fuel cell is the Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA)
which consists of an electrolyte flanked by two porous electrodes, an
anode and a cathode

❑ In some cases, like the low temperature fuel cells, the electrolyte may be
coated with thin layers of a catalyst to promote the electrochemical
reaction occurring at the interface of the electrolytes and the electrodes

❑ The electrolyte functions as a conductor of ions and also acts as a seal

between the fuel and oxidant flows

❑ The thickness of the electrolyte and catalyst layers are in the order of
microns and with the electrodes the MEA could be just a few mm thick.
169
 Component Material Function
Membrane Perfluro sulphonic acid Proton (H+) Conduction,
membrane (Nafion)
Catalyst Platinum Catalysis
Gas diffusion layer Carbon Paper/Cloth Uniform gas distribution,
Electrical and heat
conduction
Flow field plate Graphite Reactant flow
End Plates Aluminium Holding components

Reactants
Anode 99.99% pure H2 gas
Cathode Air / Oxygen
172
173
174
❑ The Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell.
These cells are also known as proton exchange
membrane fuel cells (or PEMFCs).
❑ Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC): These cells involve the
use of a solid oxide or a ceramic electrolyte (such
as yttria-stabilized zirconia).
❑ Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC): These are high
temperature fuel cells that operates above 600 Deg
C.
❑ Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC): Electrons are
forced to travel to the cathode via an external
circuit because of the non-conductive nature of
phosphoric acid.
❑ Alkaline Fuel Cell (AFC): This was the fuel cell which
was used in the Apollo space program.
❑ Solid Acid Fuel Cell (SAFC): A solid acid material is
used as the electrolyte in these fuel cells. The
molecular structures of these solid acids are
ordered at low temperatures.
 H
+

H2 O2
H
+

e-

H2O

e-

178
 Anode (HOR):
+ −
H 2 → 2H + 2e
Cathode (ORR):

1
O2 + 2 H + + 2e− → H 2O
2

1
H 2 + O2 → H 2O + Electricity + Heat
2
❑ The concept of the fuel cell was first
demonstrated by Humphry Davy in 1801, but
the invention of the first working fuel cell is
credited to William Grove, a chemist, lawyer and
physicist.
❑ In 1839, William Robert Grove realizes that if
electrolysis with electricity could split water into
hydrogen and oxygen, then the opposite would
also be true
❑ Grove builds a device that combines the two
elements, and indeed electricity is produced
❑ The world’s first ‘gas battery’ is invented, later to
be named the ‘Fuel Cell’
❑ The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
is in need of a compact way to generate electricity for
manned space missions.
❑ As batteries at that time are too heavy, nuclear is too
dangerous and solar power too cumbersome, NASA funds
some 200 research projects to develop a practical variant of
the ‘obscure’ fuel cell.
❑ In 1966, General Motors developed the first fuel cell road
vehicle, the Chevrolet Electrovan.
❑ It had a PEM fuel cell, a range of 120 miles and a top speed of
70 mph.
❑ There were only two seats, as the fuel cell stack and large
tanks of hydrogen and oxygen took up the rear portion of the
van.
❑ Only one was built, as the project was deemed cost-
prohibitive.
❑ Canadian Ballard Power Systems receives a visit from German
Daimler Benz to evaluate the progress the company has made on
its Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell.
❑ Quite unexpectedly Ballard makes spectacular improvements in
its performance.
❑ Having some experience with fuel cell technology, Daimler Benz
recognizes the leap Ballard has made, and the companies decide
to collaborate, leading to the fuel cell powered ‘NECAR I’, named
after the river Necar close to Daimler’s headquarters.
❑ Japanese Prime Minister Koizumi has the privilege of
driving the first Fuel Cell Vehicles, presented by Honda
and Toyota.
❑ After more than 150 years the fuel cell may have
found its crucial application at last……
• The first commercially produced hydrogen fuel cell automobile,
the Hyundai ix35 FCEV, was introduced in 2013, Toyota
Mirai followed in 2015 and then Honda entered the market.
• Fuel cells are being developed and tested in cars, trucks, buses,
boats, motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.
• As of December 2020, 31,225 passenger FCEVs powered with
hydrogen had been sold worldwide.
• As of 2021, there were only two models of fuel cell cars publicly
available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai (2014) and
the Hyundai Nexo (2018)
• The Honda FCX Clarity was produced from 2016 to 2021, when it
was discontinued.
186
FCX Clarity (HONDA) Hyundai Tucson FCEV Mercedes Benz F-Cell

Fiat Panda Hydrogen Nissan X-Trial Audi A2H2

187
 FC Car with onboard hydrogen generation
from NISSAN

ATR Fuel + H2O+ Air H2 (35%)

o
+ H2O + CO2 +
CO (10%) +N2 (800 C)

HTS H2 (40%) + H2O + CO2 + CO (2%) + N2 (400oC)

LTS H2 (42%) + H2O + CO2 + CO (1%) + N2 (200oC)

H2 (40%) + H2O + CO2 + CO (100 ppm) + N2 (150oC)

PROX 189
Centre for Fuel Cell Technology (CFCT), Chennai
ARAI & NCL, PUNE
IIT Madras, Delhi, Bombay, Guwahati, Hyderabad
PSG IAS, PSG CT
CECRI-Karaikudi, SPIC-Tuticorin & CSIR-Chennai
VIT, CGCRI, NCL, DRDO Labs

Tata Motors, KPIT & TVS

General Motors, Bangalore
Nissan, Chennai
• In 2018, Tata Motors, in collaboration with
Indian Oil Corporation, flagged off the country's
first hydrogen fuel cell powered bus: Tata
Starbus.
• It has a hydrogen fuel cell power system that
makes 114 hp and an electric propulsion motor
that makes 250 hp. The total torque is 1050 Nm
at 800 rpm. The bus can seat 30 passengers.
• In 2020, India's first hydrogen fuel-cell powered
car by KPIT has completed the first round of
testing in the country. The prototype car running
on in-house developed fuel cell stack at the
(CSIR) Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research — National Chemical Laboratory (NCL)
in Pune.
• On board hydrogen storage or generation
• Choice of Fuel (Methanol, ethanol, gasoline, etc) for the fuel
reformer
• Specific power (rate at which a given amount of energy can be
supplied and hence the no. of cells required to meet peak power
requirements.)
• Life time of a fuel cell (contamination of catalyst)
• Reformer efficiency
• Cost
• Mass Production
• Safety

192
194
❑ A Dual fuel engine is a CI engine
❑ Dual fuel engine runs on Diesel and Natural Gas
simultaneously
❑ Small Pilot Injection of diesel ignites gas mixture
❑ Average substitution of Diesel by Gas is 60 – 85 %
❑ Engine can run on 100 % Diesel anytime
❑ Technology best suited for larger engines

Emission Reduction by 30-40 %

❑ HCNG is a general term used to denote varying blends of Hydrogen
and CNG.
❑ Adding higher flame speed Hydrogen to a lower flame speed fuel like
CNG, improves the combustion efficiency of the HCNG blend.
❑ HCNG has advantage of low minimum ignition energy and wide range
of flammability limits
❑ HCNG is thus the first step for introducing Hydrogen and is
considered as the transition automotive fuel
• This is the blend of 15 % Hydrogen in CNG by energy
content or 5 % blend by volume
• Low cost technology proven over 15 years
• 1992 - Patent on Hythane
• 1995 - Demonstration of buses in Montreal.
• Significant NOx-reductions observed
• Uses existing CNG infrastructure
• Up to 50% NOx emission reductions
• Immediately available with Natural Gas
• Frank Lynch Invented Hythane® .
• Consults exclusively to Brehon on Hythane®
• UCLA Engineering graduate and Hydrogen Pioneer
• Worked exclusively in advanced Hydrogen Systems for over
30 years
• Many hydrogen vehicle conversions of cars, buses, trucks
and mining equipment.
❑ Hythane has low minimum ignition energy and very wide range of
flammability limits – major advantage
❑ Adding hydrogen which has much higher flame speed to CNG –
betters the combustion efficiency of the blend
❑ More stable combustion, due to a faster combustion (less cycle to
cycle variations)
❑ Lower fuel consumption
❑ Lower HC, CO and CO2-emissions - 28% compared to NG, 45%
compared to gasoline
❑ NOx emissions at the leanest Hythane test point are lower than
the NOx emissions at the leanest natural gas test point
❑ Evolutionary approach to hydrogen introduction, low vehicle
costs
❑ Increasing the concentration of hydrogen in CNG increases the
engine power output and reduces cyclic variability
❑ Increased addition of hydrogen to CNG requires progressively
less advance in spark timing.
❑ Performance characteristics CNG S.I. engine enhanced
significantly by the presence of hydrogen.
 Properties Hydrogen Hythane CNG
Flame speed 237 cm/s 120 cm/s 42 cm/s
Diffusion coefficient 0.61 cm2/s 0.25 cm2/s 0.16 cm2/s
Higher Cal Value 142 MJ/kg 92 MJ/kg 55 MJ/kg
Stoichiometric A/F 34.3:1 22.8:1 17.2:1
Flammability limits 4-75 (% 5–35 (% vol) 5.3 – 15 (%
vol) vol)
Minimum Ignition 0.02 mJ 0.21 mJ 0.28 mJ
Energy
Auto-ignition Temp. 858 K 825 K 813 K
• Increased hydrogen % in CNG decreases brake thermal
efficiency
• The excellent knock resistance characteristics of natural gas is
reduced by hydrogen
• BSFC values decreases with increasing hydrogen
• NOx emissions increases with hydrogen content
• HC, CO2 and CO emissions values decreases with increased
hydrogen percentage
❑ Hythane can be distributed on the Natural Gas
Grid if hydrogen content is less than 15 %
❑ Low pressure distribution grid is preferable for
Hythane
❑ NATURALHY is a European Union project to
study and recommend ways of Hythane
distribution
Methane
Source
Hythane
Blender* Compressor Cascade
Hydrogen
Source*

Hythane
Controller*
Dispenser

* Denotes additions to a standard CNG system

❑ Hythane IC Engines have been developed
at the Swedish Gas Centre in Malmo,
Sweden
❑ Swedish companies like Volvo and Scania
have developed buses running on
Hythane.
❑ GM has developed a “HY5” pick up truck
on Hythane in USA.
❑ Daimler Chrysler & MAN have developed
Hythane buses under CUTE project in
Germany.
 IOC-R&D
 Development of Infrastructure for H2
production and mixing with CNG
OEMs
 Performance optimization of
vehicles & Emission Testing
(SIAM)
DTC
 Providing technical
support when  Providing Space for
reforming, mixing &
going beyond
dispensing facilities
Responsibilities
10% H2 blending
 Field trials of HCNG
 Leverage in modifying buses
CNG kits for use of
HCNG.

GAIL / IGL
 Associate for setting up
reforming, mixing &
dispensing facilities
• Hydrogen was added to CNG in proportions of 5%, 10%, 15% by
volume

• Timed manifold injection was found to be appropriate to introduce

the fuel in the engine

• Hythane was fed to the engine manifold at 200 kPa.

• Safety features were installed in the system to avoid any

undesirable combustion

• Equivalence ratio, brake thermal efficiency, brake power, brake

mean effective pressures, exhaust emissions were studied
 Brake Pow er Vs Equivalence Ratio

10

0
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Eq ui val ence R at i o

Gasoline CNG CNG+10%H2 CNG+15%H2

 12

BMEP (Bar) 8 ❑ BMEP with Hythane

operation found to
4 be significantly
higher (10-15%)
0 than that of CNG.

0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 ❑ Cyclic peak

Equivalence Ratio pressures are higher
in case of Hythane
Gasoline CNG CNG+10%H2 CNG+15%H2
Brake Mean effective Pressure Vs Equivalence
Ratio
 38
❑With Hythane about
5 – 10 %
34 improvement in BTE
was observed as
BTE ( %)

30
compared to CNG.
❑Hydrogen requires
26
low ignition energy
0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
hence initiates
Equivalence Ratio
combustion at
appropriate time and
Gasoline CNG CNG+10%H2 CNG+15%H2
ensures efficient
combustion leading
Brake Thermal Efficiency Vs Equivalence Ratio
to gain in BTE
 0.035

0.03 3500 rpm

CO Emission ( % by volume )
3000 rpm
0.025 2500 rpm

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Equiv. Ratio
Fig 11. CO Emission vs Equiv. Ratio
( for 15% of hydrogen supply )

CO emissions reduced by 20-30% with Hythane operation as compared to CNG

 50
3500 rpm
45 3000 rpm
2500 rpm
40
2000 rpm

HC Emission ( ppm )
35

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Equiv. Ratio
Fig 12. HC Em ission vs Equiv Ratio

HC emissions reduced by about 25 – 35% with Hythane operation as compared to CNG

❑ Hydrogen the ultimate fuel for fuel ❑ Hythane for smooth introduction and
cell vehicles
❑ Hydrogen for ultra low emissions
❑ Cost for fuel cell vehicle high
❑ Production cost for hydrogen ?
❑ Storage more complicated than NG
market development
❑ Hythane for sites where NGV´s are
introduced already
❑ Hythane yields major CO2-reductions
compared to liquid fuels
❑ Hythane conversion very cost efficient
• Hythane can advantageously exploit the growing infrastructure of CNG
and help introduce hydrogen through a stepwise mechanism.

• Hythane operation improved brake thermal efficiency and power

output by about 5 to 10% for all operating ranges.

• Drastic reduction in HC & CO emissions near high equivalence ratios

with Hythane operation between 0.12% to 0.40%

• Indian standards for Hythane need to be developed conforming to

global regulations
Producer gas: The gas is produced by blowing air and sometimes steam through an
incandescent fuel bed (the process is self heating). The reaction with air is exothermic but
insufficient air is added hence CO is produced. Steam addition results in the formation of
hydrogen by the water gas reaction. This is endothermic and hence balances out the
exothermic air reaction.
Producer gas is low CV and is hence is only usually used on site
Blue Gas or Water Gas: This is produced in a similar manner to above but allows the
production of a higher CV fuel by intermittently blasting the incandescent bed with air and
steam such that the overall heat balance is maintained. The products of the air blast
contain the nitrogen which reduces CV. These are discharged to atmosphere. The products
of the steam blast are kept since they have a higher CV. CV is virtually doubled in this way.
Often used as a synthesis gas in the chemical industry.
Oil Gas: This is the gas formed by the thermal cracking of crude oil. If oil is sprayed onto
heated checker work (refractory) it cracks to form lower gaseous hydrocarbons. These
depend entirely on the feed stock but calorific values can increase to as much as
25MJ/m3 but can be as low as half of this.
Carburetted Water Gas - Water gas has still to low a CV for most purposes and this
makes it unattractive to distribute. Carburetted water gas is the result of combining
the water gas and oil gas methods. Oil is sprayed into the hot water gas chamber to
result in a good quality gas. The ratio of the two determines the quality. This was the
method used to produce the "Town gas" of old and has largely been superseded by
natural gas in countries with an abundant supply. AS supplies of natural gas diminish,
however, it will become more important again.

Coal and Coke Oven Gas - As mentioned previously, gases are liberated in the high
temperature carbonisation (coking) of coal. These are cleaned, de tarred and
scrubbed and used as fuel. If coke is not required (coal gas), steam injection at the
end of the cycle reacts with the coke to form blue water gas. This reduces the CV of
the gas produced but the thermal efficiency of conversion rises.
• Producer gas is a mixture of combustible gases, CO(30%) and H2(15%)
with large amount of non combustible gases N2(56%) and CO2(3%).
Its calorific value is 1300kcal/m3

• It is prepared by passing air mixed with a little steam over a red hot
coke maintained at about l100°C in a special reactor called gas
producer. It consists of a steel vessel of (3 m in diameter, 4f m in
height) inside lined with refractory bricks. It is provided with cup and
cone feeder at the top and a side opening for produced gas exit. At
the bottom, it has inlets for passing air and steam.

222
 Producer gas outlet

Distillation zone
Reduction zone Refractory brick lining

Combusting zone
Coke at 1000oC

Air mixed with a little steam

Exit for Ash

223
The reactions of producer gas production can be divided into four zones as
follows.
(i) Ash Zone
This is the lowest zone consists mainly of ash. The incoming air and steam
mixture is preheated in this zone.
(ii) Combustion or Oxidation Zone
This is the zone next to ash zone. Here the coke is oxidised to CO and CO2.
Both the reactions are exothermic. Hence, the temperature of the bed
reaches around 1,100°C.
• C +O2 CO exothermic H + 95 k cal

• C + 1/2O2 CO2 exothermic H + 29 k cal

224
(iii) Reduction Zone
This is the middle zone. Here both CO2 and steam combine with red hot coke and
liberate H2 and CO. The reduction reactions are endothermic and the temperature in
the zone is about 1000°C. If no steam is supplied, the temperature of the producer
raise and this may fuse the ash and refractory lining.
• C + CO2 2CO endothermic – 36 k cal
• C + H2O CO + H2 endothermic – 29 k cal
iv) Distillation or Drying Zone
In this zone (400 - 800°C) the down coming coal is heated by the outgoing gases.
The heat given by the gases and the heat coming out from the reduction zone will
distill the fuel.
Uses
• It is used as a reducing agent in metallurgical operations.
• It is also used for heating muffle furnaces, open-hearth furnaces etc.
225
• It is a mixture of combustible gases, CO(41%) and H2 (51%) with small
amount of noncombustible gases, CO2(4%) and N2(4%). Its calorific
value is about 2800

Manufacture
• The water gas producer consists of a tall steel vessel, lined inside with
refractory bricks. It is provided with cup and cone feeder at the top
and a side opening for water gas exit. At the bottom it is provided
with two inlet pipes for passing air and steam
• When steam and little air is passed alternatively over a red hot coke
maintained at about 900 - l000°C in a reactor, water gas is produced.

226
 Water gas outlet

Steam supply Air supply

Refractory brick lining Ash outlet

• The reactions of water gas production involves the following two steps.
Step 1
• In the first step, steam is passed through the red hot coke, where CO & H2 gases are produced. The
reaction is endothermic. Hence, the temperature of the coke bed falls.
C + H2O CO + H2 endothermic – 29 k cal
Step 2
• In the second step, in order to raise the temperature of the coke bed to 1000 C , the steam
supply is temporarily cut off and air is blown in. The reaction is exothermic.
C +O2 CO2 exothermic H + 95 k cal
2C + O2 2CO exothermic H + 59 k cal
• Thus the steam – run and air blow are repeated alternatively to maintain proper temp.
Uses:
• It is used for the production of H2 and in the synthesis of ammonia. It is also used as a source of and
illuminating gas and fuel gas.

228
❑ Gaseous fuels play a vital part in modern energy demand.
❑ Gas fuelled plant sets the standard of efficiency.
❑ Of all fuels, gases are the easiest to burn and to clean.
❑ Natural gas dominates all markets at present because of its
abundance and quality.
❑ Gasification will begin to play an important role again in the future
as gas reserves dwindle.
❑ Coal gasification technology is being developed on biomass plants
with an aim to make a renewable gas source.
❑ India believes in diversity of fuels like CNG, LNG, LPG, Hydrogen,
HCNG, etc.
❑ The ultimate goal of a Hydrogen Economy is to displace fossil fuels
with clean burning Hydrogen.