Essential Soil Physics

Hartge/Horn edited by
Robert Horton
Essential Rainer Horn

Jörg Bachmann
Essential Soil Physics
Stephan Peth
Soil Physics
An introduction to soil
processes, functions,
structure and mechanics
E Schweizerbart Science Publishers

Karl-Heinrich Hartge and Rainer Horn
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An introduction to soil processes, functions, structure and mechanics
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1st edition, based on the 4th, completely revised and extended German edition
With 186 figures and 24 tables
edited by
Robert Horton
Rainer Horn
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Jörg Bachmann
Stephan Peth
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Schweizerbart Science Publishers·2016
eschweizerbart_XXX
Hartge/Horn: Essential Soil Physics
An introduction to soil processes, functions, structure and mechanics
1st edition, based on the 4th, completely revised and extended German edition.
Author’s addresses:
Robert Horton, Dept. of Agronomy, Iowa State University, 2104 Agronomy Hall, Ames, IA 50011-1010, USA;
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rhorton@iastate.edu
Rainer Horn, University of Kiel, Inst. of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel,
Olshausenstrasse 40, 24118 Kiel, Germany
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Jörg Bachmann, Leibniz University, Dept. of Soil Sciences, Herrenhäuser Str. 2, 30419 Hannover, Germany
Stephan Peth, University of Kassel, Dept. of Soil Science, Nordbahnhofstr. 1a, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany.
We are interested to receive your comments, criticism (praise too) on this title. Please contact:
editors@schweizerbart.de
Front cover: Rape (Brassica napus) field on a Calcic Gleysol (productive calcareous groundwater intertidal soil, at
Finkhaushalligkoog Northern Friesia, Germany; image courtesy of Dr. M. Filipinski).
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Back cover, top to bottom: Pore distribution (Ch. 2.4) in a loose and well structured soil (image: Prof. Dr. M. Pagliai,
Florenz); Hood Infiltrometer to determine soil hydraulic functions (Ch. 6, image: Dr. D. Uteau, Univ. of Kassel);
Uniaxial compression device (Ch. 3.3) to quantify soil mechanical stability (image: Soil Sci. Dept., CAU Kiel);
experimental setup for simultaneously measuring gas fluxes and redox potential in the root zone of plants (Ch. 7,
image: Dr. D. Uteau, Univ. of Kassel).
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1st English language edition 2016 (Horton/Horn/Bachmann/Peth)

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This text is also available in:

German: ISBN 978-3-510-65280-8 (2014)
Spanish: ISBN 978-3-510-65289-1 (2017/18)
Original title: Hartge/Horn: Einführung in die Bodenphysik

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ISBN 978-3-510-65288-4 (hardcover)

ISBN 978-3-510-65339-3 (softcover)
Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652884
© 2016 E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart, Germany
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart
Publisher: E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller)
Johannesstraße 3A, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany
mail@schweizerbart.de, www.schweizerbart.com
Printed on permanent paper conforming to ISO 9706-1994

Printed in Germany by Gulde-Druck GmbH & Co. KG
eschweizerbart_XXX
Contents
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Preface 9
Introduction 10
Soils: integral part of our environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Soil characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
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1.1
Grain size distribution: texture
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Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Grain sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Grain shapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Grain mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Common soil textures and their origin . . . . .
1.2.1 Equation of sedimentation . . . . . . . . . . .
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1.2.2 Separation processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3 Spatial distribution of textures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.4 Modification of grain size distributions in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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1.5 Grain size distribution and other soil properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.6 Methods to measure grain size distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Problems Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
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2 Soil structure and structural functions 32

2.1 Soil structure and internal morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2 Bulk density, particle density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3 Pore volume and void ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.1 Theoretical quantities to describe pore volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
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2.3.1.1 Influence of grain size and shape on pore volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.3.1.2 Effect of particle size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.3.2 Number of grain contacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.2.1 Relationship of contact number and pore volume fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.2.2 Natural grain size distributions and aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.3 Influence of grain contact points on soil pedogenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Pore size distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.1 Subdividing pore sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.4.2 Shapes, sizes of pores, and modes of pore formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4.3 Effects of pore size distribution on soil quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3 Mechanical and hydraulic forces in soils 48

3.1 Stability and the spatial arrangement of grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
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3.1.1 Forces and stresses in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.1.2 Subdivision of the forces and stresses within soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.2.1 Particle weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.2.2 Loads transmitted by solid phases of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.2.3 Weight (overburden) stresses transmitted within the solid phase . . . . . . . . 53
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3.1.2.4 Forces between the surfaces of adjacent particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.1.3 Stresses in three-dimensional space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2 Soil strength: the balance of forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
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3.2.1 Shear resistance, a soil property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.1.1 Shear resistance of soils and their determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Stress strain relationship and time-dependent settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.1 Stress strain relationship in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3.2 Time dependent settlement behavior of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.3 The meaning of neutral stresses during loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
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3.5
3.6
3.7
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Stress-, strain-, and deformation processes in three-dimensional space
3.4.1 Stress and strain in three-dimensional space . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2 Stress propagation within soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3 Base failure as the result of the active and passive Rankine state . . .
Flow behavior of soils: stresses between individual soil particles . . .
Influence of soil properties on shear resistance . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical changes of soil structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.7.1 Effects of anthropogenic activities on soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.7.2 Effects of animal activity and plant growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.7.3 Freezing effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
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3.7.4 Soil compaction in civil engineering and construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4 Interactions between water and soil 84

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4.1 Adsorption of water in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.1.1 Adsorption mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.1.2 Properties of water adsorbed on soil components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.2 Flocculation and peptization of soil particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3 Shrinkage of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
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4.3.1 Causes of soil shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

4.3.2 Shrinkage in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.4 Swelling of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4.1 Mechanisms of swelling: swelling pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.4.2 Inhibition of swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.5 Cracking up: crack formation in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.6 Water as a factor of soil stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.6.1 Static water pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.6.2 Flow pressure in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.7 Wetting properties of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.7.1 Causes and occurrence of inhibited wetting of soil particle surfaces . . . . . . 105
4.7.2 Contact angles and capillarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.7.3 Documenting wetting properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.7.4 Impact of wetting properties on the environmental and habitat functions of soils 111
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4.8 Electrical flow potentials in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.9 Aggregate shapes and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.9.1 Natural aggregate-forming processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.9.2 Anthropogenic modification of soil aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.10 Effects of aggregate size, -shape and -age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
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5 Distribution and hydrostatics of soil water 121
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5.1 Distribution and origin of water in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2 Forces in soil water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.3 The groundwater surface as reference plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.4 Soil water potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.4.1 Total water potential and component water potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.4.1.1Matric potential Ψm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4.1.2
5.4.1.3
5.4.1.4
5.4.1.5
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.5
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Gravitational potential Ψz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Osmotic potential Ψo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Overburden or load potential ΨΩ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Pressure potential ΨP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Combining component potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Instruments for measuring soil water potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Equilibrium water potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
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5.6 Relationship between matric potential and water content . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.6.1 Effect of grain size distribution on the matric potential /water content relationship135
5.6.2 Influence of structure on the shape of the matric potential / water content rela-
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tionship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.6.3 Hysteresis of the matric potential /water content curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.6.4 Measuring matric potential / water content curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.6.5 Mathematical description of the matric potential–water content relationship . . 139
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6 Movement of water within the soil 141

6.1 Water movement in water saturated soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
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6.1.1 Fluid-dynamic phenomena in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

6.1.2 Flow Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.1.3 Boundary conditions and spatial limits of flow fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.1.4 One-dimensional flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.1.5 Two- and three-dimensional flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.2 Water movement in unsaturated soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3 Transient flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.3.1 Hydraulic diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.4 Hydraulic conductivity as a soil property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.5 Vapor transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.6 Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.7 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.8 Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
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7 The gas-phase of soils 191
7.1 The energetic state of the gas phase of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2 Composition of the gas phase in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.3 Transport processes in the gas phase of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.3.1 Gas diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
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7.3.2 Mass fluxes in the gas phase of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.3.3 Redistribution of gas within the soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
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8 Thermal behaviour of soils 202
8.1 Thermal properties of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.1.2 Heat capacity of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.1.3 Thermal conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
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8.4
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8.1.4 Thermal diffusivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.5 Mechanisms of heat transport in soils . . . .
Modeling thermal conductivity . . . . . . . .
Techniques for measuring thermal properties
Phase transitions of H2 O and their effects . .
8.4.1 Redistribution of water vapor by thermal flux
8.4.2 Freezing and the formation of ice . . . . . .
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8.4.3 Freezing and water movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
8.4.4 Formation of structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
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9 Combined water-, heat-, and gas budget of soils 219

9.1 The atmosphere–soil interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.1.1 Radiation components and radiation budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
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9.1.2 Energy budget at the soil surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

9.2 Dynamics and temporal variations of the soil water budget . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9.2.1 Ground- and floodwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.2.2 Path of matric potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.2.3 Parameters characterizing water budgets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
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9.2.3.1 Field capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

9.2.3.2 Permanent wilting point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.3 Heat budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.3.1 Temperature distributions in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
9.3.2 Heat sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.3.3 Soil temperature variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.3.4 Cumulative effects on the heat budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.4 Gas budget of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
9.4.1 How water content affects gas distribution within the soil profile . . . . . . . . 246
9.4.2 Seasonal variations of soil air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10 Plant habitats and their physical modification 253

10.1 Plant requirements in terms of water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
eschweizerbart_XXX
10.2 Interaction of mechanical and hydraulic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.2.1 Mechanical and hydraulic soil deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.2.2 Pore function changes resulting from mechanical and hydraulic stresses . . . . 259
10.2.3 Interactions between hydraulic pore function and mechanical parameters . . . 262
10.2.4 Effects of soil management on physical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
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10.3 Modification of the hydraulic stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
10.3.1 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
10.3.2 Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
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10.3.3 Percolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.4 Modification of the mechanical stress state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.4.1 Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.4.2 Loosening soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
10.4.3 Material rearrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Problems Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
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11.1
11.2
Soil erosion
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Soil erosion: general principles . . . .
11.1.1 Delamination of particles or aggregates
Approaches to preventing erosion . . .
11.2.1 Erodibility of soils . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2 Erosivity of wind and water . . . . . .
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278
278
279
283
284
285
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11.3 Erosion models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
11.3.1 Soil erosion by water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
11.3.2 Soil erosion by wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
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12 Solute transport and filter processes in soils 291

12.1 Solute transport: basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
m
12.1.1 Breakthrough curves in porous media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

12.1.2 Molecular diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
12.1.3 Convective flux and hydrodynamic dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
12.1.4 Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
12.1.5 Convection-dispersion model of solute transport in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Sa
12.1.6 Additional factors influencing solute transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

12.1.7 Models describing solute transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.2 Filtering processes in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.2.1 Filter types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
12.2.2 Soils acting as filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
12.2.3 Filter efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
12.2.4 Optimizing filtering processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
13 Future perspectives of soil physics 309
Solutions to the problems for chapters 1–12 317

Solutions to problems in chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
eschweizerbart_XXX
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14 References 345
15 Commonly used units and conversion factors 372
16 Meaning of abbreviations
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Basic conversions: density and pore volume . .
Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Derivation of the heat-budget equation . . . . .
Energy Budget at the soil surface . . . . . . .
Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conversion of data measured in different units
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372
373
374
375
376
377
378
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Index 379
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eschweizerbart_XXX
Preface
s
This textbook is geared towards readers, who have a general knowledge of soil science and
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are interested in understanding the underlying physical processes which control soil functions
to, ultimately, improve soil management and use.
Soil physics – as presented here – is appealing to a wide cross-disciplinary scientific and
technical readership by extending basic soil physical knowledge with concepts from soil me-
chanics and hydrology.
Although the way and depth of presenting relationships and processes varies, the authors
pa
emphasize the discussion of processes deliberately avoiding extensive derivations of mathe-
matical terms where it was considered dispensable.
Special importance is assigned to processes in partially water saturated soils, that is, pro-
cesses in the solid-water-air system including the intimate interactions between hydraulic
and mechanical stresses which control a soil’s stability, deformability, transport processes,
water holding capacity and ultimately its suitability for crops. This is because it is felt, that
they are lacking adequate coverage in most soil physics textbooks.
Understanding the complex hydraulic, thermal, mechanical and physical-chemical processes
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in soils and how they influence each other and interact with pore size distribution and soil
structure is, in our humble opinion, of crucial importance. An appropriate consideration of
those interrelationships on the level of first principles not only results in a more comprehen-
pl
sive description of the relevant processes controlling soil functioning, but is a prerequisite to
apply soil parameters to unknown soils and environmental conditions.
Of practical importance in this context are remediation and recultivation measures, or (ex-
pected) effects of climate change on soil functions, whenever recommendations are made
m
and scenario models are employed.

This first English edition (based on the fourth German language edition) is to aid understand-
ing these complex soil physical processes and allow taking them into account when modelling
coupled soil functional relationships.
Sa
By subdividing soil processes more clearly, the authors have attempted to work out individual
processes and the peculiarities and relevant relationships more clearly, thereby simplifying
physical processes for the reader.
To this end, all chapters were newly subdivided and revised, and a new chapter (13: Future
perspectives of soil physics) was added. At the same time, the team of authors was extended
by adding the expertise of J. Bachmann (Hannover) and S. Peth (Kassel) and the lead author
of this English language edition, Robert Horton (Iowa State University).
Mrs. P. L ÜTTICH, Mrs. B. VOGT, (Kiel) and Mr. VOLKMANN, (Hannover), are thanked for
their invaluable help. Mrs. Dr. H OLTHUSEN and Mrs. Dr. BAUMGARTEN helped with the
chapters on rheology and (Mrs. Dr. H OLTHUSEN) proofread the text critically.
We are also grateful to Dr. W. O BERMILLER, Dr. A. NÄGELE, and Dipl.-Ing. J. O BERMILLER,
Schweizerbart Science Publishers for catering to all of our whims and wishes and for the un-
problematic and professional handling of the manuscript.
Ames/Kiel/Hannover/Kassel summer 2016 R. Horton, R. Horn, J. Bachmann, S. Peth
eschweizerbart_XXX
Introduction
s
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Soils: integral part of our environment
Our environment, the space we inhabit, is characterized by the presence of air, the atmo-
sphere, liquid – water, and the soil we virtually stand on. Soil is often in a porous, structured
state, consisting of all three phases; solids, liquids, and gases.
pa
This state of components highlights the fundamental importance of soils as the substrate of
our lives, virtually the basis of all we do. Correspondingly, it is important to explore and study
the properties of this substrate in order to identify relationships between individual properties
and soil behaviour that hold under different environmental conditions.
Of greatest interest, in terms of habitat, is often times the part of the solid phase at the Earth’s
surface, which is in more or less intimate contact with water and air. This definition of habitat
limits the definition given in the first paragraph: a soil is that part of the substrate relevant
e
to life in its widest sense. The term soil may hence also encompass parts, which do not
themselves sustain life. Generally speaking, soils are always regions in which all three phase
states: solid, liquid and gas are in intimate contact and interact with each other.
pl
m
air
soil
Sa
water
Figure 0.1: Soils are the parts of the
bedrock solid substrate at the Earth’s surface
and are relevant life processes in its
widest sense.
This definition of soil does not match the classical pedological definition (pedology is the
science of soils), but we will base the chapters of this book on it, because it is more en-
compassing and more general. The broader defintion allows the inclusion of all materials,
exposed to various influences, which in final consequence result in pedological differentia-
tion of soils.
This extended definition allows for the consideration of mechanisms and processes, whose
effect on the uppermost, biologically active part of a soil is of prime interest, but which
can only be understood, if considered as an interconnected whole. This also includes parts,
eschweizerbart_XXX
11
which are not part of the biologically active region or the space that is influenced by biological
activity. Fig. 0.1 depicts these relationships schematically.
In accordance with our definition of soils above, the purpose of this book is not the character-
ization of a particular soil as a complex that can be contrasted more or less clearly from other
complexes, but describing and understanding the physico-chemical properties of soils and the
s
processes and interactions that take place in them. These processes play a role in all soils as
per our definition. The key governing processes are the same in soils at different places, but
their contributions, directions and efficiencies may vary strongly, leading to vastly variable
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net effects. In due course, controlled by a soil forming factor, age, a wide range of soil types
and soil states may be produced.
If such a soil state is understood as the sum of its individual properties, it is equivalent to what
others term as soil type. The name of a soil type is therefore a shorthand notation for a certain
combination of properties and states. In this context, questions about the usability of soils
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are to be considered, just as the interactions between the pore spaces as well as the involve-
ment of soil processes with respect to the stability of the three phase system solid-liquid-gas.
Independent of climatic, geological and morphological parameters, soils are consequently
dynamic reactors in which physical, chemical, and biological processes take place in differ-
ent intensities, which in terms of quantification of their properties are governed by prevailing
soil states as their boundary conditions.
• as habitat for plant growth and -yield
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• as filter- and buffer for clean groundwater
• as a reservoir for nutrients and pollutants
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• as source of raw materials (e.g., sand or gravel)

From the huge number of soil parameters, soil properties and processes characterizing a soil,
we will select and describe a few fundamental ones in detail.
m
Soil characteristics
The material defined as solid phase of the Earth’s surface is usually not a homogeneous con-
Sa
tinuum, but consists of particles. This is one of the most generally valid properties of both
the soil’s inorganic compounds (e.g., rock fragments and minerals) and its organic parti-
cles, which consist predominantly of more or less of partially decomposed plant residues and
micro-organisms. The fact that a soil’s granularity can be virtually grasped by one’s hand is
not the only reason for describing it here in the first place.
Of utmost importance is furthermore, that the granularity or texture of soils creates the space
to accomodate and house liquid and gaseous phases. The grain types and their relative size
distribution influence the particle arrangement which in turn controls the size and shape of
the interstices between the grains. The latter controls the movement and behaviour of water,
gas and components dissolved in and hence transported by these phases. Ultimately, the grain
size distribution is the single most decisive soil property, which characterizes a soil to a large
extent. This is particularly true for the mineral components, while organic components are
not considered when the grain size distribution of a soil is determined experimentally.
eschweizerbart_XXX
12
The pore volume between the grains containing liquid or gas, depends on both the grain
size distribution and environmental conditions. This is because the grainy material can be
compressed to variable degrees or loosened up. Depending on its composition, it can be
resistant to compaction or loosening. Furthermore, its grain size distribution may be altered
by sorting processes induced by washing out or inclusion of finer material into coarser grained
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matrices.
Bulk density, pore volume fraction and the mechanical stability of pores are therefore impor-
tant soil parameters.
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The cumulative result of time-integrated loading and unloading of soil affects the behaviour
and the movement of water and the dissolved substances it transports within the pore space.
Water and gas budget themselves are a function of grain size distribution, particle arrange-
ment, and by other environmental parameters. The supply and composition of the water in a
soil may vary with time, and so indirectly influence the amount and the composition of the
pa
soil gas phase. Mobile water is the most efficient transporting agent within a soil. Addition
of oxygen via the gas phase is the most efficient control on redox potential, and in turn on
chemical and biological processes, with obvious and distinct effects on soil genesis.
Hydrostatic and hydrodynamic processes and their complex parameters are therefore im-
portant and characteristic properties and processes that impact the water and soil gas budgets.
Water and gas budget parameters define a soils usefulness as a plant habitat and for many
other uses that involve, e.g., walking or driving on soils (tillage), water holding capacity
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(flood plain), or the ability of a soil to attenuate external forces.
A soils function as a filter for water is related to this. The ambivalence of the filtering process
as a concurrent contamination of the soil (filter) and the question of the whereabouts of matter
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in or on the filter are questions that gain practical importance in the context of managing
dumps and other waste disposal sites.
Mechanical stability of soils controls – depending on prevailing hydraulic, chemical and bi-
ological boundary conditions – many reactions taking place within, which are themselves
m
governed by the time-integrated history of a soil.

Any change in these boundary conditions causes new dynamic equlibria to be established. In
this context, we need to understand changes to the three-phase soil system and its reverbera-
tions on soil composition, water-, gas- and nutrient budgets – for example by climatic change
Sa
– as new challenges.
This section has made it obvious, that in soils we are dealing with very different properties and
processes, that are not independent of each other, but interrelated. Therefore, the complexity
of the whole can only be grasped and understood by studying its parts, but the parts, by the
same token, can only be grasped and understood by considering their effect(s) on the whole
(soil).
eschweizerbart_XXX
1 Grain size distribution: texture
22
1.2.1 Equation of sedimentation
The sorting processes forming sediments from sand, silt or clay are closely connected to the
movement of water and wind. Mixtures of grains transported under the influence of other
forces, e.g., gravity (soil creep, mudslide) or the advance of glaciers are much more poorly
sorted. The same applies to grain size distributions that are left behind where they were
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formed (residual soils).
The actual sorting occurs, because grains, depending on their size and density are pushed,
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rolled or blown at varying velocities by liquids and gases. Finer particles may remain sus-
pended in these fluids for different lengths of time. Every grain, as it sinks in liquid, reaches a
terminal velocity v, depending on the drag on the grain perimeter U by the liquid viscosity η
and the force of the sinking particle. If the mass of a particle is expressed as the product of its
volume and density V·ρsolid , one obtains for ideal sphere of corresponding equivalent radius
r and volume V= 43 πr3 and a perimeter of U = 2π · r. Equation 1-3, was first formulated by
V · g · (ρsolid − ρW ) = 3 U·v·η
tion for the settling velocity v
v=

2 r 2 · g· ρsolid − ρW

pa
S TOKES (1845) and subsequently named after him:
Substituting the expressions for V and U into eq. 1-3 yields the so-called sedimentation equa-
(1-4)
(1-3)
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9η
(ρsolid − ρw ) is the density difference between sinking grain and surrounding medium. The
settling velocity v therefore depends strongly on grain radius (r2 ). Furthermore, the viscosity
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η of the medium is temperature-dependent with its value increasing as temperature decreases.

This dependency results in a a wide range of settling velocities. Table 1.3 lists typical settling
velocities and settling times in water at 20◦ C.
m
Table 1.3: Settling velocities and sedimentation times for grains of different diameters 2r through 10 [cm]
of water at 20◦ C.
grain size (2r) settling velocity v time to settle to depth

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[mm] [μm] [cm/s] 10 [cm]

6· 10−2 60 0.3456 28 s
2 · 10−2 20 0.36 4 min 38 s
2 · 10−3 2 0.00036 7 h 43 min
Eq. 1-4 assumes ideal spherical particles. When settling rates of measured particles are con-
sidered to have the same settling velocity as spherical particles of hydraulically equivalent
diameters.
1.2.2 Separation processes

Whenever water or air flows over a layer of grains or a soil, its flow is slowed down at the
interface. If the flowing medium also occupies the interstitial space (pore space between the
eschweizerbart_XXX
1.2 Common soil textures and their origin
23
grains) and the aggregates of the soil, the slowdown will be even more pronounced. The
kinetic energy of the flowing medium is partially transferred onto the grains or aggregates of
the soil, i.e., the soil particles are propelled by the air- or water flow.
If the medium flows at relatively large velocity, as may be the case at a soil surface, the forces
keeping soil particles in place and fixed at the surface may be smaller than the drag forces
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causing displacement (flow forces, shear stress).
The processes causing soil particles to be accelerated vary, depending on whether flow is a
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single-sided incident flow or flow around the particle.
In incident flow, the viscosity of the flowing medium is critical. It envelops the particle and
the static boundary layer surrounding it, when the drag resistance at its bottom is smaller than
the drag which the flowing medium exerts on the particle. To approximate this, consider the
force exerted by incident flow on a plate, formulated as a drag force by Newton’s equation:
η ·v
τ=
y
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η is the viscosity, v is flow velocity , and y is the distance normal to the plate surface.
If the medium flows around the plate, displacement results as soon as the flow force Kfl
(1-5)
exceeds the drag resistance at the base of the plate. For the region controlled by viscosity,
this may be described by Stokes equation (eq. 1-3):
Kfl = 3 · U · v · η (1-6)
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For fast flow, we can use the following formula by Newton:
v2
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Kfl = C · F · · ρfl · g (1-7)
2·η
The symbols are the same as in eq. 1-4, namely F and U are area and sphere perimeter, v
is the velocity, η viscosity, ρfl mean density of the flow, g Earth’s gravitational acceleration
m
force, C is a proportionality factor resistance coefficient. The flow force Kfl acts against the
drag resistance and is described in detail in chapter 3.
The flow force favors horizontal displacement of fine material, because grain weight – which
fosters inertia – increases more strongly with increasing grain diameter than other parameters
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such as surface area, girth and cross-sectional area, making smaller grains more liable to be
transported.
As flow velocities increase to the point that the drag on the surface creates eddies, particles
will be lifted into the flowing medium. How long they are transported depends on their (grain-
size dependent) settling velocity and the strength of the upward component of the flow. If the
latter is insufficient to keep the grains suspended, they will fall back and move by making
shorter or longer jumps (saltation); whenever they fall back to the bottom they impact and
propel other grains, themselves under stress so that just a small additional force suffices to
trigger their displacement.
Another upwardly directed force originates at the interface of the grainy layer and the flowing
medium, because the flow velocity in the pores between particles is much lower than in
the free flow. The velocity difference gives rise to a difference in pressures because of the
preservation of energy (Bernoulli-theorem) which lifts individual grains in the direction of the
maximum pressure gradient, normal to the flow direction (M ORGAN, 1999; T ORRI, 2000).
eschweizerbart_XXX
3 Mechanical and hydraulic forces in soils
s
Chapters 1 and 2 treated grain size distribution as a key soil property and highlighted the
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evolution and function of soil structure. This chapter will discuss the mechanical stability
of soil systems, based on principles and methods developed in the Earth sciences, laying
out effective stresses, stress differences, including their effects on the movement of soil or
soil particles. The chapter applies the principles developed in soil mechanics to structured
soils. This approach allows the assessment of stress, deformation and ultimately the changes
(damage) caused to soils by agriculture or forest management .
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3.1 Stability and the spatial arrangement of grains
Complex structures developing during pedogenetic processes from primary textures, are – as
all other spatial grain configurations – subject to the influence of environmental processes:
that is, their properties as a substrate change. They no longer can be characterized by their
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original properties. Soils are further affected in the course of agricultural or forestry ac-
tivities, construction, and other impacts that deprive them of their plant cover and directly
expose them to wind and rain. Such events cause varying degrees of alteration in different
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soil types, reflected by structural modifications. In most cases, these coincide with consider-
able changes in the water-, gas- and heat budgets and may affect physical-chemical processes
(redox-reactions) and nutrient availability. For this reason, the stability of soil structures is of
utmost interest.
m
3.1.1 Forces and stresses in soils

Both individual particles of a soil, and aggregates are subject to the effects of different forces,
Sa
which act in changing directions, in different locations and magnitudes. Before discussing
these in greater detail, two key terms of soil mechanics require definition: pressure and stress.
Forces, acting per unit area from the outside on the particles
and aggregates of a soil are
physically defined as pressure dimension: [kPa], [MPa] . It induces internal forces in the
interior of soil volumes, which are defined as stresses. This relationship is shown in the fol-
lowing example. If one imagines a body split into two parts, with part of the forces removed,
including those acting from the outside (fig. 3.1), inner forces across the cutting surface must
be active in order to preserve equilibrium of forces (sectioning method of H OLZMANN et al.,
1976). It is these internal forces that we call stresses.
eschweizerbart_XXX
3.1 Stability and the spatial arrangement of grains
49
s
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Figure 3.1: Definition of stress according to
K EZDI (1969)
z
z
pa zy
zx
x
dz
yz
yx
xy
y
e
x
xz
Figure 3.2:
dy
pl
a) spatial stress components.

dx y
b) Octahedral normal stress σoct and
octahedral shear stress τoct as invariants of a)
the stress tensor.
σ1-direction
m
σ oct (perpendicular to octahedral

Ω plane)
Sa
oct (in octahedral plane)
σ2-direction
ne
l pla
tahedra
oc
b) σ3-direction
The resulting stress can be decomposed into components that are directed normal and tangen-
tial with respect to the surface under consideration, the normal stress component σn and the
shear stress τ. As a three dimensional body features stresses (= internal stresses per surface
area) on and along many planes in different directions at the same time, each of the planes
has resulting stresses, including their associated normal and shear stresses (fig. 3.2a).
eschweizerbart_XXX
3 Mechanical and hydraulic forces in soils
56
τ = tan ϕ · σn + c (3-11)
τ of eq. 3-11 is shear resistance, per unit area [kPa], which in soils is called shear stress and
σn , the normal load per unit area [kPa], the normal stress; ϕ the angle of internal friction [°]
s
and cohesion c are the actual true soil properties. Eq. 3-11 describes the behavior in cohesive
soils and substrates. In dry sands with a single grain structure c is 0 and may be omitted:
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τ = tan ϕ · σn (3-12)
In pure water and suspensions of very low viscosity, eq. 3.12 because of the very low com-
pressibility of water simplifies to:
τ =c
pa
with c = γ and γ = surface tension
where c (cohesion) is equal to the surface tension of the medium (γ).

(3-13)
e
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m
Figure 3.7: Relationship between normal stress σn and shear resistance τ.

a) top: aggregated, cohesive unsaturated soils; c1 = cohesion. bottom: pure water, c2 = γ (surface
tension). b) Dry sands of single grain structure.
Sa
The different formulations (equations) indicate, that shear properties of soils strongly depend
on the mechanical, hydraulic, chemical, and physical-chemical history of a soil, similar to
how load history and timing affect the order of magnitude of a soil’s shear parameters.
If, for example, the soil sample is sheared off immediately during loading, and the water
squeezed out of the sheared pores cannot be drained off rapidly enough, smaller values of
ϕ and c are obtained (UU unconsolidated, undrained experiment). If the shearing occurs
after consolidation (CU-experiment: consolidated, undrained) or if after consolidation the
expelled water is completely drained off (CD-experiment: consolidated, drained), higher val-
ues will be obtained. Thus, the figures obtained are a function of the shear rate; the larger
it is, the larger is the angle of internal friction. This applies especially to cases, where, at
constant hydraulic conductivity and because of low compressibility, the water cannot escape
rapidly enough causing the soil to behave like a rigid body. The soil parameters cohesion c
and angle of internal friction ϕ can be measured in different ways.
eschweizerbart_XXX
3.2 Soil strength: the balance of forces
57
s
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pa
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m
Figure 3.8: Schematic diagram of the frame shear test and the procedure to determine the Mohr-Coulomb
Sa
failure line.
The simplest method to do this is a direct shear experiment (i.e., frame shear test, ring shear
test; H ORN, 1981), where cohesion c and angle of internal friction ϕ are determined as the
slope of a line formed by tuples of maximum τ and σn values measured at different pressures.
This, load-dependent resistance is called stiction and is the maximum force which must be
applied per unit area in order to overcome internal friction. Once that maximum is exceeded,
the two soil volumes can be moved relative to each other, and a state of sliding friction is
reached (with lower shear resistance, fig. 3.8).
Much more precise, but also distinctly more complex are triaxial experiments, which rely
on the application of the two principal stresses on a freely deformable volume of soil. In
most setups, the smaller (horizontal) principal stress component is applied to the sample
hydraulically or pneumatically until the soil volume has been compressed. After equilibrium
eschweizerbart_XXX
4 Interactions between water and soil
110
b: roughened capillary
contact angle of
vorrückende contact angle of
rückschreitende
retreating wetting front
Benetzungsfront advancing wetting front
Benetzungsfront
120 120
R [Grad]
A [Grad]
100 R 100 A
R A
80 80
R
R and
A and
s
60 60
angle of advance
angle of retreat
40 40
A
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liquid 20 20
surface
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

c: porous medium equilibrium angle [Grad] equilibrium angle E [Grad]
E
hhydrophobic
cos
height above GWL [h]
degree of pore
system saturation
hhydrophil
hhydrophilic
hhydrophobic
liquid
surface
pa a: equilibrium angle ĮE
(Sessile Drop Method)
E liquid
solid
gaseous
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Figure 4.19: Contact angles of teflon surfaces in contact with organic liquids with different surface ten-
sions: (a) smooth surface, (b) roughened surface, (c) porous medium. Ideal contact angles αE (equi-
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librium angles) are determined by the so called sessile drop method on smooth surfaces (a). They are
compared to corresponding angles measured either on model capillaries (θ , open circles, b) or computed
from packages of teflon spheres (Φ, full circles, c). The angles are determined based on the correspond-
ing, wetting-angle-dependent ascent height in the capillaries or the average height of saturation of the
porous material (equivalent ascent heights). Quantities indexed A refer to capillary ascent, R refers to
dewatering of capillaries or porous materials (angle of retreat). Figure after data by Morrow (1975, 1976).
m
Wetting properties of soils can also be analysed in the lab by determining drop shapes and
wetting angles, similar to what is shown for a drop in figure 4.19 (sessile drop method). An-
Sa
other commonly used method applies a tiny drop of water onto a soil sample fixed to a plate,
resulting in reproducibly measurable contact angles (BACHMANN et al., 2003). Such mea-
surements are often influenced by non-ideal, rough surfaces and heterogeneously distributed
organic films, so that the angles so obtained may not reflect equilibrium. The capillary rise
method compares infiltration
rates of water in a vertical capillary tube and a wetting liquid,
commonly hexane γl = 19 mN/m which is not affected by inhibited wetting (BACHMANN
et al., 2003). In many disciplines this is considered the method of choice, although not free of
systematic uncertainties which may be quite considerable at small grain sizes. The intrinsic
sorption test works equivalently: by means of a tension infiltrometer water is infiltrated in a
vacuum, to prevent fast infiltration through very coarse macropores. Its rate is related to the
infiltration rate of alcohol from which a repellency index (T ILMAN et al., 1989) is computed.
An extensive comparison of a number of different methods was undertaken by R AMIREZ et
al. (2010).
eschweizerbart_XXX
4.7 Wetting properties of soils
111
Table 4.4: Classes of wetting inhibition as determined by their infiltration times (water drop infiltration time
test, WDPTT; H ALLETT et al., 2010)
class degree of inhibition of wetting WDPTT
0 wettable < 5 [s]
s
1 wetting slightly inhibited 5–60 [s]
2 wetting distinctly inhibited 60–600 [s]
3 wetting strongly inhibited 600–3600 [s]
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4 1–3 [h]
5 wetting extremely inhibited 3–6 [h]
6 > 6 [h]
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4.7.4 Impact of wetting properties on the environmental and
habitat functions of soils
Wetting inhibitions may have considerable impact on the environmental functions of soils and
their productivity for agriculture, forestry and gardening. In Australia, hydrophobic behavior
affects more than 5 million hectares of agricultural lands, productivity of which is reduced up
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to 80 % (B LACKWELL, 2000). Increased accumulation of water on the surface of wetting-
inhibited soils favors the formation of preferential paths of water flow in the soil (R ITSEMA
& D EKKER, 1994). Free superficial water then infiltrates either macropores – quickly exiting
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from the root zone of plants, leaving them somewhat dry, which leads to persistent wet-dry
patterns in soils. These patterns strongly reduce the water storage capacity and pass water
quickly through the soil into the groundwater. This in turn is often responsible for rapid in-
troduction of agrochemicals into the groundwater. Considered in detail, wetting processes
m
are very variable and influence numerous physical, chemical and biological processes within
soils. The impact of even small concentrations of organics on soils may only be explained
indirectly by their effect on wetting parameters which are related with strength and water
stability of aggregates (NAKA YAMA & M OTOMURA, 1984; G ÖBEL et al., 2005), reduced
Sa
evaporation (F INK & F RAISER, 1975; E L -A SSWAD & G ROENEVELT, 1985), improvement
of infiltration (E MERSON & B OND, 1963; L ETEY, 1975; M ILLER & L ETEY, 1975; H ART
et al., 1986). Wetting characteristics are of critical importance for the behavior of organic
pollutants, such as oil, surfactants and pesticides of various origin. It is the wetting charac-
teristics that govern transport, adsorption or retention of small amounts of these compounds.
The effect of the surface-active substances depends to a large degree on the specific surface
areas (m2 ) of the contaminated soils.
From a soil-hydraulic point of view, hydrophobic behavior may sometimes be beneficial.
Generally, water may be collected in depressions designated for this purpose (water harvest-
ing) if the soil surface is hydrophobic, in order to increase surface runoff. Hydrophobic soils
may also help to reduce evaporation in arid areas (F INK & F RAISER, 1975).
As fig. 4.20 illustrates, wetting inhibited surfaces are essentially free of water films. Their
absence causes the solution in the left beaker to evaporate exclusively from the surface of
the liquid, while nominal amounts of solution adhere to the walls of the right beaker and
eschweizerbart_XXX
Problems Chapter 4
120
Problems Chapter 4
s
Problem 4.1: The effective stress equation defines the inter-particle forces (= effective
stress) as a function of the applied total stress. What is the background for the longer lasting
strengthening effect in homogeneous clay compared to silt and medium or coarse sand?
ge
a. Please prepare – based on the water retention curve – corresponding curves for the χ–factor
as a function of matric potential!
b. How much does the formation of macroscale aggregates affect the χ–factor as a function
of matric potential and what are the consequences of repeated swelling and shrinkage on
changes of the inter- and intra-aggregate pattern concerning the χ–factor as a function of
matric potential?
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Problem 4.2: Clean, cylindrical glass tubes with internal diameters of 4.5, 45, 450, and
4500 μm are placed vertically into a container of water. The water density is 1000 kg·m−3 ,
gravity constant is 9.81 N·kg−1 , and surface tension γ is 0.0728 N·m−1 .
a. Assuming a contact angle of 0º, determine the height of rise in the glass tubes. Plot height
of rise versus tube diameter in a log-log diagram.
e
b. Calculate the elevations of water in the 4 tubes if the contact angle is 106º?
c. What is the radius of the capillary tube if the water rises 5 cm and the contact angle of
water in the glass tube is 10º?
pl
Problem 4.3:
a. For a given mass of spherical particles (sand or silt), what influence will decreasing the
m
size (diameter) by a factor of 3 have on total surface area of the particles?

b. For a given mass of sheet-shaped particles (clay), what influence on total particle surface
area will decreasing the sheet thickness by a factor of 3 have?
Sa
eschweizerbart_XXX
5 Distribution and hydrostatics of soil water
s
In the preceding chapter we discussed interactions between water and soil – both at the bulk
ge
and particle level – and how they affect structure. This chapter deals with the conditions
of water in soils. These conditions govern water motion and hence the soil water budget
(chapter 9).
5.1 Distribution and origin of water in soils
pa
At depth, the pore space of sediments and sedimentary rocks is invariably water filled, unless
it is occupied by oil and/or natural gas. As a general rule, the amount of solutes in this water
increases with depth (VON E NGELHARDT, 1960). Freshwater (actually: water of low salt
contents) is dominant in shallow regions only. This water consists mainly of precipitation,
which seeps into the soil, forming a “bubble” of solute rich formation waters below (fig. 5.1).
e
Mixing of the two water bodies by convection is strongly limited because of the narrow pore
system at depth. Equilibration of solute concentrations in the two water types is limited to
diffusion and hydrodynamic dispersion.
pl
m
Sa
Figure 5.1: Freshwater bodies (lenses) are the result of precipitiation on a continent (schematic). Pre-
dominant precipitation causes the ground water surface (GWS) to bulge upward (full line: height of water
surface h). Predominant evapotranspiration by plants cause the gwl surface to be depressed (dashed
line), compared to the free water level ().
Because soils impede the movement of precipitation down to the groundwater level, soil water
is maintained, as long as more water is recharged than is lost by evapotranspiration (fig. 5.1).
If more water is withdrawn than is recharged by precipitation, the groundwater level can
only be maintained by recharge from higher levels or from the surface by rivers and lakes,
or the freshwater bulge cannot form and there is only deep and therefore saline groundwater.
eschweizerbart_XXX
6 Movement of water within the soil
184
10 b)
a)
medium textured
8 soil
(a)
8
rate of evaporation [mm/d]
rate of evaporation [mm/d]

6
6
s
coarse textured
soil
4
4
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(b)
2 2
(c)
0
400 800 1200 1600 4 8 12 16 20
matric potential of soil surface [cm] evaporation of free water [mm/d]
pa
Figure 6.33: a) Evaporation rates from soils with groundwater contact as function of the matric potential
of the soil surface and the groundwater table at three different depths: (a) 90 cm; (b) 120 cm and (c)
180 cm. The greater the distance of the water table from the soil surface, the lower is the evaporation rate.
b) Evaporation rates for different soil textures (ground water table at 60 cm depth) plotted against evap-
oration rate from a free water surface. Initially both values are the same for the middle-textured soil, as
the unsaturated water conductivity is high enough to quickly replenish the evaporated water by capillary
ascent from depth. At higher evaporation rates the evaporation from the soil surface (= real evaporation)
distinctly lags behind evaporation from the free water surface (= potential evaporation). Evaporation from
e
the coarse-textured soil is limited to much lower evaporation rates than evaporation from the free water
surface (after G ARDNER, 1958).
pl
water content
0
t3 t2 t1 t0
t4
t5
m
t6
depth
Figure 6.34: Moisture distribution in the soil in the course of

progressive evaporation under transient conditions. t1 ,t2 , ...
Sa
t6 represent the change of the moisture profile of initially ho-

mogeneously distributed moisture in the soil at time t0 . The
shape of the curve and their change over time are reminis-
cent of the infiltration process (fig. 6.20, so that one may
speak of an advancing drying-front (after H ILLEL, 1998).
Water relase by evaporation is – next to processes within the soil – chiefly controlled by the
structure of the soil surface. This is used to minimize evaporation and conversely to maximise
the amount of plant-available water in soils by modifying soil surfaces. An example is the
topsoil structure shown in fig. 6.35 which may reduce evaporation from the underlying soil
considerably (H EINONEN, 1965).
The topmost soil layer in this case consists of aggregates of 6–8 mm diameter. This layer
does not serve to reduce evaporation, but is indispensable because it protects the underlying
layer of finer aggregates (1–2 mm diameter) from impacting raindrops which destroy them
and ultimately silt up the layer.
eschweizerbart_XXX
6.8 Evaporation
185
6 - 8 mm
1 - 2 mm
s
Figure 6.35: Top-soil structure to minimize evaporation. The upper-
most, coarse aggregate layer serves to protect the underlying finely 6 - 8 mm
aggregated layer from slaking. The fine layer itself is to prevent tur-
ge
bulent movement of air in the soil; the underlying coarse layer serves
to interrupt the hydraulic connection to the underlying soil (H EINONEN,
< 6 mm
1965).
The underlying layer of fine aggegates serves to minimize air movement in the soil. In its
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relatively narrow pores, transport of water is to be reduced to diffusion only. To guarantee
this, access of water must be ruled out, which is effected by the coarse grained layer be-
low it. Due to the small number of contact points between the relatively large aggregrates the
unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of this layer is very low. The interlayer with the narrow
pores is therefore isolated from water supplied from the dense soil below (P OULOVASSILIS
& P SYCHOYON, 1985).
The type of soil surface, its top structure shaped by cultivation methods and any soil cover
(mulch) influences evaporation. This influence may be estimated by observing the effects
e
management and applied materials have on absorption of incident radiation, turbulence in the
boundary layer and on supply of water to the locus of evaporation.
pl
A special, soil-specific factor is the hysteresis of pF–curves, because it results in different

gradients of matric potential, depending on the degree of drying, once a given amount of
water is added by precipitation (H ILLEL, 1976). The dryer the soil initially, the more a given
amount of water loss reduces its matric potential.
m
The foremost requirement for a high rate of evaporation is high soil water content. This
means that soils, close to the groundwater table, evaporate especially large amounts of wa-
ter, and therefore may contribute little to groundwater recharge. Under such conditions, the
accumulation of salts in arid climates is most pronounced. It is fostered by preferential wa-
Sa
ter conductivity in the direction of flow and the development of corresponding structures
(B RESLER et al., 1982).
Because enrichment of salts is the result of evaporation, an observed increase of salt con-
centration, limited to a narrow zone, provides a first hint as to where the actual place of
evaporation occurs.
eschweizerbart_XXX
8 Thermal behaviour of soils
208
considerably with water content, approaching the value of water at saturation. Swelling- and
shrinkage processes influence this state of affairs by increasing the number of grain-grain
contacts (shrinkage) or decreasing their number (swelling). A maximum of heat conductivity
exists (ROSS & B RIDGE, 1987). In conclusion, both differential heat capacity (tab. 8.1) and
thermal conductivity (fig. 8.3) of soils are strongly governed by soil water content.
s
At soil water contents above the permanent wilting point (relative pore-space humidity of
close to 100 %) temperature differences in partially saturated soil always induce local gradi-
ents of water vapor density in the pore space. In their wake, compensatory movements of the
ge
vapor phase occur parallel to diffusive heat transport and cause condensation on the colder
and evaporation on adjacent liquid:gas interfaces (P HILIP & D E V RIES, 1957), resulting ul-
timately in the transport of additional latent heat via phase transitions (fig. 8.4).
Fig. 8.4 shows the effectiveness of water vapor transport and the coupled transport of heat
energy in air: At temperatures as low as 0 ◦ C measurable transport of latent heat occurs,
above approx. 45 ◦ C its fraction already exceeds that of conductive transport in water at the
same cross section of conduction.
1.5
water vapor
Wasserdampf
pa
Ȝ [J m-1 s -1 °C-1]
e
1.0
water
Wasser
pl
0.5
m
dry air
Figure 8.4: Thermal conductivity λ of wa-
0.0 ter vapor, dry air and water as a function of
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 temperature. (Figure after data of D E V RIES,
T [°C] 1963).
Sa
It is interesting to note, that this process does not require a continuous air phase, as is the
case when other gases are transported (see fig. 8.5) but also takes place when pore spaces are
locally disconnected because – as explained before – water vapor condenses on one side of
a meniscus, and evaporation occurs on its other, warmer side. The condensation – evapora-
tion process is thought to enhance vapor transport in wettable soils (L U et al., 2011). The
transport of latent heat reaches – in this example – a peak λ value at a pore-space satura-
tion of ≈ 50 % at 75 ◦ C. Corresponding maxima are soil-specific and were observed at other
pore-space saturation values (see H OPMANS & DANE, 1986).
8.1.4 Thermal diffusivity

Thermal diffusivity α [m2 /s] indicates how easily a temperature change at one soil location
propagates through the soil. Compared to thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity is easier
eschweizerbart_XXX
8.1 Thermal properties of soils
209
1.6 0.7
15°C
1.4 15°C
0.6 25°C
25°C 35°C
35°C 45°C
1.2 45°C 55°C
55°C 0.5
-1 s -1 °C-1]
Ȝ [J m -1 s -1 °C-1]
65°C
65°C 75°C
1.0
[W/m/°C]
s
75°C
0.4
0.8
¨Ȝ [J m
0.3
0.6
ge
0.2
0.4
0.2 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
θ [m-3 m-3] θ[m
[m3 -3mm
-3 -3]
pa
Figure 8.5: Thermal conductivity λ of soil between 5 ◦ C and 75 ◦ C as function of its volumetric water
content θ (left) and as a difference to the thermal conductivity at 5 ◦ C (right; after data of H IRAIWA &
K ASUBUCHI, 2000).
to measure, because temperature changes over time must be measured instead of heat flux,
]
e
without the need to know the heat capacity of the soil. For a homogeneous soil, considering
conservation of thermal energy Q and the heat flux equation for jth we obtain:
∂Q ∂ j th
pl
− = (8-4)
∂t ∂x
∂T ∂ 2T
=α· 2
(8-5)
∂t ∂x
m
The coefficient of thermal diffusivity α is equivalent to the diffusivity coefficient of the water
transport equation (chapter 6). The thermal diffusivity is more widely know than its water
transport analog. Thermal diffusivity is a function of thermal conductivity λ and the volu-
metric heat capacity CV , and α increases in an initially dry soil with increasing water content
Sa
of the soil (see fig. 8.1). A supply of water to initially dry soil causes thermal conductivity
λ to increase more strongly than the volumetric heat capacity CV . At higher water contents,
the change of thermal diffusivity α with water content often has a water-content dependent
maximum. Thermal diffusivity, in most cases, reaches its maximum of between 10−7 and
10−6 [m2 /s] at a matric potential of about -1000 [hPa] = -100 [kPa] (KOHNKE, 1968).
8.1.5 Mechanisms of heat transport in soils

Transport of heat in soils occurs by radiation, conduction and convection of water and
water vapor. Radiative heat transfer plays a great role at the soil surface; within the soil
profile, however, heat transport by radiation is insignificant. Conduction is the dominant
process to transfer heat at low temperatures, at higher temperatures transport of latent heat
(heat of condensation) by phase changes vapor-liquid gains relevance.
eschweizerbart_XXX
9 Combined water-, heat-, and gas budget of soils
232
matric potential [hPa]
-200 -400 -600 -800
50
100 grad ȌH = 0
s
sand
150
depth below soil surface [cm]
ge
200
-200 -400 -600 -800
50
100
150
200
50
pa
-200
grad ȌH = 0
-400 -600
loess
-800
e
100
clay
150
grad ȌH = 0
pl
200
Figure 9.7: Lines of simultaneous matric potentials in three soils (sand, loess, clay). Where these depth
functions are steeper than the dashed equilibrium line (grad Ψ = 0), water seeps downward; where they
m
have a lower slope, water ascends through capillaries.
than at the soil surface. Therefore hydraulic conductivity is higher at depth and the hydraulic
Sa
gradient necessary for the amount of water is lower than in the dryer topsoil. The widening
of the wave, evident by the weak curvature at greater times t in fig. 9.8, is the result of how
pores of variable equivalent diameter inhibit the compensatory movement of water. This
mechanism is termed hydrodynamic dispersion and plays a major role in transport and
displacement processes in soils. It is described in detail in chapter 12.
After the distribution of pressures or matric potentials in the soil has approached equilibrium
after the end of precipitation, the groundwater surface is higher than before. This increase,
a result of the redistribution of water, is regularly much greater than the actual amount of
precipitation (in [mm]) because only the remaining air-filled volume of the partially saturated
soil can hold water. Even as the matric potential approaches zero, i.e., water saturation, air
inclusions are still present in the soil.
In contrast to a pressure change, which propagates rapidly (fig. 9.8 and 9.9), the movement
of water volumes, in the absence of secondary inter-aggregate pores or grain-size-induced
coarse pores is very slow. The displacement may, at depths of 1–1.50 m, take as long as a
eschweizerbart_XXX
9.2 Dynamics and temporal variations of the soil water budget
233
depths:
-300 30 cm
50 cm
s
-200 75 cm
100 cm
ge
-100
Figure 9.8: Advance of a sudden
change of matric potential, caused by
a precipitation event, to depth as a
function of time. The maximum pres-
sure (corresponding to the least nega-
tive matric potential) is delayed as the
wetting front advances.
pa 15.5
0
1.6
date

-20 -40
15.6
-60
t=0
e
10 t=1
depth below soil surface [cm]
t=3
pl
20 t = 10
t = 30
30 t = 120
m
t = 1200
40
Figure 9.9: Advance of a pressure-change front

50
Sa
caused by precipitation to depth. The maximum

steepness of the gradient (evident by maximal de-
viation from the t0 -line) decreases with depth and
with time. It is the smaller the higher the matric 60
potential. Times t are minutes.
year (B LUME et al., 1968). Remember that this rewetting takes place on the wetting-branch
of the matric potential curve (see fig. 5.11). (There, the water content is always relatively
lower than during dewatering at the same matric potential). This also reduces the effective
hydraulic gradient driving water transport.
An exception to the general rule that water transport is slow, is certainly preferential flow
which takes place e.g., in coarse pores (fig. 9.10). Preferential flow pathways may be worm
burrows or root channels (E HLERS, 1975), to a lesser degree shrinkage cracks (B ECHER
& VOGL, 1984; B EVEN & G ERMAN, 1982). Rapid transport of water through secondary
eschweizerbart_XXX
10 Plant habitats and their physical modification
256
As the amount of oxygen required by roots increases with increasing biological activity,
which in turn intensifies with increasing water potential in the soil, growth is inhibited, i.e.,
growth intensity is reduced by increasing water potential and the limited availability of oxy-
gen that goes with it. This relationship necessitates a soil matrix that needs to be the coarser,
the less negative the matric potential is (i.e., the higher the water potential is) during the
s
vegetation period.
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10.2 Interaction of mechanical and hydraulic
processes
In preceding chapters we illustrated that the behavior of water in the soil depends on the
properties of the soil matrix. In the literature, it is generally assumed, that the matrix is unaf-
pa
fected by flowing water and dewatering, i.e., that it is rigid and parameters such as porosity,
pore size distribution, water conductivity and shear resistance are constant. This requires that
the soil stops evolving and that there are no external influences affecting the site. This is
rarely observed for periods of decades, even where the soil surface is sealed. Irrespective of
current land use, even non-maximal compaction – which can be reached only with equant
spheres (grain contact count = 12) affords the possibility of further grain rearrangement and
fining of pores and/or reduction of pore cross sections. Equilibrium is hence possible where
land use and climatic conditions are close to constant, as soon as a new equilibrium has
e
been established by hydraulic- (proportional shrinkage), mechanical- (primary compaction),
dissolution- or physicochemical processes (or a combination of these).
pl
In agriculture, forestry and in horticulture a rigid pore system is rather improbable, all the
more because any type of soil tillage effectively forces changes of the number, size distri-
bution and geometric shape (tortuosity) of pores. This is why pore functions are variable
and not constant. Continuous and discontinuous shrinkage and swelling processes, and the
m
concomitant reorientation of minerals by meniscal forces have an effect equivalent to that of

biological processes (burrowing, gluing, hydrophobization).
The mandatory creation or variation of various gradients, results, time and again, in com-
pensatory fluxes; states of flow equilibrium are the exception rather than the rule (H ORN
& D EXTER, 1989). The variety of technical means available today, the increasing number
Sa
of conflicting uses and frequently changing of methods of tillage and cultivation practically
preclude constant habitat conditions for plants; instead a habitat is affected by a set of me-
chanical, chemical, thermal, biological and hydraulic processes which dynamically define
and constantly change its properties (G RÄSLE, 1999). G RÄSLE (1999) describes various
combinations of these six process levels, not considering temporal variations of individual
factors.
The mutual influence of mechanical stability and matric potential of soils is of particular
importance. It comes to bear especially, where frequent short-term and longer-term load
changes concur. These cause meniscal shapes to change and result in a reduction of cohesion,
which destabilizes soils especially where menisci change from concave to convex shapes,
i.e., from negative to positive matric potential values. Associated with this are changes of soil
stability, of pore continuity by intensified deformation and ultimately changes of the heat-,
gas- and nutrient fluxes in the soil. Furthermore loading and unloading leads to increased
sucking action, so that water may flow towards deformed soil volumes during unloading
periods.
eschweizerbart_XXX
10.2 Interaction of mechanical and hydraulic processes
257
10.2.1 Mechanical and hydraulic soil deformation
As discussed in chapter 3, soil stability may be quantified by shear resistance, stress strain-
time-relations and pressure propagation and represented by the figures for precompression
stress and the concentration factor. Beyond that, the effects of transient mechanical loads
s
must be considered as a factor relevant to plant growth. These effects can be of quite variable
nature. Similar to that are contractive forces by dewatering which result in stronger meniscal
curvatures. Depending on the hydraulic soil history, we distinguish between elastic structural
ge
shrinkage and proportional shrinkage with concurrent plastic deformation in the wake of
intensive dewatering after soil stability is exceeded.
Because the shapes of the stress-strain and shrinkage curves respectively are comparable
(BAUMGARTL & H ORN, 1999), the recompression branch of the stress-strain curve is equiva-
lent to that of the structural shrinkage curve. In any event, the elastic region of recompression
or re-watering is distinct from that of primary compression and primary shrinkage respec-
pa
tively. In the latter, additional deformation takes place if maximum mechanical or hydraulic
stress the soil had been exposed to previously is exceeded (fig. 10.3).
0.82
0.80 des
icc
atio
1.18
1.16
me ding
loa
0.78 n
ch
1.14
an
0.76
e
ica
1.12
void ratio [-]
void ratio [-]

Figure 10.3: Schematic shape of 0.74
the stress-strain (solid circles) and 1.10
the shrinkage curve (open circles) 0.72
pl
respectively. The slope of struc- 1.08

0.70
tural shrinkage and that of the re- mechanical pressure 1.06
compression branch is distinctly 0.68
hydraulic pressure
flatter than the corresponding pri- 0.66
mary compression and shrinkage 10 100 1000 10000
m
parts of the curve (B AUMGARTL &

H ORN 1999). pF / load [hPa]
The effects of increasing mechanical load (stress-strain curve) and stress due to soil defor-
mation by additional dewatering (shrinkage-curve) on newly created soil functions differ.
Sa
While the mechanical load increases bulk density and reduces the void ratio (with a higher
fraction of smaller pore sizes), the primary shrinkage creates coarser inter- and finer intra-
aggregate pores. Thus, the precompression stress of a soil defines the maximum acceptable
mechanical load (in contrast to hydraulic loading) a soil horizon can handle without predom-
inantly disadvantageous changes of the soil structure. Whether an increase in stability is the
result of mechanical or hydraulic stresses (i.e., mechanical compression or aggregation by
shrinkage) or of chemical precipitation or biological gluing cannot be determined a posteri-
ori. Relevant in this context is that the soil has a given stability at given water content and is
deformed or shrinks further only after precompression stress is exceeded. In connection with
the stability-dependent concentration-factor (from pressure propagation, equation 3-21), the
effect of surface loading and soil deformation (and the change of pore functions) at depth may
be assessed (DVWK, 1995; DVWK, 1997). Generally, notable effects on physical parame-
ters and functions are expected only after precompression stress is exceeded. However, such
mechanical stresses in the recompression and secondary shrinkage branches at small elastic
eschweizerbart_XXX
11 Soil erosion
s
In chapter 2 we demonstrated that grainy masses such as soil piles up at different heights,
ge
corresponding to respective potentials in the terrestrial gravity field. Potential fields generally
cause compensatory movements, until deformation, displacements and mass movements have
eradicated these differences. Here the resistance of the soil must be overcome.
Even if the particles of a soil are in mutual equilibrium, material transport triggered by air
and water flowing over soil surfaces can take place. Delamination and transport of soil par-
2006).
pa
ticles result and are called erosion. Depending on the cause, erosion by wind and water are
distinguished. Soil tillage also contributes to erosion by reducing soil stability and making
soils sensitive particularly to wind. This process is called tillage erosion (VAN O OST et al.,
Erosion and re-deposition of eroded material in adjacent areas are processes which may have
considerable impact on soil evolution. Furthermore, they are of relevance to the public, be-
cause erosion destroys large areas of farmland and thereby limits the potential to produce
e
food. Farmland is destroyed by stripping the topsoil layer or by covering farmland by eroded
material. By transport and deposition of these materials, meanders form in rivers, which in
the worst case may require entire ports to be relocated down river. Many old cultural land-
pl
scapes, which once were bread baskets, were degraded by erosion or burial of their soils. An
estimated 3 [Mg] of soil are eroded – per capita per year – worldwide (M ORGAN, 1999).
The general rules and relationships controlling erosion are the same, no matter if caused by
wind or water.
m
11.1 Soil erosion: general principles

Sa
Any flowing material is slowed down at the interface with a different material (cf. chapter 6:
flux of water in a tube or soil pore). Laminar and turbulent flow profiles are shown in fig. 6.1;
their influence on the stability of grain assemblages at the margin of flow channels is de-
scribed there in detail. Flowing water transports material within soil profiles, causing local
depletion and enrichment elsewhere. Displacement of clay and organic matter is one of the
most eye-catching features of soil evolution. Similar to erosion, this process can be termed
internal erosion.
An analogous situation prevails where water or air flow across a soil surface. While we
previously emphasized the impact, particles have on the flux, i.e., their resistance against
dislocation, we will now focus on the corresponding mechanisms of dislocation and transport
in detail.
eschweizerbart_XXX
12 Solute transport and filter processes in soils
306
s
Figure 12.10: Assessment of the heterogeneity of a flow system by grid sampling. In the top sampling
ge
level, 38% of the samples sample the texture induced pore system; only 19% of the samples from the
lower sampling levels sample shrinkage cracks.
Further factors affecting the effectiveness of depth filters, are variations of the salinity of the
solution. The salinity may allow flocculated particles to be redispersed and thus mobilized.
pa
On the other hand, swelling and salinity changes may trigger shrinkage of the soil, because
differences in ionic strengths in the soil solution may affect the filtering of particulate mat-
ter from the percolating flux (chapters 4.3 and 10.2). Another such process is salt filtering,
which effectively is a decrease of the salt concentration of a percolate as it passes through clay
packages. The effect is more pronounced, the greater the bulk density of the clay particles,
because this reduces the width of the passageways between clay surfaces, enhancing the ex-
posure of the charged particle surfaces on the percolating solution. Salt filtering is enhanced
by an increase of pressure to the salt solution and low salt concentrations. This effect, similar
e
to reverse osmosis, was experimentally observed on clays with Ca- and Na-loaded surfaces
and Ca- and Na-ions in the percolating fluid. Exchange with ions of higher valence reduces
exclusion and thus the filter efficiency (B LACKMORE, 1976).
pl
12.2.4 Optimizing filtering processes

m
Filtering by soils is of great practical importance for cleaning polluted water, to trace where
fertilizers and pesticides are headed, or for the desalination of fields in arid regions.
Capacities of depth filters are rarely used to their full extent under field conditions. The filter
would be used to its full capacity, if the breakthrough curve was equivalent to piston flow, and
Sa
sorption occured under conditions of kinetic equilibrium. Filter capacities are, for example,
determined under ideal saturated conditions by a batch-experiment (fig. 12.5). Under field
conditions, soils have a more or less stretched breakthrough curve at lower concentrations,
and thus a filter capacity lower than under the condition described above. The theoretically
available capacity is exploited more effectively, the slower percolation takes place, i.e., the
longer the solute is in contact with the soil. A real soil is of course no absolute barrier for
the solute or colloid; this is important for the certification of pesticides. The soil as depth
filter is hence only able to retain substances from percolating water for some period of time,
and that not even completely. Exceptions could be where the filtering capacity is periodi-
cally restored, e.g., by the specific decomposition of organics (to water and compounds such
as carbon dioxide, nitrogen or sulfur dioxide, which escape as gases) or by precipitation of
poorly soluble compounds. Periodic regeneration of soil filters requires exact control of pH
and redox potential, necessary to optimize microbial decomposition processes. However, pre-
cipitated compounds may increasingly block parts of the pore system and eventually shut off
eschweizerbart_XXX
Problems Chapter 12
307
percolation. Generally, any change of the composition of solutes and with it of the chemical
milieu (pH and eH) may reduce filter capacity. Changes of pH and redox conditions may
thus cause the dissolution of existing pedogenic or freshly precipitated iron oxides, which
may then – indirectly – cause the release of heavy metal cations adsorbed on these oxides.
While retention is interesting and desirable for cleaning volumes of water as large as possible,
s
the optimal and sparing use of water is the objective where soil filters are to be washed out
(e.g., to regenerate the filter and improve its efficiency). Elution of substances from the filter
should be attained by slow percolation (without notable loss of water in the coarse macropore
ge
system), which would be the case by flooding. As far as the efficient removal of pollutants
is concerned, concentration of the flow in fine pores, that is sustaining unsaturated flow is
most important. Where particulate matter is to be washed out of the system, intermittently
increasing flow pressures are especially efficient (M ICHEL, 2010).
Problems Chapter 12
Problem 12.1: pa
Determine the mean residence time for a solution containing a Cl− tracer in a fully saturated
sand column (5 cm in diameter and 50 cm long) with a bulk density of 1.4 g·cm−3 . The tracer
has a retardation coefficient of 1.0.
e
2 cm of the tracer solution is ponded on top of the column which has a hydraulic conductivity
of 4 cm·min−1 . In addition, using the givens, determine the cumulative drainage [cm−3 ]
needed for percolation of 2 pore volumes during a breakthrough curve measurement.
pl
Problem 12.2:
The non-reactive tracer ion (Br− ) is applied with a steady flow rate onto a vertical, sandy soil
column. The tracer has a retardation coefficient of 1.0. The Br− concentration entering the
column is designated as C0 , and the initial Br− concentration in the column, Ci , is zero. The
m
column is 40 cm long and a cross-sectional area of 100 cm2 . The column is saturated and has
a volumetric water content of 0.41. The total water potential gradient across length of the
column is 1.3 cm·cm−1 . After 2.4 hours, the tracer concentration in the effluent is 0.5 C0 .
Sa
a. What is the cumulative drainage volume after 2.4 hours?

b. What are the soil water flux density, mean pore water velocity, and Ksat ?
Problem 12.3:
Transport of a non-reactive solute (sorption, degradation volatization excluded) in soils is
driven by convection, diffusion, and hydrodynamic dispersion. For sandy soils in humid en-
vironments is the convective transport the main process for solute transport during leaching
periods of the year. During autumn, a high concentration of nitrate (NO− 3 ) is measured in
the Ah horizon of a meadow. The texture in the first 2 m is a loamy sand overlying a coarse
sand layer that goes down into the aquifer (groundwater level in 15 m depth). Estimate the
minimum depth to which the nitrate has been transported due to displacement with infiltrat-
ing rain water during the winter months. Estimate if the nitrate is available for the crop in the
next growing season? Give an estimate on how much time requierd until the nitrate has been
completely leached into the aquifer?
eschweizerbart_XXX
13 Future perspectives of soil physics
312
amples. It is necessary to quantify their respective consequences on mechanical, hydraulic,
and pneumatic quasi-dynamical parameters with respect to the deformation and establishment
of new pore systems at all geometric scales. Furthermore, the importance of microbiological
processes and their effects on the surface structure of particles and aggregates, for sorption,
desorption and hence the transport of solutes, including exchange processes must be under-
s
stood in detail. This does not only concern inflow of substances into the groundwater and
groundwater recharge, but also interactions connected with hydrophobization, preferential
flow and possible release of substances into the atmosphere as well as effects which influ-
ge
ence the course of soil evolution. Fig. 13.1 shows micro-scale soil movements, quantified
using micro-tomographical methods. The figure illustrates the consequences of shrinkage
(fig. 13.1a) and mechanical loading (fig. 13.1b) for aggregates (accessibility of active sur-
faces and marked heterogeneity of deformation patterns).
zz
y
[%]
x
sh
rin
ka
ge
cra pa
ck shrinkage crack
ck
cra
e
ge
ka
rin
a)
sh
pl
dV/V [‰]
Figure 13.1: Effect of swelling
and shrinkage. a) and mechanical
m
stress application b) on changes

of soil properties. The top graph
shows the orientation of ellipsoids
of motion with equivalent strains
γzz as a measure of deformation
intensity. The lower graph depicts
Sa
b) local volume change, where com-

pression has a negative sign and
volume gain has a positive sign
(from P ETH et al., 2010).
Volume effects are obvious in tightly delimited, narrow regions, which must affect soil func-
tions (e.g., changed tortuosity, accessibility of surfaces for nutrients, gases and water).
Our grasp of multidimensional, unsaturated systems and of their complex structures must
be refined for practical application in agriculture and forestry, and time-dependent dynamics
of porous systems must enter into analysis and interpretation. Understanding coupled me-
chanical and hydraulic processes in inhabited and flexible pore systems under continuously
changing conditions, is the prerequisite for modeling them adequately, which in turn is a pre-
requisite for better prediction of soil conditions. The truly herculean task is the combination
of soil parameters, which vary at different scales, sometimes vary at tiny distances, causing
eschweizerbart_XXX
313
enormous gradients in transitional regions, and thus making predictions difficult. Quantifying
the heterogeneity of pores and grain size distributions is still very complicated at the various
scales, but it is the basis for explaining soil processes. Deriving material (soil) parameters at
all scales is therefore a key goal of the science of soil physics. Exemplary for this is the analy-
sis of mechanical soil stability, starting at the scale of individual particles, under consideration
s
of physico-chemical processes and interaction of Gapon-coefficients, zeta-potentials, interfa-
cial energies, and rheological parameters on the strength of bulk soil samples (mesoscale). At
the same time this nicely demonstrates the complexity of the processes involved (fig. 13.2).
ge
PCD rheometry soil mechanics geophysics
colloid-scale particle scale scale of aggregates outcrop scale
surface and structured soils landscape scale
<1 μm (-5 μm) <250 μm
pa 250 μm - dm
e
zeta potential flow limit compressibility-index c n shear modules μ*
pl
ionic forces micromechanical mechanical stability effects of vibration

behaviour elasticity index El
agglomerative loss of rigidity precompression stress liquefaction of soil
behaviour shear properties shear parameters: C;
m
Figure 13.2: Stability analysis at different scales from the particle scale to the scale of landscapes (from
B AUMGARTEN, H ORN, 2013).
Sa
Non-invasive analytical methods (e.g., μCT) for analyzing structures of individual micro-
and macro-aggregates, combined with scale- and boundary-condition dependent, hydraulic,
mechanical, pneumatic and physicochemical parameters - will support the development of
new conceptual approaches. Fig. 13.3 shows, how structural dynamics may be studied using
3D-imaging (μCT), models (FEM, network models) and the effect on pore networks and the
functions that depend on it may be rudimentarily assessed. Methodical and technical devel-
opments in this direction may enable soil science to interpret and explain hitherto ambiguous
and unexpected data (which today are intuitively explained away as small-scale heterogene-
ity), e.g., as partial deformation of pore spaces and its consequences on material fluxes down
to the micrometer scale. Important again is the coupling of mechanical and hydraulic pro-
cesses and their reverberations on transport processes in non-rigid (dynamic) pore systems is
rudimentarily considered in some of the models shown in fig. 13.4, but do not (yet) include
small scale soil deformation (fig. 13.1) and the effects it causes.
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
s
absolute volume, 35 angle of
ge
accessible surface area, 303 internal friction, 54, 56, 58, 70, 100
activation energy, 88 phase shift δ , 74
active earth pressure, 70, 71, 273 wetting, 107
actual evaporation, 223 animal activity, 79
adhesion forces, 54 anion retardation, 294
adsorption, 106, 297 anisotropic, 40
film, 123 flow, 145
isotherm, 297
linear, isotherm, 297
of water, 84
adsorptive
capacity, 303
force, 123, 124
aeolian
process, 25
sand, 25
pa anisotropy, 40, 261
annual temperature
curve, 242
oscillation, 241
aquiclude, 149, 165
arboturbation, 24, 41
artesian water, 105, 124
a single plane of failure, 59
atmospheric pressure, 191
e
soil erosion, 288 Atterberg
aeration, 172, 248 limits, 61
aerobic particle size limits, 14
reaction, 245 axial
pl
aerosols, 282 pressure, 80

aggregate, 32, 52, 79 ratio, 115
age, 118 axle load, 79
formation, 113
size, 118 backscatter radiation, 220
m
structure, 32 backwater, 227

aggregates balanced water budget, 224
pseudo, 13 barometric pressure, 197
aggregation, 62 base failure, 67
agricultural machinery, 310 batch-experiment, 306
Sa
agriculture, 48 bearing capacity, 265

air bed filter, 291
fracturing, 193 Bernoulli-theorem, 23, 143, 279
inclusion, 198 binary mixtures, 36
interface, 198 biodiversity, 315
pockets, 246 biological, 113
pressure, 191 glueing, 62
air capacity (AC), 13 process, 41, 114
air-filled continuity, 247 bioturbation, 24, 40, 80
albedo, 166, 219, 220 black body radiation, 220
aliphatic compounds, 117 block
amelioration polyhedra, 101
structural, 273 prisms, 101
amphiphilic, 98 subangular, 101
anaerobic Boltzmann constant, 295
decomposition, 245 bonding energy, 86
process, 248 “bottleneck”-effect, 118
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
380
boulder clay, 20 cohesion, 56, 58, 70, 256, 284
boundary condition, 145, 153 forces, 54
breakthrough curve, 292 cohesive, 56
Brownian motion, 29, 87 cohesiveness, 17
bubbles, 246 columnar structure, 117
bulk compaction, 41, 271
s
aggregate density, 116 ratio, 273
density, 32 component
maximum, 81 potential, 129
ge
buoyancy, 105 process, 316
burrow, 80 water potential, 126
burrowing activity, 41 compressibility
bypass flow, 304 of water, 56
water, 56
caliche, 117 compression, 136
calorie, 203 -index Cc , 63
pa
Cambisol, 41 concave menisci, 193
canopy shading, 245 concentration
CaO, 82 factor, 257
capillary gradient, 296
ascent, 108, 122 vk , 67, 265
barrier, 266 conductivity
block effect, 301 hydraulic, 146, 147, 153, 158
depression, 108 saturated hydraulic, 13, 26
force, 52 connectivity, 118
e
fringe, 124, 133 conservation
rise, see capillary ascent of mass, 149
rise method, 110 conservative tracer, 298
water, 123 consistency, 67
pl
capillary barrier limit, 60

by layering, 300 contact
carbon sequestration, 310 angle, 106
Carman-Kozeny equation, 164 number, 38
cation exchange capacity (CEC), 13 point, 123
m
CD-experiment surface area, 116

consolidated, drained, 56 continuity, 118
ceramic cup, 131 equation, 149, 150, 155, 299
change of redox conditions, 274 continuous
chemical precipitation, 62 air, 246
Sa
χ-factor, 114 soil gas phase, 248

circular menisci, 207 contracting force, 91, 101
civil engineering, 81 contraction, 89
clay migration, 53 convective pumping, 197
climate change, 119 convention, 43
clod, 79 conversion of units, 378
CO2 Coulomb’s equation, 55
concentration, 193 counter-resultant, 55
production, 193, 250 coupled processes, 311
coatings, 170 crack formation, 89, 262
coefficient creep, 76
at rest, 54, 67 critical gradient, 105
of diffusion, 195 cross-over suction value, 267
of dispersion, 297 crushing test, 59
of extension, 73 crusting, 170
of spread, 107 cryoturbation, 24, 40
coherent grain structure, 32 crystallization pressure, 215
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
381
CU-experiment displacement, 40
consolidated, undrained, 56 dissolution
cubes, 36 chemical, 153
cubic, 39 distribution frequency
densest packing, 36 diagrams, 17
curvature, 108 divergency, 61
s
curve cumulative, 17, 19 divide hydrological, 149
curved interface, 193 double layer, 112
CXTFIT, 300 electrical, 159
ge
cyclic loading, 65 downward flow, 231
drag, 281
damping depth, 240 forces, 23
Darcy equation, 150, 151, 154, 155, 169, 181, resistance, 23
259 drainability, 265
Darcy’s law, 63, 146 drainage, 172, 265
dead-end pore, 42 channel, 265
pa
decay, 292 cracks, 172
decontamination, 291 of soil, 206
deep amelioration, 79 pipe, 265
deformation, 17, 48 drainage ditch
limit, 74 distance, 174, 176
degree drip-line infiltration, 300
of accuracy, 309 drying curve, 45
of urbanization, 311 dual permeability, 301
of water saturation, 262 dual probe heat pulse method, 211
e
delamination, 279 dune sand, 16
dense packing, 53 dunes, 282
density and pore volume, 373 Dupuit-Forchheimer
denudation rate, 286 equation, 174
pl
tolerable, 286 model, 173

depth of attenuation, 242 durinod, 117
derivation of the heat-budget equation, 375 duripan, 117
desiccation, 77 dust, 25
cycle, 40 dynamic
m
destruction of soil structure, 61 exchange process, 298

dielectric constants, 138 pore system, 311
differential volumetric heat capacity, 203 viscosity, 142
diffusion, 152
barrier, 196 earthworm, 80
Sa
coefficient, 295 ecological relationships, 315

gas flux, 249 ecosystem service, 309
diffusive eddy, 143
double layer, 87, 88 -covariance method, 310
diffusivity effective
hydraulic, 157 permeability, 69
dilatancy, 76 sorptive surface, 305
dipolar properties, 105 stress, 48, 262
direct current σ , 51
geoelectric, 305 equation, 64
tomography, 305 efficiency of a filter, 302
direct shear experiment, 57 elastic structural shrinkage, 257
disequilibrium models, 301 elastoplastic, 54
dispersion properties, 67
hydrodynamic, 153 electrical
length of, 296 conductivity, 75
dispersivity, 296 flow potential, 112
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
382
electroosmotic filter
effects, 112 cake, 302
electrophoretic, 112 capacity, 303
electrostatic force, 84 efficiency, 304
element models type, 302
discrete, 311 filtering, 291
s
finite, 311 process, 291, 302
elevation geodetic, 148 fine earth, 14
elliptical cross section, 90 finger flow, see flow preferential
ge
emissivity, 221 finger test, 17
energy budget finite
at soil surface, 376 difference method, 156
soil surface, 222 element method, 156
engineering, 314 flocculation, 29, 87
entropy, 41, 116, 262 floodplain, 227, 282
envelope of the principal soil, 227
pa
stress circles, 59 floodwater, 226
environmental management, 311 flow
equation bypass, 172
of sedimentation, 22 downward, 231
of continuity, 196 fields, 145
equigranular shapes, 39 forces, 23
equipotential laminar, 146
line, 66, 67, 145 macroscopic, 146
surface, 229 one-dimensional, 146
e
equivalent preferential, 172
diameter, 14, 44 pressure, 53, 103
pore diameter, 122 resistance, 146, 147
erodibility, 283, 284, 288 transient, 153, 171
pl
erosion, 309 two- and three-dimensional, 148

gully, 281 unsaturated, see water movement
model, 285 in unsaturated soil
rill, 281 upward, 231
erosivity, 283, 285 velocity, 23, 53, 147, 149
m
of precipitation, 286 fluid

escape of air, 199 Bingham, 152
evaporation, 111, 146, 179, 223 newtonian, 152
actual, 179 flux, 147, 173
potential, 179 density, 146, 147
Sa
relative rate of . . . , 179 Fokker-Planck equation, 158

stages, 223 forces, 54
evaporative adhesion, 54
demand, 223 cohesion, 54
evapotranspiration, 146, 223 intermolecular, 54
exchangeable cations, 75 forest management, 48
formation
factor of erodibility, 287 of ice, 213
fast chemical transport, 300 water, 121
fatty acids, 106 fracturing, 17
Fe3+ concentration, 75 free water surface, 192
fecal pellets, 117 freeze/thaw cycle, 40
Fick’s 1st law freezing, 260, 272
of diffusion, 195 point, 86
Fick’s 2nd law, 196 depression, 86
field capacity, 132, 234 process, 216
field-scale soil water, 309 -thawing, 260
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
383
frequency size, 14
distribution, 40 distribution, 13
frictional force, 142 size distribution
frost curing, 81, 216 methods, 29
functionality of soil, 309 terminal velocity v, 22
funnel flow, 300 water film, 38
s
future perspectives, 309 granular filter, 302
gravitational
Gapon-coefficient, 313 acceleration, 44
ge
gas attraction, 88
bubble, 193, 248 potential, 126,
budget of soil, 245 see geodetic potential, 127, 144
composition, 245 gravity, 38
diffusion, 166, 195, 249 potential, 146
displacement, 197 gray emitter, 221
distribution, 246 Green & Ampt approach, 169
greenhouse gas effect, 310
flux, 195
mass flux, 197
phase
composition, 193
potential, 129, 191
pressure, 51
general water budget equation, 224
geo-radar, 310
geodetic
pa groundwater, 122, 226
deep, 235
dome, 228
fluctuation, 226
level, 122
multiple level, 227
recharge, 225
shallow, 235
e
elevation, 144 surface, 122, 124, 226, 248
potential, 127 groundwater surface, see groundwater level
geometric factor, 70, 94 growing roots, 70
geophysical methods, 310 gullies, 281
pl
georadar, 305 gully erosion, 281

geothermal gradient, 238 gypsum block, 131
gilgai, 94
glacial habitat functions, 315
ice, 69 Hagen Poiseuille, 142
m
loading, 54 equation, 164

till, 39 hanging water, 101
gley soil, 227 headlands, 272
gradient heat
of concentration, 296 budget, 202, 237
Sa
of hydraulic potential, 146 capacity, 86, 203

of O2 partial pressure, 250 mass spec., 203
grain of mineral, 205
abrasion, 24 volume spec., 203
degree of sorting, 19 latent, 223
equigranularity, 19 of condensation, 209
equivalent diameter, 16, 17 of crystallization, 214
fragmentation, 24 of wetting, 86
glueing effect, 13 pulse method, 212
hydraulically equivalent diameters, 22 source, 239
ideal sphere, 22 transport via groundwater, 210
ideal spherical, 22 heat of vaporization, 179
mixtures, 17 heating, 244
non-equigranularity, 20, 36 hemispheric, 117
number of contacts, 38 heterogeneity
saltation, 23 flow system, 306
shape, 15 of pores, 313
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
384
hexagonal, 38 form, 115
densest packing, 36 primary growth, 215
hierarchy, 118 secundary growth, 215
Hjulstrom drag curve, 284 ideal
homogeneous flow, 145 gas, 195
homogenization, 41 sphere, 91
s
Hooghoudt equation, 175 ideally elastic, 50, 73
Hooke’s law, 73 behavior, 73
horizontal immobile water, 299
ge
displacement, 23 impact of raindrops, 70
divide, 231 in-situ condition, 315
principal stresses σ2 = σ3 , 54 inclination, 99
how accurately, 309 incompressible water, 123
humidity, 85 infiltration, 111, 234
relative, 130 cumulative, 168
hydration of water, 192
capability, 85
pa
rate, 168
of exchangeable cations, 85 inhomogeneous flow, 145
effect, 86 initial
hydraulic condition, 153
boundary conditions, 59 settling, 63
conductivity, 56, 64, 118, 261 inner erosion, 305
saturated, 272 inter- and intra-aggregate
unsaturated, 271 pores, 257
force, 48 inter-aggregate
e
gradient, see gradient of hydraulic contacts, 45
potential, 230 pore, 119
direction, 231 inter-particle forces, 52
potential, 129, 145, 147, 147 intercept, 58
pl
pressure, 144 interface of water, 192

stress, 262 interfacial
hydric, 96 energy, 313
hydro-pedo-transfer-function, 225 tension, 106
hydroconsolidation, 265 intermolecular forces, 54
m
hydrodynamic dispersion, 121, 232, 292, 293 internal

hydrogen bridge, 84 erosion, 53, 278
hydrological friction
cycle, 224 angle of, 54, 70
year, 224 strength, 62
Sa
hydrology material continuum, 315 surface area, 303, 304

hydrophilicity, 105 interphase, 315
hydrophobic, 123 interstitial space, 22
potential, 115 intrinsic
hydrophobicity, 105, 264 contact angle, 108
capillary effects, 63 sorption test, 110
hydrophobization, 41 inverse simulations, 311
of clay mineral, 77 ion
hydrostatic diffusion, 295
pressure equation, 122 mobility, 295
HYDRUS, 311 irrigation, 170, 268, 309
hysteresis, 44, 137, 195 ISO 11277, 26
loops, 63 isotherm
F REUNDLICH, 297
ice L ANGMUIR, 297
crystal growth, 215 isotropic
lenses, 215 flow, 145
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
385
structure, 40 mass
isotropy, 40, 95 flux, 152
material parameter, 313
ks , see saturated hydraulic conductivity matric potential, 27, 44, 51, 60, 126, 127
k-value, 147 depth function, 232
kinematic wave, 234 equilibrium, 230
s
kinetic energy, 23 variation, 229
of impact, 87 matrix, 42
of raindrops, 280 maximum
kneading, 40, 262
ge
depth of freezing, 241
energy of, 96 extension, 74
work of, 96 thermal diffusivity, 209
Knudsen Flux, 196 mean
annual temperature, 238
lahar, 76 normal stress, 55
laminar flow, 141, 298 parameters, 19
landfill gas, 193
pa
mechanical, 48
landslide, 24
compression, 62, 101
Laplace equation, 176
stability, 48, 256
lateral
stress, 262
abutment, 95
mechanically, 113
extension or compression, 71
median equivalent diameter, 19
Lattice-Boltzmann model, 311
meniscal water, 123
leaching, 272
menisci of water, 84
leaf
meniscus, 44
area index, 221
e
metabolism, 117
surface index, 223
methan, 193
limits of stability, 59
methods, 43
linear-elasto-viscosity range, 74
sedimentation, 29
pl
liquefaction, 65, 103

micro-, meso- and macro-pores, 45
liquid
-gas boundary surface, 108 micro-meteorological method, 310
limit, 61 micro-scale soil movement, 312
viscosity η, 22 minor principal stress, 54
mixing effect, 296
m
load
history, 56 mobile water, 299
potential, 126, 128 mobile-immobile approaches, 301
loading area models solute transport, 301
circular, 68 Modflow, 316
local moisture ratio, 92
Sa
bonding potential, 310 molar ethanol droplet test, 109

preservation of mass, 299 molecular
loess, 20, 25 diameter, 85
logarithmic diffusion, 294
scale, 78 monomolecular layer, 86
spiral, 71 movement of water and wind, 22
long-chained fatty acids, 117 mud avalanche, 76
loss modulus, 74 mulch, 185, 285
low
hydraulic conductivity, 97 negative pore water pressure, 60
lubricating net attraction, 88
behavior, 76 net radiation flux, 220
effect, 64 network model, 309
lyotropic sequence, 85 neutral stress, 51, 64
lysimeter, 223, 225 neutron-radiography, 310
Newton’s equation, 23
major principal stress, 54 non-destructive technique, 310
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
386
non-equilibrium approaches, 301 peptization, 87
non-invasive analytical method, 313 peptized suspension, 88
non-rigid pore system, 313 percolation, 270
non-uniformity, 39 theory, 309
non-wetting phase, 191 perennial soil temperature, 238
normal, 49 periodic regeneration of soil filter, 306
s
compaction, 77 permafrost, 238
normal stress, 56 regions, 238
component, 55 permanent wilting point, 237
σn , 49
ge
permeability, 146, 158
normal-, tangential stress, 49 perspective
normally compacted, 77 soil physics, 309
number of functional groups, 75 pF-curve
numerical model, 225 hysteresis of, 163, 185
nutrient pF-curve, 133
availability, 48 phase
reservoir, 253
pa
diagram of ice, 214
transition of H2 O, 212
O2 -consumption, 250 Philip equation, 170
O2 -diffusion, 246 physical-chemical processes, 48
barrier, 247 piezometer, 129, 148
octahedral shear stress, 55 piezometric
Ohm’s law, 303 potential, 129, 146
optimizing filter, 306 piston-flow, 292
organic planes of slippage, 71
e
C contents, 75 plant
glue, 117 available water (PAW), 13, 46
liquids, 89, 110 habitats, 253
organo-metallic compounds, 41 water relations, see plant habitats
pl
orthogonal, 54 water supply, 253

oscillation test, 74 yield, 47, 253
osmotic, 254 plastic
effect, 77, 85 deformation, 40, 62, 65
force, 123 limit, 61
m
potential, 126, 128, 254, 271 limiting state, 71

overburden, 39, 273 paste, 88
potential, 126, 128 platelets, 39
stress, 53 platy
oxygen aggregate, 216
Sa
content, 193 clay mineral, 76

deficiency, 255 structure, 54, 261
plow-pan, 262
parameterization of shear-resistance-deformation- plowing, 309
time data, 60 points of contact, 53
partial pressure, 195 Poisson number, 66
partially reversible, 78 polar mineral surface, 106
particle pore
density, 34 clogging, 170
weight, 53 connectivity, 258
passive continuity, 46, 60, 119, 258
failure, 70 exclusion, 292
resistance, 71, 72 functions, 259
pedogenesis, 40 heterogeneity, 118
pedon-scale, 316 neck diameter, 46
pedoturbation, 40 network, 43
peloturbation, 40 shape, 44
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
387
size distributions, 42 budget, 219, 376
volume, 35 components, 376
water pressure, 51, 64, 262 long-wave, 220
pore space short-wave, 220
inter-aggregate, 152 raindrop impact, see kinetic energy of raindrops
pore system range of field capacity, 235
s
inter- and intra-aggregate, 160 Rankine state
primary, 160 active, 69
secondary, 160 passive, 69
ge
pore water Rankine-Prandtl, 280
pressure ratio of anisotropy, 161
negative, 102 recompression, 62, 257
positive, 102 recultivation layer, 267
potential, 112 redistribution
electroosmotic, 152 of iron oxides, 246
evapotranspiration, 223 of water, 232
gradient, 147 vapor, 212
gravitational, 183
hydraulic, 183
precipitation, 25, 153, 167
precompression stress, 28, 62, 257, 273
pa
predominantly horizontal volume change, 94
preferential flow, 233, 270, 300, 310
preferential path, 111
preservation of energy, 23
redox
potential, 197, 246
process, 114
remote-sensing, 310
repellency index, 110
repulsion, 87
repulsive forces, 93
resistance coefficient, 23
e
pressure, 48 resultant vector, 53
gradient, 104 retardation factor, 294, 299
potential, 126, 129 reversibility, 77
propagation, 50, 69 reversible deformation, 62
pl
primary Reynolds number, 143

compression, 257 rheological, 72
dewatering, 100 parameter, 313
settlement, 63 rheology, 72
shrinkage, 257 rheometry can, 52
m
principal stress component, 377 Richards equation, 259

probability distribution, 18, 19 rigid, 50, 55
process pore system, 256
biological, 32 pore walls, 45
process rigidity, 61, 91
Sa
three-dimensional, 66 elasticity, 50
proctor apparatus, 272 rill erosion, 281
Proctor-density, 81 ripples, 282
properties, 98 rise
proportional shrinkage, 257 capillary, 153
proportionality factor, 73 river gravel, 16
pseudomycelia, 117 road cuts, 70
pseudosand, 14, 284, 315 rolling wheel, 70
psychrometer constant, 223 root
pumping, 65 growth, 80
penetration, 259
Q10-value, 202 respiration, 248, 253
quasi-equilibrium, 235 water uptake, see plant water supply
quaternary, 36 rough subgrade, 273
quicksoil, 76 runoff, 167
radiation salinisation, 271
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
388
salinity, 306 slippage, 69
salt slipperyness, 102
concentration, 97 slope, 58
filtering, 306 slurries, 170
hygroscopic, 152 soil
saltation, 282 aggregate, 94
s
saturated flow, see water movement in water air
saturated soil seasonal variations, 248
saturation deficit, 255 density, 34
ge
scalar, 377 deformation, 39, 257
quantities, 50 degradation, 261
scale erosion, 261, 278
of heterogeneities, 304 homogenization, 262
spatial, 315 management effect, 75
temporal, 315 mechanics, 48
scales, 309 melioration, 47
pa
relevant to soil physics, 316 microorganism, 315
sealing, 311 properties, 63
secondary pore, 40, 44, 136 recultivation, 265
space, 98 rigidity, 256
secondary settlement, 63 solution, see soil water
sedimentation equation, 22 stability, 256
seepage, 153, 225 state, 68
segregation, 113 strength, 28, 55, 63
sessile drop method, 110 structural stability, 28, 160
e
shear, 52 structure, 32
deformation, 66, 258, 271 temperature variations, 239
experiments, 52 tillage, 79
fracture, 98 uplift, 95
pl
loss modulus, 103 volume change, 33

modulus, 60 water, 123
parameters, 273 budget, 224
rate, 56 potential, 125
resistance, 55, 56, 60, 91, 96, 257, 266 retention curves, 63
m
storage modulus, 103 water storage capacity, 39

stress, 23, 56, 279 wedge, 72
stress τ, 49 soil structure
shearing, 61, 69 platy, 161
slip, 258 soil texture
Sa
shock-absorber model, 73 spatial distribution, 24

shrinkage, 89, 256 solar radiation, 219
crack, 180, 302 solid volume, 35
limit, 61 solifluction, 24, 36
normal, 92, 262 solute transport, 297, 301
pre-, 93 in soil, 298
primary, 262 mechanisms, 310
proportional, 92, see residual shrinkage sorption, 292
residual, 92, 262 process, 310
structural, 93 source term, 196
zero, 92 spatial
shrinking-swelling, see shrinkage arrangement, 44, 48
simulation model, 311 scale, 315
single grain structure, 32 specific
sinusoidal shape, 74 free surface energy, 106
skeletal fraction, 14 surface, 94
slickenside, 94 area, 111
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
389
sphere, 36 subsurface temperature, 238
spherical particle, 14 supercooled water, 213
spring constant, 73 surface
stabilisation, 77 area, 14
stability, 48 diffusion, 314
analysis at different scales, 313 filter, 291, 302
s
stabilizing effect, 82 mulches, 245
state temperature, 241, 243
elastic, 73 tension, 44, 56, 89, 105, 122
ge
flocculated, 87 sustainable land use, 315
fluid, 73 swelling, 93, 256
passive, 71 potential, 95
plastic, 73 pressure, 94
transition, 73
static pressure, 69 tangential, 49
steady temperature
pa
flow, 141 amplitude, 240
state, 145 diffusivity, 204
Stefan-Boltzmann-Law, 220 isochrons, 241
step-like course, 64 minima, maxima, 242
Stokes equation, 23 oscillation, 240
Stokes’ law, 22, 281 phase shift, 241, 242
Stokes-Einstein equation, 295 profile, 238
stone uplift, 217 wave, 240
storage temporal scale, 315
e
modulus, 74 tensile
of organic material, 310 fracture, 98
strain strength, 59
component, 377 tensiometer, 127, 148
pl
intensity, 74 tension infiltrometer, 300

rate, 73 tensor, 161, 377
sensors, 52 tensorial properties, 50
streamlines, 145, 304 ternary mixtures, 36
strength, 111, 313 terracing, 284
m
stress, 48, 49 tetrahedral, 39

effective, 104 texture, 13
normal, 77 thawing, 81
equation, 51 theory of soil consolidation, 63
major principal, 54 thermal
Sa
minor principal, 54 conductivity, 202

neutral, 51, 64, 81, 102, 104, 123 model, 211
normal, 56, 72 diffusivity, 202, 208, 241
relaxation, 54 energy, 126
shear, 23, 73 insulator, 207
strain relationship, 61, 62 property, 202
strain-time-relations, 257 of soils, 202
tensile, 72 thermo-TDR sensor, 310
tensor, 54, 377 thixotropy, 75
total, 51, 102 three-dimensional
uniaxial, 58 flow field, 229
structural material transport, 117
amelioration, 273 process, 66
shrinkage, 259 tillage, 283
viscosity, 76 conservation, 264
structures, 113 conventional, 264
sublimate, 81 time
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
390
dependent settlement, 63 vertically
domain reflectometry, 138, 212 anisotropic, 115
frames, 309 vesicular structure, 199
independent, 73 virgin compression, 62
tortuosity, 69, 256, 296 viscoelastic deformation behavior, 73
total stress, 51 viscosity, 23, 56, 73, 123, 142, 279
s
total water potential, 126 dynamic, 158
transient flow, 141 of air, 191
transition zone, 168 viscous behavior, 73
ge
transpiration, 223 void ratio, 35, 92, 257
coefficient, 253 voids, 20
transport volcanic ash, 25
of latent heat, 208 volume change, 89
in porous media, 374 effects, 311
zone, 167 volumetric
trapped air, 192, 247 heat capacity, 202
tremor, 76 settlement, 66
triaxial
experiment, 57
test, 57
turbulent flow, 141, 143, 281
turgor pressure, 254
U, see non-equigranularity
uniaxial
pa water
movement in water saturated soil, 141
capacity, 154
column, 44
conductivity, 154,
see hydraulic conductivity, 169
content, 27
e
stress, 58 characteristic, 81
tension, 58 curve, 44
universal soil loss equation, 286 optimum, 81
unsaturated fatty acids, 75 divide, 146
pl
unstable, 55 drop penetration time test, 109

flow, 309 erosion, 286
updoming, 80 film, 84, 315
groundwater, 226 harvesting, 111
upward flow, 231 holding capacity, 253
m
USDA immobile, 299

particle size limits, 14 infiltration, 167
UU-experiment interface, 198
unconsolidated, undrained, 56 mobile, 299
movement in unsaturated soil, 151
Sa
van der Waals force, 84 potential, 128, 130, 254

van-Genuchten-equation, 93 repellency, 309
vapor stability, 79
condensation, 166, 167 storage capacity, 25
pressure, 85, 126, 166 vapor, 193
isothermal, 166 flux, 242
non-isothermal, 166 pressure, 130
transport, 166, 248 water film, see adsorption, film
vector, 54, 377 water use efficiency, see transpiration, coeffi-
vectors of shear strain, 69 cient
ventilation moisture term, 223 water-, gas- and heat budget, 48
vertical water-smear effects, 59
axis, 67 wettability, 105
macropores, 247 wetting
pressure Pv , 78 angle, 44
stratification, 88 front, 167
vertical (σ1 ), 54 irregular, 300
eschweizerbart_XXX
Index
391
inhibition, 300
zone, 167
wetting/drying
cycle, 40
history, 249
wilting of a plant, 237
s
wind erosion, 281, 288
wireless data acquisition, 310
Wischmeier equation, 286
worm casts, 115
ge
xeric, 96
xerophyte, 237
X-ray
computer tomography, 310
tomography, 305
yield point, 75
Young’s modulus, 66
Young-Laplace-equation, 44
(zeta) ζ -potential, 52, 152, 313 pa

zone of continuous fringe water, see capillary
fringe
zone of saturation, 167
e
pl
m
Sa
eschweizerbart_XXX
Walter-7A_01.indd 200 08.01.16 10:50
Hartge/Horn: Essential Soil Physics
An introduction to soil processes, functions, structure
and mechanics
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which control and modify soil functions. Problems are provided at the
end of each chapter to enable readers to develop soil physics related
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Hartge/Horn
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functions, structure and mechanics
edited by Robert Horton • Rainer Horn •
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2016. 391 pp., 187 ¿gures, 24 tables, 17 x 24 cm
hardcover ISBN 978-3-510-65288-4 72.– €
schweizerbart.com/9783510652884
softcover ISBN 978-3-510-65339-3 65.– €
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3.1 Stability and the spatial arrangement of grains 6.8 Evaporation
49 185
initial
FKDSWHU WR HQDEOH UHDGHUV WR KRQH WKHLU VRLO SK\VLFV UHODWHG
water content
elevation above GWS

t
8
Figure 6.32: Upward flow from the groundwater
SUREOHPVROYLQJVNLOOV into an initially dry soil (capillary ascent). The

curves display the water content at different points
in time after the dry soil has started to have
groundwater contact at its base. At t∞ , the curve
reflects equilibrium conditions. If the rate of evap-
t3
t2
t1
Figure 3.1: Definition of stress according to orations is smaller than the maximum rate of cap-
7KHERRNDOVRWUHDWVWKHSK\VLFVRIZDWHUJDVDQGKHDWPRYH
K EZDI (1969) illary water supply from depth, the t∞ -curve corre-
sponds to the sorption curve of the water-retention capillary fringe
function, or the pF-curve (cf. chapter 5; figure af-
water content
z ter H ILLEL, 1998).
saturation
PHQWLQVRLOVDQGLQWHUDFWLRQVZLWKWKHVROLGSKDVHDWYDUL
z
x
zx
zy
groundwater table. Because this water flows against the gravitational potential (upwards), the
gravity term of the hydraulic potential is ΔΨz /Δz = −1 and not +1. The evaporative flux
RXVVFDOHVDQGRWKHUIDFWRUVLQGHWDLO±EHFDXVHWKHVHDUHFRQ is consequently sustained by the maxtric potential which exceeds the gravitational potential,
dz
until ΔΨz /Δz =1; that is the two potentials are exactly equal and therefore the vertical flux q
yz
yx
xy
becomes 0 (eq. 6-76 and fig. 5.8).
VLGHUHGWKHXOWLPDWHEDVLVRIDQ\PRGHORIVRLOEHKDYLRU
y
HV
x a
xz
k(Ψ) = (6-78)
SDJ
Ψn + b
Figure 3.2:
PSOH
a) spatial stress components. dy y
a, b and n are soil specific parameters which must be taken from tables (G ARDNER, 1958).
b) Octahedral normal stress σoct and dx Combining eqs. 6-76 and 6-78 yields:
octahedral shear stress τoct as invariants of a)
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where e is the evaporation rate
rate.
To account for the fact that only as much water can evaporate as is supplied to the surface by
ı oct (perpendicular to octahedral capillary ascent (essentially a function of unsaturated water conductivity andPerspectives
hence the depth
ȍ 4 Interactions
plane)between water and soil 13 Future of Soil Physics
116 312
RIVRLOXVHDQGGHJUDGDWLRQRQWUDQVSRUWSURFHVVHVVRLOVWDELO
of the groundwater table) we must define the possible maximum flux density qmax :
oct (in octahedral plane)
a
primary structure aggregate structure
ı -direction fragment structure qmax = A amples.
· n It is necessary to quantify their respective consequences on mechanical, (6-80) hydraulic,
2
fragmented
d
and pneumatic quasi-dynamical parameters with respect to the deformation and establishment
glued
LW\DQGSRUHIXQFWLRQVDQGXOWLPDWHO\FURS\LHOGDUHGLVFXVVHG
ne < 5 cm > 5 cm
not cemented unstructured ral pla
cemented
ed
of new pore
The equation illustrates thatsystems at all geometric
with increasing scales.
depth of Furthermore, table
the groundwater the importance of microbiological
(d) the rate of
octah
block clod capillary supply processes
and henceand thetheir effectsmaximum
possible on the surface structuredecreases
evaporation of particles and aggregates,
strongly. So, by for sorption,
single grain b)coherent- precipitated
ı -direction
3
desorption and hence the transport of solutes, including exchange
examining n and the parameters a and A, the influence of texture on evaporation rate may processes must be under-
structure structure structure stoodof in detail.texture
This does
havenot only concern
values ofinflow of do
substances into the groundwater and
2SWLRQVIRUVRLOSURWHFWLRQFRQVHUYDWLRQDQGDPHOLRUDWLRQDUH
be evaluated (soils coarser higher n than finer grained soils).
Fig. 6.33 shows groundwater recharge, made
example calculations, but also interactions
using equationsconnected
(6-79 andwith
6-80)hydrophobization,
which demon- preferential
biotic flowofand
strate the influence soilpossible
type andrelease of substances
the depth into the atmosphere
of the groundwater as well as rates.
table on evaporation effects which influ-
The resulting
ing stress can be decomposed into components that are directed normal and tangen- biological structure ence the course of soil evolution. Fig. 13.1 shows micro-scale soil movements, quantified
esp to the surface under consideration, the normal stress component σn and the
tial with respect As pointed out previously, steady flow conditions during
Theevaporation are more
the the exception of shrinkage
DGGUHVVHG
abiotic using micro-tomographical methods. figure illustrates consequences
ss τ.
shear stress τ As a three dimensional body features stresses (= internal stresses per surface
crumbs
organo-mineral
aggregates
than the rule, even
(fig.if13.1a)
groundwater is available
and mechanical at a(fig.
loading shallow
13.1b)depth. The presence
for aggregates of tran-of active sur-
(accessibility
area) on andnd along many planes in differentsegregation
directions atstructure
the same time, each of the planes
Absonderungsgefüge sient conditions faces
suggests that evaporation
and marked will of
heterogeneity progressively dry the soil during long-term
deformation patterns).
has resulting
ng stresses, including their associated normal and shear stresses (fig. 3.2a). dry spells (X IAO et al., 2011; Z HANG et al., 2012), and one may speak of a drying front that
z
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Figure 4.22: Overview of types of aggregates formed by swelling, biological activity and anthropogenic
ge
actions. Especially in sands singular or coherent structures are observed, where chemical precipitation
LQWHJUDWLQJWKHFRQFHSWVRIVRLOPHFKDQLFVWRDFKLHYHDFRPSUH
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forms cements (after Kuntze et al., 1994).

rin
a)
sh
physical, chemical, and to a certain degree also biological “weathering” processes. Some re- dV/V
dV
V/V [‰]
KHQVLYHGHVFULSWLRQRIVRLOSK\VLFDOEHKDYLRU7UDGLWLRQDOVRLO
searchers have considered biological processes resulting in particle aggregation (C OSENTINO Figure 13.1: Effect of swelling
et al., 2006; N UNAN et al., 2006; C HENU et al., 2000). and shrinkage. a) and mechanical
4 Interactions between water and soil 4.7 Wetting properties of soils
110
In the following section we discuss the physical-mechanical approach to aggregate formation, stress application b) on changes
of soil properties. The top graph
111
SK\VLFVWRSLFVVXFKDVVRLO±ZDWHU±SODQWUHODWLRQVVRLOK\
which many texts on this subject (S CHEFFER & S CHACHTSCHABEL since 1960; N UNAN et shows the orientation of ellipsoids
al., 2006; B RONICK & L AL, 2005)
and water-filled follow,
parts of and will
the pore. additionally
The curvature consider biological
in turn gives rise toprocesses
a pressure gradient of motion with equivalent pstrains
at
(A BIVEN, 2007) γzz as a measure of deformation

acrossand
thedissolution-, precipitation-,
liquid-gas boundary and
surface, redoxis processes
which described in
bythe
thewake of crack equation.
Young-Laplace intensity. The lower graph depicts
formation inInsoils (see alsoofKcircular
a capillary AY & Across
NGERS , 2000).this pressure difference ψ [Pa] is equal to the matric
section, b) angle of Į local volume change, where com-
GURORJ\DQGJDVKHDWDQG¿HOGZDWHUF\FOHVDUHFRPSOHPHQWHG
potential (cf. chapter 5): contact pression has a negative sign and
air pressure
barometric
α pL = pat volume gain has a positive sign

4.9.1 Naturalψaggregate-forming cos processes
height z
= pg − pl = 2γ l · (4-12) (from P ETH et al., 2010).

r
men
E\VRLOUKHRORJ\SK\VLFRFKHPLFDODQGDPHOLRUDWLRQVFLHQFHV
Particle movement
where pisg [Pa] caused by drying
is the pressureand in wetting cyclesphase
the gaseous in soils andpressure
pl the concomitant liquid, α is the
in thestress
iscu
within theψ is positive Volume effects are obvious in tightlyĮdelimited,I narrow regions, which must affect soil func-
changes; movements
contact angle, comeand to ra isstop
the only
inneronce
radiusnew stress
of the equilibria
capillary. arepressure
If the reacheddifference I
s
< 90◦ ), theisliquid

soil volume.(αMovement more willpronounced, the finer
spontaneously enterthethe
participating
capillary. particles, surfaces (α > 90◦ )
the higher
Hydrophobic tions (e.g., changed tortuosity, accessibility of surfaces for nutrients, gases and water).
Our grasp of multidimensional, unsaturated systems and of their complex structures mustII
pre
the differences
result of inhydraulic
capillaryand water potential and the larger the fraction of water satu-
depression.
ss
rated pores (that is,which

the higher the χ-factor II
systemofconsisting
eq. 4-8 (H ofALLETT et al., 1995; H ALLETTsize,etthe tendency be refined for practical application in agriculture and forestry, and time-dependent dynamics
su
In soil, is a porous many capillaries of varying h

re
capillary
al., 2000; HtoORN & D EXTER , 1989; H ORN , 1990). This statement is not limited to specific of porous systems must enter into analysis and interpretation. Understanding coupled me-
of
minimize the solid/gas boundary area causes water films to form on solid surfaces. On
ca
grain sizes (even

Earth,ifgravity
it is socounteracts
well pronounced in ascent
capillary fine grain sizesthesomaximum
so that as to be macroscopically
height of capillary ascent h chanical and hydraulic processes in inhabited and flexible pore systems under continuously
pill
perceivable).is Itobtained
is generally
as: valid, in liquid and frozen state. In the frozen state, the freezing changing conditions, is the prerequisite for modeling them adequately, which in turn is a pre-
ary
GWL
front, as a potential “sink”, will cause water to flow towards it, causing a corresponding gradi-
wa
requisite for better prediction of soil conditions. The truly herculean task is the combination
· γf 2 · γf 2 · γs − γsf unfrozen soil ahead of the
ter
ent (meniscal force) 2induces

h which
= particle
· cos α = movement · in the (yet) (4-13) of soil parameters, which vary at different scales, sometimes vary at tiny distances, causing p
r · ρw · g r · ρw · g γf III hydrostatic pat
water pressure III
where r is the equivalent radius of the capillary, ρw the density of water, and g the gravita- water reservoir
6FKZHL]HUEDUW
tional acceleration. Eq. 4-13 shows the dependence of capillary ascent on the contact angle,
Figure 4.18: Pressure conditions in a capillary immersed into groundwater. The water ascends up to h,
E
which in turn depends on the combination of three tensional components; maximum ascent the right part of the figure shows pressures above and below the meniscus as it changes along the length
is achieved at cos α = 1 or α = 0◦ , respectively. Capillary ascent and corresponding contact of the capillary from atmospheric pressure, Pat (region I) downward to region II (capillary water pressure)
angles are shown schematically in fig 4.18. At angles α of less than 90◦ (cos α > 0) there to region III (hydrostatic pressure).
is capillary ascent; at angles above 90◦ (cos α < 0) capillary depression prevails and water
will not spontaneously enter the capillary. Where there is capillary depression due to menis-
cal inhibition of wetting, no continuous water films may form on solid particles above the wetting and non-wetting liquids, the influence of wettability on the contact angle in soils can
menisci; water will not infiltrate a dry soil under these conditions, unless external pressure be derived (θA , θR ), similar to the approach used for ideal capillaries. Inversely, contact an-
is applied. The effect of contact angle on the water pressure in a water-filled capillary is gles – where known – may be used to predict the capillarity of pore systems. This confirms
shown in fig 4.19. The right side shows barometric pressure prevailing in the capillary above experimentally that simplified models (capillaries of circular cross section) may be applied
the meniscus (region I). Immediately below the air-water-interface, water pressure drops to a
-RKDQQHVVWU$6WXWWJDUW*HUPDQ\
to the complex pore system geometries of “real” soils, in rare cases only for which contact
minimum value (region II), below that, pressure increases hydrostatically with depth below angles can be determined.
meniscal (= above groundwater) level (region III). This illustrates the effect of the contact
angle α, because the height h of capillary ascent (the negative pressure within the capillary)
is a function of cos α (eq. 4-13).
7HO)D[ M ORROW (1975) demonstrated via experiments the influence of contact angles on the cap-
illary ascent of different wetting/non-wetting liquids in teflon capillaries with a roughened,
non wettable surface. From the ascent heights of different liquids h he computed contact an-
4.7.3 Documenting wetting properties
In the field – as in the lab – it is often impossible to distinguish the effect of wetting inhibition
from other factors, such as pore size, -continuity or geometry. Therefore, indirect methods
RUGHU#VFKZHL]HUEDUWGHZZZVFKZHL]HUEDUWFRP
gles α. The relationship between the angles so measured and the intrinsic contact angle αE , must be used. The most common ones are the water drop penetration time test (WDPTT;
measured on a plane surface of the same material (drop method) are shown in figure 4.19. H ALLETT et al., 2010) and the molar ethanol droplet test (MEDT; H ALLETT & YOUNG,
Fig. 4.19 compares contact angles of smooth surfaces with those computed from capillary 1999). The MED-test increases the ethanol concentration of an ethanol-water mixture until
ascent (angle of advance θA ) in air-filled capillaries or by drainage of originally filled capil- drops of it infiltrate the soil sample in a given time period (e.g., 5 s). The higher the alcohol
laries (angle of retreat, θR ) from the meniscal levels by means of eq. 2-5. Fig. 4.19 shows content necessary to achieve penetration, the more hydrophobic the soil. Both methods are
that effective angles of contact are linearly related to equilibrium angles of contact, where applicable on moist fresh field samples and dried samples. The WDPT-test does not measure
the slope of the straight line is either > 1 (advance) or < 1 (retreat). From this it follows, initial wetting inhibition, but its persistence, namely the time required for water drops to
that surface roughness increases the difference between the angle of advance and that of re- penetrate the soil surface completely (that is, the medium has a contact angle of less than
treat. Furthermore the figure shows, that contact angles measured on rough capillaries are 90°). This is based on the fact, that the intensity of wetting inhibition typically changes with
applicable to porous media of the same material. By comparing capillary ascent heights of time. Persistence of inhibition can be classified as shown in table 4.4.
E Hartge/Horn – Essential Soil Physics
&RQWHQWVFRQGHQVHGFRPSOHWH72&VHHschweizerbart.com/9783510652884
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 4.3 Shrinkage of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 8 Thermal behaviour of soils. . . . . . . . . . . . .204
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10 4.4 Swelling of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 8.1 Thermal properties of soils. . . . . . . . . . . . .204
Soils: integral part of our environment . . . . . . . . .10 4.5 Cracking up: crack formation in soils . . . .100 8.2 Modeling thermal conductivity . . . . . . . . . .213
Soil characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 4.6 Water as a factor of soil stability . . . . . . . .103 8.3 Techniques for measuring thermal properties 213
1 Grain size distribution: texture . . . . . . . . . . .13 4.7 Wetting properties of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . .107 8.4 Phase transitions of H2O and their effects 214
1.1 Classi¿cation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13 4.8 Electrical Àow potentials in soils . . . . . . . . 114
4.9 Aggregate shapes and functions . . . . . . . . 115 9 Combined water-, heat- and gas bud-
1.2 Common soil textures and their origin . . . . .21 get of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221
1.3 Spatial distribution of textures . . . . . . . . . . .25 4.10 Effects of aggregate size, -shape and
-age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .120 9.1 The atmosphere–soil interface . . . . . . . . .221
1.4 Modi¿cation of grain size distributions in 9.2 Dynamics and temporal variations of the
soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26 Problems Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .122
soil water budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226
1.5 Grain size distribution and other soil 5 Distribution and hydrostatics of soil water 123 9.3 Heat budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .239
properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 5.1 Distribution and origin of water in soils . . .123 9.4 Gas budget of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .247
1.6 Methods to measure grain size distributions 30 5.2 Forces in soil water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124 Problems Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252
Problems Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 5.3 The groundwater surface as reference 10 Plant habitats and their physical
2 Soil structure and structural functions . . . . .33 plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126 modiÀcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
2.1 Soil structure and internal morphology . . . .33 5.4 Soil water potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127 10.1 Plant requirements in terms of water
2.2 Bulk density, particle density . . . . . . . . . . . .35 5.5 Equilibrium water potential . . . . . . . . . . . .134 supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255
2.3 Pore volume and void ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 5.6 Relationship between matric potential 10.2 Interaction of mechanical and hydraulic
2.4 Pore size distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .44 and water content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258
Problems Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 Problems Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .141 10.3 Modi¿cation of the hydraulic stress state .266
6 Movement of water within the soil . . . . . . . .143 10.4 Modi¿cation of the mechanical stress state 273
3 Mechanical and hydraulic forces in soils . . .50
3.1 Stability and the spatial arrangement of 6.1 Water movement in water saturated soil . .143 11 Soil erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280
grains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50 6.2 Water movement in unsaturated soil . . . . .153 11.1 Soil erosion: general principles . . . . . . . . .280
3.2 Soil strength: the balance of forces . . . . . . .57 6.3 Transient Àow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155 11.2 Approaches to preventing erosion . . . . . .285
3.3 Stress strain relationship and time-depen- 6.4 Hydraulic conductivity as a soil property . .160 11.3 Erosion models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .287
dent settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63 6.5 Vapor transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 Problems Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290
3.4 Stress-, strain-, and deformation proces- 6.6 In¿ltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .169 12 Solute transport and filter processes
ses in three-dimensional space . . . . . . . . . .68 6.7 Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .174 in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .293
3.5 Flow behavior of soils: stresses between 6.8 Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 12.1 Solute transport: basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .294
individual soil particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 Problems Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188 12.2 Filtering processes in soils . . . . . . . . . . . .304
3.6 InÀuence of soil properties on shear 7 The gas-phase of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 Problems Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .309
resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79 7.1 The energetic state of the gas phase of 13 Future perspectives of soil physics . . . . . 311
3.7 Mechanical changes of soil structure . . . . .79 soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .193 Solutions to problems of chapters 1–12 . . . . . .319
Problems Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84 7.2 Composition of the gas phase in soils . . . .195 14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345
4 Interactions between water and soil . . . . . . .86 7.3 Transport processes in the gas phase of
4.1 Adsorption of water in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . .86 soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 15 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .371
4.2 Flocculation and peptization of soil particles .89 Problems Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 16 Keyword index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .378
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(Geologisches Jahrbuch, Reihe B, B 102 + B 103) 21 x 28 cm
ISBN 978-3-510-96848-0 hardcover 150.– € ISBN 978-3-510-65283-9 hardcover 79.90 €
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Essential Soil Physics

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Hartge/Horn edited by

Essential Rainer Horn

E Schweizerbart Science Publishers

Essential Soil Physics

With 186 ﬁgures and 24 tables

Schweizerbart Science Publishers·2016

1st English language edition 2016 (Horton/Horn/Bachmann/Peth)

This text is also available in:

Original title: Hartge/Horn: Einführung in die Bodenphysik

ISBN 978-3-510-65288-4 (hardcover)

Printed on permanent paper conforming to ISO 9706-1994

1.5 Grain size distribution and other soil properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2 Soil structure and structural functions 32

2.3.1.1 Inﬂuence of grain size and shape on pore volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3 Mechanical and hydraulic forces in soils 48

3.7.4 Soil compaction in civil engineering and construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4 Interactions between water and soil 84

4.1 Adsorption of water in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

4.3.1 Causes of soil shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5 Distribution and hydrostatics of soil water 121

Problems Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

6 Movement of water within the soil 141

6.1.1 Fluid-dynamic phenomena in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

9 Combined water-, heat-, and gas budget of soils 219

9.1.2 Energy budget at the soil surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

9.2.3.1 Field capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

10 Plant habitats and their physical modiﬁcation 253

Problems Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

12 Solute transport and ﬁlter processes in soils 291

12.1.1 Breakthrough curves in porous media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

12.1.6 Additional factors inﬂuencing solute transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

13 Future perspectives of soil physics 309

Solutions to the problems for chapters 1–12 317

15 Commonly used units and conversion factors 372

and scenario models are employed.

• as source of raw materials (e.g., sand or gravel)

governed by the time-integrated history of a soil.

tion for the settling velocity v

η of the medium is temperature-dependent with its value increasing as temperature decreases.

grain size (2r) settling velocity v time to settle to depth

[mm] [μm] [cm/s] 10 [cm]

1.2.2 Separation processes

3.1.1 Forces and stresses in soils

a) spatial stress components.

σ oct (perpendicular to octahedral

oct (in octahedral plane)

where c (cohesion) is equal to the surface tension of the medium (γ).

Figure 3.7: Relationship between normal stress σn and shear resistance τ.

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

class degree of inhibition of wetting WDPTT

0 wettable < 5 [s]

size (diameter) by a factor of 3 have on total surface area of the particles?

5.1 Distribution and origin of water in soils

rate of evaporation [mm/d]

Figure 6.34: Moisture distribution in the soil in the course of

t6 represent the change of the moisture proﬁle of initially ho-

A special, soil-speciﬁc factor is the hysteresis of pF–curves, because it results in different

8.1.4 Thermal diffusivity

SUREOHPVROYLQJVNLOOV into an initially dry soil (capillary ascent). The

IRU D JURZLQJ ZRUOG SRSXODWLRQ %HFDXVH RI WKLV WKH H൵HFWV

BBBB&RSLHV+DUWJH+RUQ(VVHQWLDO6RLO3K\VLFVKDUGFRYHU ISBN 978-3-510-65288-4 72.– €