Introduction 9

smallest unit is the feature (see chapter 14). These are aspects of pronunciation
such as [± voice], which describes whether the vocal cords are vibrating or not, and
[± nasal], which describes whether air escapes through the nose or not. The individual
consonant and vowel sounds (phones) can be considered to be composed of
combinations of these features. Functional consonant and vowel units are called
phonemes (see chapter 12). Syllables (see chapter 11) are composed of one or more
consonant and vowel phonemes. In the rhythm of English speech (or at least one
account of it: see chapter 22), the foot unit is composed of one or more syllables. In the
intonation of English (see chapters 20 and 21), pitch contours are said to extend over a
stretch of speech known as the tone group, which may be considered to be composed of
one or more feet. Finally, tone groups may compose what may be likened to a
paragraph in written language, sometimes known as a tonal paragraph or paratone. The
paratone is generally considered to be the largest unit in the analysis of pronunciation
phenomena.

Summary
• (Articulatory) phonetics is the study of how speech sounds are produced.
• Phonology is the study of how sounds function in particular languages.
• Pronunciation teaching uses this fundamental knowledge to teach the production
of the sounds of another language in an informed way.
• Pronunciation is composed of many features, all of which are present at the
same time.
• Suprasegmentals should be not be overlooked in favor of segmentals.
• There is a hierarchical structure to the functional units of pronunciation.

Exercise
Decide whether the following statements relate primarily to phonetics or phonology. In
answering this, you might want to ask yourself:

• Are we talking about a particular language?

• Are we talking about how sounds combine?
• Are we talking about how sounds and words are produced?
1. Your vocal cords vibrate when you say the [m] sound.
2. In English, the [v] sound is always spelt with the letter v.
3. At the beginning of English words, the [s] sound can be followed by [p, t, k]
sounds, but not [b, d, ].
4. You make an [f] sound by putting your lower lip against your upper teeth.
5. At the ends of English words, an [m] sound cannot be followed by a [k] sound.
6. Your lips are spread when you say the vowel in seek.
7. The vowel in seek is a long vowel.
8. During an [n] sound, air escapes through your nose.
9. English has two different vowels in seek and sick, while Italian has only one
vowel of this type.